Arctic Skin Boats: Encyclopedia Arctica 9: Transportation and Communications

Contents

ARCTIC SKIN BOATS

INTRODUCTION

The various forms of skin boats developed by the Arctic Eskimos have been found to be remarkably efficient craft for small-boat navigation in arctic waters. Two basic types of skin boats were produced, an open boat ranging from about 15 feet to approximately 60 feet in length, designed for carrying cargo and passengers long distances, and a small-decked canoe developed for hunting.

The open boat is called the umiak and is propelled by paddles, cars, sail, or towed; in very recent years the outboard gasoline engine has been used. The umiak, while fundamentally a cargo carrier in the Arctic, has been employed by some Eskimo groups in whaling and in walrus hunting; these were generally a faster and more developed design than those used only to carry families, household goods, and cargo of the constant Eskimo movements for purposes of visiting, trading, or changing hunting grounds. This Eskimo boat is characterized by great strength combined with lightness to a far greater degree than any other boat of similar size.

The decked hunting canoe, the kayak, is propelled by paddle alone in hunting and fishing, but is occasionally towed by the umiak when the owner migrates. The kayak is perhaps the most remarkable example of a hunting boat and can be propelled at high speed by its paddler and maneuvered with

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ease. These hunting canoes are commonly built to hold but one person; though one group of Eskimos built the kayak to carry two or three. The kayak is remarkable not for its speed and maneuverability but also for its seaworthiness, lightness, and strength. It has been one of the most important weapons in the Eskimo fight for existence and few groups were unacquainted with its use. Because of its employment, the kayak often has to be designed to meet particular requirements and so there is greater variation in form and dimensions than in the umiak. With few exceptions, the arctic skin boats are wholly seagoing craft.

Curraghs and Consoles

Seagoing skin boats have not been common, outside the Arctic, in historical times. In fact only the European Celts, particularly the Irish, are known with certainty to have used such craft. The Irish are known to have employed large skin boats of a seagoing type as late as the reign of Queen Elizabeth of England; a drawing of one of these is preserved in the Pepysian Library ( Mariner's Mirror , Vol. VIII, 1922, opp. page 200). There can be little doubt, however, that large seagoing skin craft had been more widely used in prehistoric times. The perishable nature of the skin cover– ing and the light framework probably account for the lack of any remains that would indicate the range of this class of boat, but the availability of the materials required in its construction in prehistoric times gives some support to the assumption that its use was once widespread. The long voyages known to have been made by the Irish alone in the dawning of recorded history would be sufficient to indicate that its design and construction would have become well known to many others than the Celts.

There are still many skin boats in use by primitive people and even a few survivals in Europe. With the exception of the Irish curragh , how– ever, these craft are designed for inland waters and are either rather dish-shaped, or oval, in plan. They are related in design to the ancient coracle of Britain rather than to a seagoing type of skin boat, such as was employed by the early Irish or as still used by the Eskimos. The Irish curregh and the British coracle have both survived, though now, of course, the covering is canvas rather than hide.

There are records of long voyages in the skin-covered curragh by the ancient Irish; it is apparent that such voyages were possible, judging by the design and construction of either the existing models of the curragh or the umiak. Compared to the dugout canoe, the skin boat was far lighter and roomier in proportion and so could carry a far greater load and still retain enough freeboard to be safe. The size of the early skin boats cannot be established with certainty; the modern Irish curragh is undoubtedly debased in this respect; but early explorers of Greenland reported umiaks nearly 60 feet in length and there is no structural reason why the curragh type could not have been equally large.

Comparing the curragh type with the umiak, it is found that the latter is lighter, stronger, and more resistant to shook. The curragh was built with closely spaced bent frames and longitudinal stringers to support the skin cover. The umiak, on the other hand, has very widely spaced frames and few longitudinals, giving the skin cover little support. The reason for the difference in construction undoubtedly was the type of covering used. The curragh was covered with cattle hides, less strong covering than the bearded seal, white whale, or walrus skins used by the Eskimos. Because of the strong and elastic skin cover of the umiak, the lack of a rigid

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structural support gives the boat the advantage in withstanding the shocks of beaching or of working in floating ice. Because of its relatively light framework and the mode of securing the structural members, the frame of the umiak is far more flexible than that of the curragh.

The skin cover of the curragh was made watertight by rubbing the hides with animal fat and the sewn seams were payed with tallow. The Eskimos usually pay the seams with seal oil. Both treatments produced a watertight cover, which, however, required occasional drying and reoiling to remain so. Under most climatic conditions met in the North Atlantic or Pacific the oiled skins would remain watertight four days to a week. However, this period could be lengthened by various methods; skin boats traveling in company could be dried out in turn by ^ un ^ loading one of them and placing the empty boat aboard one of her companions for a sufficient time. This may have been a common practice during the long Eskimo migrations. There is some evidence, in addition, that there were other methods of treating the skin covering than those mentioned; the use of melted tallow as a waterproofing or covering the skins with a vegetable gum, such as pitch, would enable the skin covering to remain watertight a much longer time, though such treatments would make the covering less elastic. Pitch was used in curragh building at one time and it would be unwise to assume that the present oil treatment used by the Eskimos was the only method they ever used.

The fundamental difference in the construction of the curragh and that of the umiak is in the type of longitudinal strength members and transverse framing. The curragh, like the North American birch-bark canoe, depended upon its gunwales for longitudinal strength, whereas the umiak had a strong keel, or properly keelson since it was inside the skin cover. The former

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had a very complete system of longitudinal battens supporting the skin cover, like the canoe. The latter, however, rarely had more than a couple of battens on each side. The umiak had a rather strong longitudinal mem– ber in the chine timbers and this construction gave additional strength to the bottom. The transverse frames of the umiak, unlike the curragh's, were not continuous from gunwale to gunwale, but were in three sections, two side pieces and a floor- or bottom- frame. The joining of the frame members to gunwale, chines, and keelson was accomplished by lashings of sinew whalebone, or hide, which gave great flexibility to the framework. The early curragh frame was undoubtedly sewn or lashed in a similar manner to that employed in the birch-bark canoes but because of the fundamental differences in structural design neither the canoe nor curragh frames were as flexible as in the umiak.

Special Features of Eskimo Skin Boats

The features of the umiak's frame are not found in the kayak, however, for the structure of the hunting boat approaches that of the curragh in nearly all types. The strength member is the gunwales in the kayak and some types have a rather extensive longitudinal batten system as well. In only a few types of kayak is the keelson an important strength member and even here the gunwales are of primary importance. The hypothesis has been made that this indicates a different parentage for the kayak than for the umiak; on this basis it could be assumed that the umiak represents the earlier type on the argument that this type of boat was the one required in the early migratory periods. Such conclusions should be accepted with caution, however, as the fundamental difference in the requirements for the two types

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of craft might readily explain the variation in their principles of construction. The reasoning that each primitive type of boat descended from a single anestor has long been attractive, but evidence presented in support of the theory has not been wholly conclusive.

The majority of Eskimo skin boats, particularly the umiak, possess remarkable advantages for their employment and conditions of use. When the boat is employed in floating ice, power to resist the shocks of ramming the ice exists beyond the tensile strength of the skin covering. This is obtained by the method of attaching the skin cover to the framework of the hull and, to some extent, by the form of the boat in most cases. The skin cover of the umiak is not rigidly attached to the frame in a number of places, rather it is a complete unit secured only at the gunwales and to the heads of stem and stern. This permits the skin cover to be greatly distorted by a blow, with the elasticity of the material at point of impact assisted by the move– ment of the whole skin cover on the frame, which the form of the umiak hull does not hinder. Also, the frame itself is very flexible and allows disto– rtion and recovery, not only within the limits of the elasticity of the wooden frame, but also by the movement of the lashed joints in the transverse frames. Some kayaks have similar characteristics though their small size, and the light weight of both boat and loading, make resistance to shock of far less importance than in the umiak.

Lightness of the Eskimo skin boat is obtained by the small number of structural members required in their construction and the small scantlings necessary. Light weight of hull is a very desirable requirement in small craft in the Arctic as it permits the boat to be carried over obstructions and removed from the water with comparative ease, without the aid of skids

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or other mechanical contrivances. The boats may also be transported either by sledge or by carrying over long distances. And, as previously pointed out, light hull weight permits heavy loading in proportion to the size of the boat. This in turn allows building with the minimum of labor and mate– rial to carry a fixed cargo, since only minimum dimensions are necessary.

Celerity of movement is an important factor in all small craft in arctic waters. Speed under paddle, cars, sail, or low-powered gasoline motors is very desirable for many reasons. The necessity of covering as much distance as possible in a short time is obvious in arctic waters, where the distances between sources of supply may be great and the time the water is open to navigation is relatively short. This requirement in design has the additional advantage of permitting movement with the minimum of effort when manual pro– pulsion is being employed. The exigencies of arctic travel, in which damage to any form of propulsion is possible and where loss of fuel might occur, make it highly desirable that small craft be capable of being propelled by a number of ways, with ease. The skin boat, because of its form and weight, can be readily designed to meet this requirement. Most umiak forms and all kayak types possess speed of movement to a marked degree.

Simplicity in construction and in repair are basic requirements for all craft operating far from normal building or repair facilities. Emergency may make it necessary to rebuild a damaged boat out of materials available, or to repair a boat with the minimum of tools and under adverse weather conditions. In the Arctic these possibilities must be considered normal ones and the Eskimo has therefore produced a boat construction to meet them.

Seaworthiness is required in nearly all Eskimo craft, the only exceptions being those employed on rivers, lakes, or other protected waters, or where ice conditions prevent heavy seas from m ^ a ^ king up. Many arctic waters are

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subject to violent storms and the arctic skin boats have been developed with forms and proportions to permit use under this condition. In this matter, the light and flexible hull structure is a definite advantage. The kayak, in its highest state of evolution, is perhaps the most seaworthy of all small craft when in skillful hands, but the umiak is a close second.

The capacity of skin boats has been mentioned; the umiak is notable in this rexpect, exceeding the curragh and even the craft produced by modern civilization. The umiak possesses the advantage by its combination of very light hull weight with its form; nearly flat bottom with very flaring sides. The hull form allows heavy loading with relatively little increase in draft, as the flaring sides cause the displacement to increase very rapidly with the slightest increase in draft. While a similar form exists in the lumberman's "drive boats" the greater hull weight of this type makes it inferior to the umiak. Light draft, when loaded, has very definite ad– vantages in the Arctic; it allows loading and unloading on the beach, afloat, or allows the boat to be beached where it would not be possible with a deeper hull.

Arctic skin boats are highly specialized types developed over a very long period to meet rigid and severe limitations. The designs of these craft have not been static, as can be seen in both umiaks and kayaks, for the models of these boats have gone through changes since the first of the types were placed in American museums. The imperative need of very efficient watercraft has made the Eskimo seek improvement and as his needs altered so did his skin boats. It is noticeable that, among other changes, the amount of freeboard of umiaks altered when their owners met new conditions. The high-sided umiak while suited for heavy loads and very seaworthy was impossible to

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paddle or even row against a strong gale, as in nearly ^ ^ all small craft so propelled. When this conditions was found, it was met by reducing the freeboard and flare to minimize the windage. In recent years a few umiaks have appeared with round bottoms to give greater speed under paddle, the resulting boat being an enlarged kayak in frame construction. These changes, to meet a new condition, were not necessarily improvements, for they resulted in the sacrifice of some of the other qualities of the type. Nevertheless, they indicate the fluid state of primitive boat design in the Arctic. This has been accentuated, of course, by the influence of white men and their boats in recent years.

Experienced arctic travelers have been almost unanimous in their respect for the Eskimo skin boat. To explain this it is necessary to keep in view the conditions under which arctic small craft must operate and to examine the design and construction of Eskimo craft. Fortunately, they are a large number of Eskimo skin boats in American museums, as well as a still larger number of native-made models covering the period roughly between 1880 and 1930. While there are few full-sized umiaks, there are excellent models and many measurements in existence. Much of this material was examined and careful measurements made where necessary. Wherever it was possible, full-size craft were used as the source; in some cases only fragments existed and these had to be supplemented by reference and interpretation of the models of the same type. In view of the fluid state of design in Eskimo craft, it is obvious that the examples shown represent the stage of development at a given date, though in the majority of cases the alteration in the designs was so minute that the representation will serve to illustrate a type with reasonable accuracy.

It was found that the Eskimo craft were "fair" and without irregularities

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in their form, comparing very favorably with the more primitive craft of civilization in symmetry. The dimensions and proportions of the hulls varied slightly in a given location or region in all cases, due to the fact that the boats were fitted to their owners' need, though adhering to the regional model generally. The variation in kayaks was due to the well-known practice of the Eskimo in "tailoring" his boat to his physical characteristics by building to measurements taken from some part of the body; usually arm, hand, and finger measurements. The umiak does not appear to follow set proportions as rigorously as the kayak.

To show the construction and design of Eskimo skin boats, scale draw– ings were made. These permit an accurate representation of form and details of construction though they necessarily idealize a primitive boat design, to some extent at least. In attempting to show the hull-form the usual methods of projecting the "lines" of the hull were discarded as unsuitable and instead the structural features were employed; hence "round" bottom kayaks are shown as multi-chine hulls, as they properly are.

It is not possible, on the available material, to explore all the indi– vidual types and forms in full and the geographical range of a type can be stated only approximately due to the overlapping of groups and the effects of migratory movements of the people. The use of the material in museums has one distinct advantage; it enables the representation of some forms that have now disappeared in the arctic seas, due either to the influence of the white man or to the degeneration or extinction of a regional group.

UMIAK TYPES

The umiak was undoubtedly more widely employed by the Eskimos before the coming of the white man than existing records indicate. It was a type of boat most necessary for migration by sea. With the umiak, the early Eskimos could establish themselves on islands far from the main and cross large bodies of water. It is apparent that the umiak has disappeared in some areas where early explorers mention having seen the type. This indi– cates that there is a possibility that all Eskimos may have employed the type in prehistoric times and thaf the groups now unacquainted with the umiak can be explained on the grounds that they had reached a location where the boat was no longer necessary.

The umiak, or bidarrah ( baidarka ) as the type was known to the early Russians of Siberia and colonial Alaska, was common in open waters and was found from Kodiak Island through the Aleutians and north and eastward along the west and north coast of Alaska to the mouth of the Mackenzie River. On the Siberian coast, opposite Alaska and for a short distance westward, the umiak was also employed. From the Mackenzie eastward to Hudson Bay the umiak has not been employed in recent times though it is highly probably that it was used in the migrations that populated this part of the arctic coast. Early explorers found umiaks in use along the northwest coast of Hudson Bay and in Foxe Basin but these boats disappeared during the last century. The umiak again appeared in Hudson Strait and was highly developed in Greenland.

The form of the umiak's hull varied a good deal, as did the dimensions, among the various groups known to have employed the boat in the last century. The general form, however, was much like the lumberman's "drive boat" except

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that most umiaks had a slight V-bottom and quite different bows and sterns. The size of the umiak does not seem to have been established by a set of measurements as regular as that used in the building of kayaks but rather to have been the result of utilizing the material available with due re– gard to intended use. Such matters as the fla ^ m ^ t e of the sides, rake and shape of bow and stern, and width varied from district to district. The Asiatic and Alaskan umiake were usually rather sharp-ended with little spread to the gunwales at bow and stern; one of the Asiatic types has gun– sales brought round in a full curve at bow and stern. In the east, however, the umiaks have rather upright bows and sterns and the gunwales at the ends of the hull are often rather wide apart. Some of the western umiaks were navigated with paddles only; in others both oar and sa ^ i ^ l e may have been in ^ ✓ ^ use before the appearance of the Russians in this area. In the east the umiaks were paddled, rowed, and sailed when the first white men reached the Arctic in historic times.

Asia

The Asiatic umiaks may be classed into two types, the Koryak type of eastern Siberia and the Chukchi model of the Siberian side of Bering Strait. The Koryak umiaks illustrated by Jochelson show a highly developed boat, rather lightly framed compared to boats on the American side. The bow has a long raking curve in profile, while the stern has much less; this makes the bottom rather short compared to the length over the gunwales. The gunwales, in plan view, round in at bow and stern to form almost a semi-circular arc; at the bow the gunwales are bent around a horizontal headboard tenoned over the stemhead but at the stern there is no headboard.

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The sheer is moderate and very graceful. The flare of the sides is great and there appears to be a little V in the bottom transversely. There is also a slight camber in the bottom, fore and aft. The construction is similar to that of the Alaskan umiaks except the Koryak umiake have double chine stringers and also a double riser, or longitudinal stringer, halfway up the sides. The riser is not backed with a continuous stringer, however, as is the chine, but rather there are three short rods lashed inside the side frame members. The side stringers do not reach bow and stern. The thwarts, four in number, are located well aft and there is a larger space between the first and second thwarts than between others for cargo. The boats are rowed, two carsmen to a thwart. The cover was formerly walrus hides scraped thin but more recently the skin of the bearded seal came into use. A sail is sometimes employed, of deer skin and rectangular in shape. It was lashed to a yard and set on a tripod about [: ] midships. Two legs of the mast were secured to the gunwale on one side, the remaining leg was lashed to the opposite gunwale. Judging by the draw n ing made by Jochelson, this umiak is perhaps the most graceful of all known.

The Chukchi umiak is about the same as that used on the opposite American coast. The cover is bearded seal and the boat has less flare to the sides than the American umiaks. Bogoras measured an example and found her 35 ft. 9 in. long, 4 ft. 6 in. wide amidships, 2 ft. 6 in. wide on the bottom over the chines. An umiak from the Alaskan side measured 35 ft. 9 in. long, 8 ft. 2 in. wide, and 2 ft. 8 in. over the chines. The Chukchi also use a very small hunting umiak having two or three thwarts, and 15 to 18 ft. long, much like the small hunting umiaks once used in the Aleutians. The larger Chukchi umiaks had sails rectangular and set on a pole mast;

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^Fig. 1^

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some boats carried a square topsail. The sails are lashed to their yards and the lower sail, or course, is controlled by sheets and braces. The top– sail, when used, has braces only. Reindeer skins were formerly used for sails but now drill is used. These umiaks were formerly paddled as indicated by their narrow beam, but since the coming of the white men oars have come into use. It is probable that the topsail is also the result of white man influence.

Some of these umiaks employed weather cloths 18 or 20 inches above the gunwales. These were raised on short stanchions lashed to the hull frames in stormy weather. The ends of the stanchions were inserted in slits in the top of the weather cloth. In fair weather these cloths were folded down inside the gunwale out of the way. Inflated floats, of seal skin, were also lashed to the gunwales, in some umiaks, to prevent capsizing.

Alaska

The Alaskan umiaks varied in size but were of rather similar forms. The small hunting umiaks used by the Aleuts were about 18 feet long, while the large cargo-carrying umiaks ranged up to about 40 feet in length, so far as records show. All are marked by heavily flared sides and rather strong sheer; a few however are described as rather straight on the gunwales. Nearly all existing models and boats were built since 1880 and there is no information on the forms and dimensions of earlier boats. It is evident that the majority of Alaskan umiaks had slight V-bottoms, though there are a few Aleutian models that indicate a marked degree of deadrise.

Figure 1 is a drawing of a small hunting umiak from the Alaskan coast in the neighborhood of the Aleutians that was used in walrus hunting. The remains of a similar boat from northern Alaska are in the U.S. National Museum,

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obtained in 1888. This type of small umiak was not only employed in walrus hunting and in fishing but it also was rather widely used as a passage boat, for short voyages along shore. These boats were propelled by paddles and were primarily fast, handy hunting craft rather than boats for migration or cargo carrying. For this reason they were quite sharp– ended and shallow. The construction of the example will serve to illus– trate the common construction methods.

The umiak shown is 20 ft. 8 1/4 in. over the headboards, 4 ft. 91/2 in. extreme beam and 1 ft. 5 3/8 in. depth; apparently an average-sized boat of her class. The width of the bottom over the chine members is 2 ft. 7 in. The keelson is rectangular in section and in two pieces, hook-scarphed together; each piece is shaped out of the trunk of a small tree with the root knees employed to form the bow and stern posts. The floor timbers are quite heavy and support the chine members by having the floor heads tenoned into the chine pieces. At bow and stern the chines are joined to the keelson in a notched scarph; at these places the keelson is sided rather wide to give good bearing. It is evident that this portion of the boat's structure is the first built and forms a rigid bottom to the hull. The floor timbers are sewn or lashed to the keelson, by lacings of sinew, whalebone, or hide passed through holes bored in both, as indicated in the p ^ l ^ a l n. The heads of the floors are pegged where they tenon into the chines and the ends of the chines are pegged to the keelson. There are models showing that this was not a universal practice and that lashings at floor heads and at chine ends were also common. The headboards are carved out of blocks in a T-shape and are stepped on top of the stem and stern posts and lashed. The fit is extremely accurate. The bow headboard is narrower athwartship than the stern headboard.

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The detail of the hook scarph in the drawing shows the method of lashing which was very widely used.

Because of the manner in which the keelson is cambered and the fitting of the floors, the covered hull shows a slight V in the bottom, reducing at bow and stern. The amount of V seems to have been determined by the manner of fitting the floor timbers and was quite typical of the Alaskan umiaks. The dead rise in the bottom helped the boat to run straight under paddle and oars. Th In most cases the amount of V in the bottom was slight; too much would make the boat difficult to sledge overland, without employing chooks to steady the hull.

In building, the frames at the thwarts were next made and set up at the desired flare and height, and held in place by temporary lashings and braces. The thwarts were not fitted, however, until after the gunwales were in place, as the lengths of the thwarts were controlled by the fairing of these members. The gunwales were round poles slightly flattened on the lower side at the headboards, where they were secured by lashings. The gunwales were shaped and secured by lashing them to the side frames selected to shape the hull. The side frames were secured to both gunwale and chine by lashings passed through holes in each member and have taut with a short lever, with a hole bored in it to take the end of the lashing which was wrapped around the lever to give temporary purchase. The side frames had saddle notches to bear on the chine and gunwale. All these lashings in the frame, it will be noted, pass through holes bored in the members secured and in some cases the lashings are let into the members so that the sinew is flush with the surfaces of the members. This prevented the lashing from being damaged by chafing.

The remaining frames were now put in position and lashed to gunwales and chines. An outside batten was next run along each side and lashed by turns over batten and around the side frames, with lashings let into each member to prevent slipping and chafe. At the bow and stern the batten was lashed to some umiaks but in many it stopped just short of coming home on the posts. The short frames at bow and stern were next put in place and the risers secured inside the side frames. The thwarts were now fitted and lashed to the risers. The thwarts are not put in until the frame is other– wise complete, temporary spreaders are lashed to three or four control frames to hold the boat in shape. These are sometimes aided by thongs from frame heads to keelson at each pair, to steady the frames in bending the gunwales. When ready to cover, the frame is stiffened by a thong tie which has one end secured by turns around the gunwale, with the other end passed through holes in the keelson and secured. These form diagonal ties and are commonly per– manent fixtures in western umiaks. The small umiak has but one pair of these, placed amidships. The ends of the gunwales are lashed together at bow and stern and the boat is ready to cover. The timber used in this boat appears to be fir, spruce, and willow.

The skin cover was in such a condition that the number of hides could not be determined; there were probably three skins sewn together with blind seems, which are used in Eskimo boots. The skins are first sewn together and then thoroughly soaked. Then the cover is stretched over the frame and worked taut by lacings. The skin cover is wide enough to reach from gunwale to gun– wale and a little down inside the boat. The cover is laced to the rising batten with close-spaced turns of hide rope, 3 to 5 inches apart on the batten. The turns are closer together in the ends of the hull than amidships. At the head blocks the cover is laced around the gunwales and through holes in the head blocks, two independent lacings being used on each side, two turns each.

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At extreme bow and stern the cover is laced to the gunwale lashings. In fitting the cover, gores appear to have been out out and the skin resewn, where it would not stretch smooth. The cover is then allowed to shrink and in this manner it becomes very smooth and tight. The skin is now heavily oiled and the seams are rubbed with tallow or seal oil. This treatment is repeated at regular intervals. Care is taken to dry out the skin cover frequently, while the boat is in service, at least every third day.

The sequence of construction described is not followed universally; some builders fix spreaders between the gunwales in bending them and sheer them by thongs to the keelson, after which the side frames are put in, the side and rising battens added, and finally the thwarts fitted. Judging by numerous models, the small hunting umiaks varied a good deal in the rake and sweep of the bow and stern, even in the same village. These hunting umiaks worked with kayaks in Aleutian walrus and sea lion hunting, a practice that seems to have once been common along the western Alaskan coast and in the islands.

Figure 2 is the drawing of a large Alaskan umiak from King Island. Two boats of this model, but with modern metal fastenings, are in The Mariner's Museum, Newport News, Va., but the drawing shows the methods of fastenings used in 1886. The plan is of a burdensome model, such as was used for migration or any other cargo work. The boat is 34 ft. 21/2 in. over the gunwale rods, 8 ft. 0 1/2 in. extreme beam, 2 ft. 3 3/8 in. deep, and 2 ft. 10 in. beam on the bottom over the chines. The construction follows the general plan of the small umiak just described, except that another method of fitting the floor timbers to the chines is employed. Due to the size and use of the umiak, two side battens are employed with a single riser. The thwarts are not notched over frames and fall between them. This made the thong diagonal

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^Fig. 2^

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braces from gunwale to keelson, described in the small umiak, ineffective and so wooden braces, that will resist not only tension but also compression, were required to take the thrust off the thwart lashings. Two sets of bracings were used. These brace-frames are staggered slightly to allow room to fit them at the keelson. The drawing shows the p ^ l ^ a l n of construction and the important lashings and requires no additional explanation. The method of fittings oars with thong thole-loops is also shown. These boats carried a square sail lashed to a yard; the mast being stepped in a block on the keelson. No mast-thwart is used, stays and shrouds of hide rope supported the mast and this method made it easy to step or unstep the mast in a seaway. Early umiaks in this area are said to have had mat sails; later skin and drill sails were used. The modern umiaks of this class often have rudders hung on iron pintles and gudgeons and the floors are fastened to the keelson with iron bolts or screws. The scarphs are also bolted, but the remaining fastenings are lashings, in the old style, to obtain flexibility in the frame.

Figure 3 represents a north Alaskan whaling umiak supposed to have been built about 1890. The remains of the boat were sufficient to permit recon– struction of the frame. This umiak is about the size of a New Bedford whaleboat and in profile greatly resembles this type. However, the model is that of the umiak, rather sharp-ended and strongly sheered. The boat is 29 ft. 4 3/8 in. over the headboards, 5 ft. 10 1/2 in. extreme beam, and 2 ft. 1 3/4 in. depth. Umiaks of this model were used at Point Barrow and vicinity, in shore whaling, and were also used for travel and cargo work. They used only paddles in whaling; but in more recent times sail, oars, and outboard engines are employed in other work. The umiaks of this class appear

Page 019a

^Fig. 3^

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to have been marked by a very graceful profile and strongly raking ends. In spite of the strong resemblance of this type of umiak to the whaleboat, it is very doubtful if the model of the umiak was influenced by the white man's boat. A rather questionable hypothesis could be made; the whaleboat appears to have been first employed in the early Greenland whale fishery and so might have been influenced by the umiak found in that area. In rebuttal to this, the model of the early European whaleboat is much like that of a Viking boat. It will be seen that there is danger in accepting chance similarities in form or detail as evidence of some relationship. Would it not be possible that similarities in use and requirements would produce similar primitive boat types in many respects, without the users coming into contact?

The whaling umiak has been much used by explorers and arctic travelers in the western Arctic; it s lightness and strength, and its ability to be easily driven, have made the type highly regarded. On the basis of models and numerous photographs it can be said that the amount of fore and aft camber in the bottom varies a great deal in individual umiaks; some are almost straight on the bottom. However, due to the light framework and elastic construction, these boats often camber a good deal when heavily loaded. When sledged, they are sometimes fitted with a brace amidships to support a line from bow to stern, to form a "hogging-brace," to prevent the boat from losing camber. It is also apparent that there was no standard practice in fitting floors to the chines; Murdoch shows a rough sketch that indicates the floor heads were often tenoned into the chines as in the small umiak. Treenailing of the floors and chines, and the keelson, was also practiced. In some cases both pegs (treenails) and lashings were used in

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scarphs. In some umiaks both the single side batten and the riser were at the same height in the sides and the riser only had its ends secured to the posts. The side battens then were out short and had their ends lashed to the riser a few inches inside the posts.

The method of sewing the skin cover has been mentioned. Figure 3 shows a sketch of the two stages of making the blind seam used. The edges of the skins were placed about 2 inches apart; flesh side of skin to flesh side of skin. Then, using a thin needle and slender sinew, the skins are sewn to– gather, over and over, taking care not to penetrate the lower skin. When this is completed the skins are flattened out and the second seem made on the grain side. This gives a double seem, neither of which penetrates both skins. The sketch shows the method of making the seam better than a descrip– tion. The width of the seam varies somewhat among the Eskimos, when used in boats.

The skin cover of the whaling umiak was made of bearded seal, as a rule, but walrus, white whale, and perhaps even polar bear skins were occasionally used. Lashings of the frame were of whalebone, sinew, and hide. Oil treat– ment of the skins employed seal oil and caribou fat. When taken ashore the whaling umiak was usually stored on a stage; sometimes however it was propped on its side, upside down, leaning over, and used as a shelter in traveling. In the winter the cover is removed and stored. When it is necessary to recover the frame, the cover is soaked in sea water three to five days and then the boat is recovered in the usual manner. When dried and stretched, the skin cover is thoroughly oiled. [: ]

New skin covers are made by removing the hair and fat from the skins and

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and then sewing them together to obtain proper dimensions. Green hides are generally preferred, as they stretch into shape better than partly or wholly cured skins. Once the green hides have been stretched to shape and cured, the cover can be readily removed and replaced without resewing. In fitting a new skin cover, the lashings are hove up hard and adjusted until the cover is fairly smooth and taut; the curing them makes it drum-taut. Low, rather wide sledges were sometimes built to carry the umiak overland or on the ice but usually the regular sledge was used. The boats are difficult to sledge against a strong gals because of their windage.

Though propelled by paddles like the Chukohi umiak, the Alaska whaling umiak was much wider and had far more flare. The paddles used in whaling umiaks had rather long narrow blades, as a rule, though a short and wide-bladed paddle was sometimes employed, particularly at Kotzebue Sound and Point Hope. Paddles ranged from about 50 to 76 inches long. Oars of the Alaskan umiaks also had rather long narrow blades, 3 to 4 inches wide. The oars were from 6 ft. 3 in. to 8 ft. 6 in. in length.

The three examples of Alaskan umiaks will serve to show the features that are most common in the area. However, models in the U. S. National Museum show that there was a great variety of model and appearance. One model showed the gunwale ends lengthened by pieces that were shaped very much like the projecting gunwales of the Malay sampans. Some showed extreme rake at the bow, somewhat like that found in the Koryak type but without the rounded finish to the gunwales. In view of the early influence of the Russian traders in this area, it is impossible to estimate how far the umiak model has been affected, so far as the west coast of Alaska is concerned. It is probable that the use of oars can be traced to this influence. Careful

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examination of the full-sized umiaks, and of models and photos from the Bering Strait area does not give information that allows any conclusion to be reached as to possible parentage, or direction of spread, of the umiak type. Though there are occasional details in fittings or construction, such as the gunwale extensions just mentioned, that seem to deuplicate details in primitive craft in Asiatic waters, the evidence is too scant to allow a sound hypothesis, based on umiak model or construction alone.

Eastern Canadian Arctic

No models or photos have been found of the extinct types of umiaks once used in the northern part of Hudson Bay, and the sketches of early explorers are too crude for useful discussion. The evidence is too slight to allow judgment on whether the umiaks in this area were of the western type or were in any way similar to the eastern models.

Figure 4 shows a drawing of the Baffin Island umiak, based on measured dimensions of a single boat, and upon a model in the U.S. National Museum. This model confirms in most respects with the drawings and sketches made by Boas. The umiak shown is a small one, 24 ft. 7 1/4 in. over the posts, 5 ft. 8 3/8 in. extreme beam, and 1 ft 10 1/2 in. deep. The measurements obtained show that the bottom of this type of umiak was wider than the western boats, the example being 5 ft. 10 in. wide over the chines. The bottom is flat and both sheer and camber are slight. The stem and stern are practically upright and are not formed of knees but rather are made by tenoning the posts into the keelson with an open tenon. The headboards are very wide and the side battens and risers stop short of the posts. Instead of the carved headboards seen in the Alaskan umiake, the Baffin Island boat has hers

Page 023a

^Fig. 4^

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tenoned over the posts as seen in the Asiatic Koryak umiaks. The details of the rest of the framing are not dissimilar from those of the Alaskan boats, except that the Baffin Island umiak does not employ any short frames in the end of the hull. The framework is rather heavy and the square-ended appearance of this class of umiak makes her appear more clumsy than is actually the case. The risers used in this umiak are notched into the side frames, unlike the Alaskan boats in which only the riser's lashings are 1st into the side frames. The Baffin Island umiaks carried a square sail lashed to a yard; the mast was placed right up in the eyes of the boat. Boas shows that some of these umiaks had rudders hung on metal pintles and gudgeons but this, of course, was due to the influence of white traders, whalers, and sealers who had operated in these waters long before Boas made his investiga– tions. The umiak was rowed in the usual manner, using thong loops as tholes, and was usually steered with an oar or long paddle.

This is the only American type of umiak found that does not have pro– jecting gunwales at bow and stern. In this boat the ends of the gunwales are out off, a little inside the forward edges of the headboards. The pro– jection of the gunwales undoubtedly served as a practical purpose in lifting the boat out of water, but obviously this was of minor importance. Probably the real reason for the existence of these projections was that they made building easier, by giving room for a retaining lashing when bending the gunwales. As the headboards widened, the spring of the gunwales became less acute, so there was less strain put on the lashings of the gunwales to the headboards and also bending the gunwales required less power. In many umiaks the projecting gunwales and retailing lashings were utilized in lashing on the skin covering, at bow and stern. Beginning as a practical solution of a building problem, the projecting gunwales may have eventually become a traditional feature of the type in many localities.

Greenland

Figure 5 is a drawing of an East Greenland umiak made from measurements taken off during the late war and checked against dimensions, photos, and descriptions of boats from the same territory. In general design and in construction this umiak differs little from the umiaks from the southern west coast of the same island. The East Greenland boats are on the average, much smaller than on the southern west coast, due to the more severe ice conditions met in the east. Some of the Greenland umiaks have flat bottoms like the Baffin Island boats, but the V-bottom appears to be more common.

The chief characteristics of the Greenland umiaks are their slight rake in the bow and stern, moderate sheer and camber, and conservative flare of the sides. The drawing shows the important structural details seen in most of the Greenland umiaks. The floor timbers are on edge instead of on the flat as in Alaskan boats; this seems to be characteristic of all eastern umiak construction, as is the arching of the under side of the floors as well. Another common structural detail is the passing of the risers through the side frames; some Greenland umiaks have them in deep notches fashioned on the inside of the frames, however. The East Greenland umiaks have rather wide headboards with only slight projection to the gunwales but the West Greenland boats have rather narrow headboards and somewhat more projection to the gun wales in most cases. Like the Baffin Island umiak, the Greenland boats have their side battens and risers cut shore of the posts but the ends of these members are commonly supported by frames placed very far for and aft, often these frames form brace-supports to the headboards, as in the example. The headboards of these umiaks are always tenoned over the top of the posts. Some of the Greenland umiaks have rather curved side frames, which cause

Page 025a

^Fig. 5^

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the side battens to form a knuckle in the skin cover. The East Greenland umiaks rarely if ever carry sail, but this is common in the west and southwest, where a square sail on a yard is popular; the mast is usually well forward.

Hans Egede found Greenland umiaks fitted with sails of seal intestines in 1729 and also saw boats about 10 fathoms (60 ft.) long; another early writer, Cranz, states umiaks were commonly 36, 48, and even 54 ft. long. In the larger umiaks two side battens were employed. The thongs and brace– frames, seen in many Alaskan umiaks, do not seem to have been used in eastern waters, the use of frames from stem to stern post to gunwale probably serving the purpose; but it is noticeable that pictures of Greenland umiaks preserved in some European museums show the hulls have a tendency to twist that is not seen in Alaskan boats. The old Greenland umiaks were built with lashed joints combined with pegging, or treenailing. In recent times the use of pegging increased and iron fastenings are now seen. Rigid fastenings of the peg and metal types are used only in scarphs and in securing the chines and keelson to the floor timbers, as in the modern Alaskan umiaks.

The Greenland umiak frame is much heavier and more rigid than the Alaskan. In comparing eastern and western umiaks, the former seem to have their frames somewhat better finished but the western models are undoubtedly the better. The eastern umiak is primarily a cargo carrier and is not used in hunting. As a result, its use had been confined to women and its chief employment is moving the family and household effects from one hunting ground to another. While it is highly probably that this condition is the result of the dis– appearance of whaling in this region, the use of the umiak as a hunting boat ceased so long ago that the eastern umiak model has probably degenerated

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to a degree. It was otherwise in the western Arctic; here the use of the umiak in hunting has continued until very recent times and the boats have been managed, to a very great extent, by the men. As a result, the better models have survived long enough to be recorded and the boats are held in greater respect by their builders. Regional distinctions in the western umiaks are therefore more marked than in the east. Only two basic and distinct umiak models are known to have existed in the east — the Baffin Island type used on both the north side and on the Labrador side of Hudson Strait, and the Greenland type. In the latter there were local variations, it is true, but these were minor. In the western Arctic, including Siberia, there were at least three basic models and a very large variety of local variations, as can be proved by existing models.

KAYAK TYPES

The Eskimo hunting boat, the kayak, is more widely employed in the Arctic than the umiak. Also the variations in model construction, and appearance are more distinct and numerous. The kayak, called baidarka by the colonial Russians in Alaska, is a long, usually narrow, decked canoe and is commonly very well finished. In Alaska there were a few skin-covered canoes used in rivers that were undecked and on kayak proportions and con– struction. The model of these was quite different from the Alaskan sea kayaks, however, as the river canoes were V- of flat-bottom, much like the Greenland kayaks. A similar kayak-type canoe, but burch-bark covered and flat-bottom, was used by Yukon Indians. Undoubtedly there were once a number of such types but most of these became extinct before any attempt was made to pre– serve models or canoes in the museums.

There was, unquestionably, some relation between the sea kayaks and the river kayak-canoe as the latter, even when birch-bark covered, retains a vestige of decking (in a short bow-deck) in nearly all cases. The basic models used in kayaks are multichine, V-bottom, and flat. The multichine models are employed throughout Alaskan waters, except in the river kayak– canoe just mentioned, which probably should be classed as an open canoe rather than as a true kayak. The geographical spread of each basic hull form is rather ill-defined, as there is some overlapping. An extinct type of V-bottom kayak was used at the mouth of the Mackenzie, though the multi– chine kayak appeared east to the northwest coast of Hudson Bay. In this area there appears to have been another V-bottom kayak (now extinct) in use. In Hudson Strait, along the shores of Baffin Island and Labrador, a flat– bottom kayak with the chines snied off much like a Japanese sampan was used. On the northwest coast of Greenland a flat-bottom kayak, shaped like a sharpie, appears. On the eastern coast and on the south and southern west coast of Greenland the V-bottom hull is employed.

There are variations in each basic model, of course, and the designs used vary a good deal. On the whole, the kayak is very carefully built to meet the local conditions of hunting, sea and land or ice portaging. As a result, some types are far more seaworthy than others and the weight of hull varies a great deal, even within a basic model. The appearance of all the kayak models, by regional selection, show the influence of tradition and, in many cases, display (in either shape or decoration) a group totem.

The basic requirements in nearly all kayaks are the same; to paddle rapidly and easily, to work against strong wind and tide or heavy head sea, to be maneuverable, and to be light enough to be readily lifted from the water.

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The low freeboard thus required makes docking a necessity. In general, the kayak is designed to carry one paddler, but in Alaska there were kayaks that could carry two or three paddlers, or a paddler and one or two passen– gers. It is generally conceded that the kayak built to carry three is the result of Russian influence. Where it is desirable to portage the kayak over ice or land for any distance, the boat is very light and is capable of being carried like a large basket, by inserting one arm under the decking at the manhole or cockpit. Where such a requirement is not a factor, the kayaks are often rather large and heavy. In the majority of types, the degree of seaworthiness obtained is very great. Some types are built very narrow and sharp-ended; these usually require a skillful paddler. Others are wide, or very stable, and require less skill to use. Where severe weather is commonly met, the kayaks are usually very strong and well-designed; some will come head to the sea when the paddler stops work, others come stern-to. Where ice or other conditions do not allow a heavy sea to make up, the kayaks are often light, narrow, and very low-sided, more like racing shells than working canoes.

The construction of the kayak has been mentioned; in all the gunwales are the strength members longitudinally. A few designs employ a strong keel, in addition, but most have rather slender and light longitudinal batten systems combined with very light frames transversely. Even in the flat– bottom models the kayaks, unlike the umiaks, depend upon the gunwales for longitudinal strength. In all but some of the flat-bottom kayaks, the frames are bent and in one piece, gunwale to gunwale. There are some flat-bottom kayaks, of the sampan cross-section, that also employ bent frames. The longitudinal batten systems are in great variety — the eastern kayaks of the

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flat-bottom and V-bottom models have three longitudinal battens (including the keel or keelson) in addition to the heavy and often deep gunwale members. These are supported at bow and stern either by stem and sternpost of shaped plank on edge as in the Greenland V-bottom kayaks, or by light extensions of the keelson and small end blocks as in the northern West Greenland, Baffin Island, and Labrador types. The multichine types of the western Arctic have from seven to eleven longitudinals (including the keelson) in addition to the gunwales. In some of these kayaks there are no stem and stern posts, the battens and keelson coming together at a blunt point in small head blocks, but many types have rather intricate pieces carved from blocks of wood and plank on edge sternposts.

The Asiatic kayaks, curiously enough, exhibit the construction of both the east and west arctic kayaks, the crude small Koryak kayak being a V-bottom on a three-batten system while the Chukchi kayak is on the same system as the kayaks on the east side of Bering Strait.

[: ] The decking of kayaks is of very light construction; usually there are two heavy thwarts to support the manhole and from one to three light thwarts afore and abaft these. The Alaskan kayaks from Kotzebue Sound south– ward have ridged decks supported by a ridge-batten from the ends of the hull to the manhole, fore and aft. Elsewhere the deck of the kayak is flat athwart– ship except at the manhole, where there is some crown or ridging to increase the depth inside the boat, particularly forward of the manhole. In the majority of these kayaks there are short battens laid on the thwarts, fore and aft, forward of the manhole, to support the skin cover in its sweep upward to the manhole.

The fastening of the frame members in kayaks is often rather intricate and shows great skill in the builder. In nearly all kayaks, the heads of the frames are seated in the under side of the gunwale members by socket holes drilled to the required depth and angle, into which the frame heads are driven. All other joints and connections are lashed together. Hooked scarphs, like those used in the umiaks, are sometimes used in the gunwale members. Pegs are sometimes used to lock the frame heads into their sockets in the gunwales. Sinew lashings are also used on occasion. Care is taken that all lashings are flush on the outside so that the skin cover is smooth and chafing avoided. The almost universal method of construction is first to shape and fasten together the gunwales and thwarts, with stem and stern pieces fitted as required, then to fit and place a few transverse frames to control the boat's shape. Next the longitudinals are fitted, and finally the remaining transverse frames are put in place. In some types the manhole rim is now fitted, but in others the manhole rim is put on after the skin cover is in place as some kayaks have the skin cover placed over the manhole rim and others have it passed under. The skin cover is stretched and sewn over the frame and is rarely secured to it by lashings except at the manhole. Due to the shape of bow and stern, in some types, difficult and redious sewing is required to stretch the skins over the ends of the hull. Much of the sewing is completed after the skins are stretched over the hull and held by temporary lacings. The blind seam is used as far as possible but in many kayaks the lap is very short, about 3/8 inch being common.

Few Eskimo groups are without kayaks; only those living inland, or where the sea is rarely open, are without these hunting craft. In very recent times some have ceased to use kayaks, employing purchased wooden canoes instead.

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The kayaks of the Asiatic Eskimos, and those from the Mackenzie to Hudson Bay, are the crudest in built and of inferior design. Both the Greenland and the Alaskan kayaks are the most highly developed and it would be difficult to decide which is the superior in construction and design. The Greenland kayaks are undoubtedly given more intricate r equipment in the way of weapons and accessories than the Alaskan craft.

Asia

Figure 6 is the plan of the Asiatic Koryak kayak. This is the type used in the Sea of Okhotak and on the Siberian coast of Bering Sea. This is the only distinctive Asiatic type. The Chukchi of the Siberian side of Bering Strait use a kayak that is on the same model as the one found at Norton Sound, in Alaska. The Chukchi kayak differs only in the ends, which are wholly functional and without the handgrips that distinguish the Alaskan type. There is also a crude Chukchi river kayak, covered with reindeer skin, but its de– sign is not represented in an American museum.

The Koryak kayak is a weakly built hunting boat for protected waters, but is well designed for its use. In general form it is much like the models of hunting and fowling skiffs formerly used in America. The plan idealizes the kayak somewhat, for the boat is very crude in finish. The only example, in the American Museum of Natural History, was in poor condition. The hull is short, wide and shallow, rather V in cross-section, and there is a slight camber in the deck. The length rarely exceeds 10 ftt, the beam is from 24 to 26 inches and the depth between 8 and 9 1/2 inches. The manhole rim is of large diameter, high and without rake. The gunwales are rather slight but are the strength members. The keelson is a thin, flat batten and forms

Page 032a

^Fig. 6^

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the stem and stern posts; it is stiffened amidships by a short batten lashed inside the frames. The chine battens are also slight and do not reach the stem and stern. The frames are widely spaced, and are wide and thin, in one piece gunwale to gunwale. There are only two thwarts; those are strong and support the manhole rim, showing inside the cockpit. Two thin longi– tudinal battens, afore and abaft the manhole, support the deck, in addition to a slight center-line ridge batten. The outboard battens appear to have had additional support; two pairs of stanchions standing on frames at the chines seem to have existed, with their heads secured to the deck battens, a pair being placed before and abaft the manhole. A small plank seat appears to have been used and the boat was propelled by t ^ w ^ o w short one-hand paddles to the manhole rim by thongs; these would be efficient only in calm water. The skin cover is made from bearded seal skins and passes under the manhole rim, being sewn to the rim on the inside, at the top, by coarse sewing through holes bored in the manhole rim. There are two thong lifting handles or loops, one at bow and stern. This kayak is the most primitive of all types and it is the smallest as well. The Koryaks are not daring canoemen and do not venture into rough water. Nevertheless, this type of kayak is said to be fast and highly maneuverable.

Alaska

Compared to the Koryak, the Alaskan kayaks are a tremendous step in development. The Aleuts were, in particular, very daring and accomplished kayakers and their craft were among the finest. The Kodiak Island kayak, shown in Figure 7, represents one type used in this area, and Figure 8, from Unalaska, the other. The Kodiak boat is rather short and wide,

Page 033a

^Fig. 7^

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measuring 15 ft. 1 in. in length, 29 ft. ^ in. ^ beam, and 14 ft. ^ in. ^ . depth to ridge batten of the deck just forward of the manhole. The boat has the "humped" sheer found in many Alaskan kayaks and is intended for use in stormy waters. Its large manhole permits two persons to be carried, one facint forward to paddle and the passenger facing aft. These boats could also be used to carry heavy loads in lieu of a passenger. The drawing shows the construction and requires no explanation. Kayaks, from the Aleutian Islands southward to Kodiak, used rod battens and only the gunwales and keelson were rectangular in section. The frames were thin flatf strips bent from gunwale to gunwale. The ridge-batten of the deck was laminated and was in two strips. The deck beams and part of the thwarts were notched into the ridge-batten and lashed; two thwarts were arched and shaped the gunwales. The bow piece was carved from a block with the longitudinals lashed to it, each in a carefully fitted notch. The sternpost was formed of a plank. The skin cover passed over the manhole rim; a line passed outside the rim held the skin down enough to form a breakwater. The skin cover is sewn to the inside lower edge of the rim.

The Unalaska kayak, in Figure 8, is a better-known type. This design was used throughout the Aleutians and on the adjacent mainland as far east as Prince William Sound. It was also employed in the Pribilofs and at St. Lawrence Island, having been spread by Aleuts engaged in sealing. All kayaks of this type did not have the same bow and stern profiles as the example; some had the bifid bow built with the portion above the slit arched upward higher than the outer stem piece and so more prominent; there were also minor variations in the stern. The shape of the hull, however, was consistently held to throughout the area of this model's use. Though the deck is ridged it is relatively low, compared to that of the Kodiak kayak,

Page 034a

^Fig. 8^

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and the thwarts supporting the manhole are heavily arched and in one piece, gunwale to gunwale. The construction follows the principles of the Kodiak kayak, but the gunwales and upper longitudinal battens do not meet the sternpost; they end on a crosspiece well inside the stern. This gives the effect of a transom stern. However, all Aleut kayaks do not retain this feature; some have the normal sharp stern, after the fashion of the Kodiak kayak, without the projecting tail or handgrip. Nearly all Aleut kayaks have two thwarts between the after manhole thwart and the stern and three forward of the fore manhole thwart. The skin cover passes over the manhole rim as in the Kodiak type. The bow block is sometimes built up of two blocks sewn or laced together. St ^ r ^ engthening pieces, from the bow block aft, are sometimes fitted; these are light plank laced to the top, inside, edge of the gunwales and pinned to the stem block, to form long breasthooks. In some kayaks, with the square stern, only the gunwale is supported by the crosspiece on the stern, two battens on each side being supported by the last frame only, about 6 inches ahead of the crosspiece.

This type of kayak is the only one known to have been built with more than one manhole. So far as is known, the two-hole kayak was an Eleut development used in whaling and sea otter hunting; the type was worked by a paddler in the after manhole when fishing. A two-hole kayak measured 20 ft. 7 1/4 in. long, 23 in. deep, and 9 1/2 in. deep to top of gunwale. The manholes were about 40 ^ in ^ feet apart and the foremost was about 8 feet from the bow.

The three-hole boat is commonly believed to have been instroduced by the Russians and this type was much used by Russian officers, inspectors, and traders in their explorations and travels on the Alaskan coast.

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One of these boats measured 24 ft. 8 3/8 in. long, 30 in. beam, and 10 1/2 in. deep to top of gunwale. The center manhole was commonly larger in diameter than the other two and gave room for a passenger or cargo. The fore end of the fore manhole was 8 ft. 0 in. to 8 ft. 6 in. from the bow, and the other manholes were from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. apart. A large example of this class of kayak measured 28 ft. 0 1/2 in. long, 38 1/2 in. beam, and 12 in. deep to top of gunwale. Probably none exceeded 30 ft. in length. Both the single-blade and the double-blade paddle were used by the Aleuts, but in hunting the double-blade was generally preferred. The paddles had rather narrow, leaf-shaped, blades, with pointed tips.

Figure 9 is the p ^ l ^ a l n of a kayak from Nunivak Island, about due north of Unalaska and roughly halfway to St. Lawrence Island. This type of kayak is obviously related to that of Kodiak Island; the lines and proportions of the kayaks are approximately the same. Only the profiles of the Nunivak kayak is its bow, which probably represents a seal's head; a hole through the whole bow structure forms the eyes. The stern profile is a more functional one than was used in the Kodiak kayaks. The example shows the painted totem that once distinguished the Nunivak kayaks; missionary influence has long erased such decorations from Alaskan kayaks. Whereas the Kodiak kayaks had eleven battens (including keelson) in their frames, the Nunivak kayak had nine. The dimensions of the Nunivak and Kodiak kayaks seem to have varied remarkably little; the longest reported for either type is 15 ft. 9 in. and the greatest beam is 32 in. Both types have the large manhole and have the same mode of carrying a passenger, back to back with the paddler. The Nunivak kayaks have all longitudinals rectangular in section. The single-bladed paddle is used. These kayaks are very highly regarded by all who have had contact with them

Page 036a

^Fig. 9^

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EA-Transp. & Communic. Chapelle: Skin Boats

and are generally considered one of the safest and most useful of the Alaskan kayaks.

King Island, at the entrance to Bering Strait, is the home of the kayak shown in Figure 10; the King Islanders were noted as skillful kayakers. Their kayak follows the general pattern of the Nunivak kayaks, but is narrower and more V in cross-section. The stem and stern are also distinctly different; the King Island boat has a bold upturned stem ending in a small birdlike head with a small hole through the stem to represent eyes. The stern is low and without the projections seen in the Nunivak type. The fitting of the cockpit rim is unusual; the rim does not appear to be supported by thwarts but rather is made part of the skin cover and therefore can be moved. The King Islanders are said to have launched their kayaks by hurling paddler and kayak bodily off the rocks into the water. A watertight jacket with the skirt laced to the manhole rim prevented swamping. If this claim is true the need for a flexible manhole becomes apparent. The use of the watertight jacket secured to the manhole was common among most Eskimos working in stormy waters. A warm-weather alternate was a wide waistband with its top supported by straps over the shoulders and the bottom laced to the manhole. The King Islanders, some of the Aleuts, and the Greenlanders, could right their kayaks unaided, when capsized at sew, while still in the cockpit. Indeed, it was the practice of many kayakers to capsize their kayaks deliberately to avoid the blow of a large breaking sea, and then to right the kayak when the sea had passed. A somewhat similar but slightly smaller kayak was used at Cape Espenberg; in these the upturned bow ended in a simple point. The sterns were alike in both types. The Cape Espenberg kayak had a fixed cockpit rim however, as in the Nunivak type. Both types employed the single-bladed paddle.

A little to the south, in Norton Sound, the long, narrow kayak shown in Figure 11 was popular. These were somewhat like the Nunivak kayaks in cross-section but with far less beam. They had a slight reverse, or humped, sheer and were very sharp ended. The peculiar handgrips at bow and stern were characteristic, though the shape and size of the grips vary among the villages; the style shown is that of St. Michael. A single-bladed paddle is used. This type is very fast under paddle but requires a skillful user in rough water. The Norton Sound kayaks were very well finished and strongly built.

From Kotzebue Sound, at Cape Krustenstern, along the north shore of Alaska to the Mackenzie Delta, the kayaks are very low in the water, long, narrow, and spindle-shaped at the ends. They are distinguished by a very strong rake in the manhole rim, with the accompanying prominent swell in the deck forward of the manhole. In general, these kayaks are not employed in rough weather, but in skillful hands are seaworthy. They are built with seven longitudinal battens (including the keelson), in addition to the gun– wales. The latter are sometimes slightly channelled on the inside, apparently to decrease weight. These kayaks are very light and easily carried. Both the single-and double-blade paddle are employed; the single blade is usually used in traveling. Figure 12 shows a kayak from Cape Krustenstern and Figure 13 a similar kayak from Point Barrow. These types are going out of use, it is reported. No stem or sternposts exist in these boats; small end-blocks usually take their places in the ends of the hull. The only important difference, in the two types shown, is in the style of crowning the deck; the Cape Krustenstern kayak has a ridged deck whereas the Point Barrow kayak is more rounded. In spite of their narrow beam and obviously unstable form, those kayaks were said to have been used by rather skillful paddlers.

The skin covering most widely used in Alaskan kayaks was the bearded seal skin, but walrus skins were also used, particularly by some of the Aleuts. The heavy, thick walrus hides were first piled and "sweated" until the hair became loose, then the skins were scraped until they were clean. They were then thin and light and could be air-dried and stored until ready for use. Like seal skins, they had to be well soaked before being stretched over the frame of a kayak or umiak. When dried out on the boat frame they were oiled in the usual manner. It is claimed that walrus skin, though strong, is not as good as the bearded seal skin for boat covers as the latter holds the oil longer and does not become water-soaked as quickly as walrus skin.

Mackenzie Delta

Though the north Alaska type of kayak, as illustrated by the Point Barrow model, may be said to represent the structural design of kayaks to the eastward as far as Foxe Basin, the Mackenzie Delta kayaks are on an entirely different model. Due to migration to this area, in the last seventy years, of numerous groups of Eskimos the design of kayaks in this area appears to have undergone a great change. Figure 14 is the plan of a modern Mackenzie Delta kayak. The design is marked by a very narrow flat bottom, or wide keel, combined with the V-bottom. These boats are well built and are light and graceful. The wide keel is formed by a thin plank keelson which narrows at bow and stern and is bent up to form the stem and stern. The chine pieces run fore and aft and are lashed to the stem and stern thus formed. The gunwales are stout, about 3/4 in. x 1 1/8 in. The frames are about 1/4 in. x 5/8 in. bent in a strongly U form with their ends tenoned into the bottom of the gunwales. The keelson is only about 3/8 in. thick and the chines are rather wide, thin battens, about 5/16 in x 1 1/4 in.

Page 039a

^Fig. 14^

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EA-Transp. & Communic. Chapelle: Skin Boats

Some kayaks have an additional batten in the sides above the chines. The deck is slightly ridged nearly the length of the boat. The stem and stern are carried up above the sheer to form prominent posts; some builders carry them higher than shown. The construction is neat and light and the boat is very easily paddled. Its narrow beam makes it somewhat treacherous in unskilled hands, however. A double-bladed paddle is generally used with this kayak. While the form appears to vary little among individuals of this class, the construction varies, particularly in the number and dimensions of the longitudinals. Frames are spaced rather consistently 5 to 6 inches apart.

The foregoing design differs greatly in every respect from the kayak shown in Figure 15. This example was obtained by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1885 and is a large heavy boat compared to the one just described. The model of this old kayak, and the construction too, is on the eastern pattern, such as is used in Hudson Straight. The strongly upturned stern and less rising bow faintly resembles the old Greenland kayaks. The V-bottom and three-batten construction combined with heavy deep gunwales is not to be found in any of the known Alaskan kayaks. Unfortunately there is no record of the exact location where this kayak was found on the Mackenzie, nor any information on the builders. If this was a Mackenzie type, it now appears wholly extinct and there is nothing in the vicinity that resembles it. The kayak is well built and was a safe, strong boat. The high stern would aid it in coming head to sea and wind when paddling stopped. This kayak resembles, more than most, the early explorers' drawings of arctic kayaks. The very high ends indicate that this kayak was not used where high winds are common, in spite of the otherwise seaworthy design and construction.

Coronation Gulf

To the eastward of the Mackenzie, the kayaks used are narrow, spindle– shaped, and very low sided, in the manner of the northern Alaskan boats. Figure 16 shows the drawing made from the remains of a kayak from Coronation Gulf which has been compared with photographs and measurements of some Copper Eskimo kayaks to insure accuracy. These kayaks were used mainly on rivers and lakes to spear swimming caribou. They are characterized by a rather marked reverse sheer and a strongly raked manhole rim. The deck for– ward of the manhole sweeps up very sharply but with a different profile than seen on the north coast of Alaska; the eastern kayaks have the deck swept up in a very short, hollow curve instead of the long convex sweep popular in Alaska. The ends of the hull finish in small bone buttons; the skin cover passes under the manhole rim, as in the Cape Krusenøtern and Point Barrow types. A two-bladed peddle is commonly used. The hull design is more stable than at Point Barrow and the ends are somewhat fuller, giving the boat a rather parallel-sided appearance. Five longitudinal battens, one the keelson, form the bottom of the hull; the gunwales are channelled on the inside and are very light and neatly made. The frames are split willows, round on the inside.

Eastern Canadian Arctic

The Caribou Eskimo kayak preserved in the American Museum of Natural History had a chief use in the spearing of caribou and is the best example of the type found. Figure 17 shows the features of this particular type; the construction is about the same as in the Point Barrow kayak but much lighter and weaker. The peculiar projecting stem is formed of a stem block with the beak piece attached with a lacing. The stem block is scarphed to

Page 041a

^Fig. 16^

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^Fig. 17^

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the gunwales. The stern is formed in a similar manner and the sharply turned-up stern is formed by two pieces joined together at the tip and laced to the stern block; this follows the stern construction of the Mackenzie kayak, Figure 15. Both caribou hides and seal skins are used to cover the Caribou Eskimo kayak. The seams are rubbed with fish oil and ochre, which is also used extensively along the north coast of Alaska as a paint for the framework of both kayaks and umiaks.

The Netsillik Eskimo kayak is a related type, but less stable and with different bow and stern profiles. Figure 18 is an example of the Netsillik type and requires little discussion. The cover of the example is seal skin. These kayaks are used only in hunting caribou at stream crossings and are not employed in sealing. The very narrow bottom and small beam make this kayak the most dangerous of all in the hands of paddlers unaccustomed to such craft. Neither the Caribou nor the Netsillik kayaks are very seaworthy and their construction is inferior. They are characterized by rather heavy gunwales but the other members of their structures are very slight.

No examples of the kayaks once used on the Gulf of Boothia, at Fury and Hecla Strait, and on the west side of Foxe Basin, have been found. Early explorers in this area found kayaks but the types used have been long extinct. One kayak, supposed to have been built at Southampton Island, had been pre– served by a private collector but when measured was in a damaged state.

The kayak, shown in Figure 19, does not conform with the old descriptions of kayaks from the Melville Peninsula, but does agree with the Boas model of a kayak from Repulse Bay in the U.S. National Museum (68126). On this basis it would appear that this form of kayak was also used on the east side of the Melville Peninsula in Boas' time. The design resembles the Greenland

Page 042a

^Fig. 18^

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^Fig. 19^

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kayaks, from the southern west coast, to some extent, but the stern is like that used in some Labrador craft. This old kayak was very light and sharp, rather slightly built, but very graceful in model so far as could be deter– mined from the remains of the craft. The fore deck camber is ridged and carried rather far forward. If the identification of this kayak is correct, it is apparent that the astern model of the kayak once extended as far west as the west side of Foxe Basin, with the extreme outpost of the type at the Mackenzie.

The kayak of the lower Baffin Island, Figure 20, is a flat-bottom, long and rather heavy model. The gunwales members are very deep and the keelson and chine battens are quite heavy. This type has a slight side batten between chine and gunwale which gives [: x] five longitudinal members besides the gunwales and so this example is the sole exception to the three-batten construction that may be said to mark the eastern kayaks. The Baffin Island kayak is rather roughly built and the two examples found had many cracked frames at the chines. However, this kayak has many excellent features, being easily paddles, very stable and seaworthy, and comes head to the wind as soon as paddling ceases. The double-blade paddle is used as in the Labrador kayaks, very long with narrow blades. When the paddler is seated, these kayaks, like many of their eastern sisters, drew more water forward than the drawing would indicate; here it should be noted that the trim of the kayaks in the water is not indicated by the base lines used in the plans. The effect of the deeper draft at the bow is to allow the kayak to come head to the wind when at rest, to hold her course into the wind, and to give a long easy run in the bottom toward the stern. The small rocker or camber in the bot [: um ] shown in the drawing is thus misleading. The stem is formed by an extension of the

Page 043a

^Fig. 20^

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EA-Transp. & Communic. Chapelle: Skin Boats

keelson and the clipper-bow, seen in many eastern boats, is thus formed. The stern is shaped by a stern-block of simple form into which the gunwales, keelson and chines are notched. The batten between chine and gunwale does not run to either bow or stern but stops a little short.

A somewhat similar kayak is used on the Labrador side of Hudson Strait, but, as shown in Figure 21, the appearance of the craft is distinctive. The kayak is flat-bottom, with the snied-off chines seen in the Baffin Island boat, giving a form like that of many Japanese sampans. The three-batten system is used in construction and the gunwales are very heavy and deep, standing vertical in the sides of the boat. The sheer is slightly reversed and there is little camber in the bottom. One of the most obvious features of the Labrador kayaks is the long "grab" bow which is formed by a batten attached to the end of the keelson. The stern is formed with a very small block inside the gunwales and to this the keelson is laced or pegged. It will be noticed that the rake of the manhole is very moderate. These kayaks are heavy and strong, paddle well and particularly so against wind and sea. The type of long and narrow-bladed paddle used is shown in the drawing.

This example serves to show better than the Baffin Island kayak the combination of deep forefoot and greatest beam well abaft the mid-length that marks many eastern designs of kayaks. The model always trims, when paddled, so that the kayak draws most water at the fore-end of the keelson and the bottom of the stern usually is just awash. This makes the bottom sweep up from the forefoot in a very slight, gradual curve to the stern when the boat is afloat. As a result, the kayak may be said to be on the "double– wedge" form that has been popular in fast low-powered motor boats, since the beam is far aft giving a wedge shape to the bow n in plan, and the deep forefoot

Page 044a

^Fig. 21^

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EA-Transp. & Communic. Chapelle: Skin Boats

and shallow stern produce an opposite wedge in profile. It would appear that this form was adopted by trial and error as it was found to produce a fast, easily peddled kayak in an otherwise heavy hull. The north Labrador kayaks are the largest in the Arctic, for a single person; some are reported as long as 26 feet. The unusually long and narrow-bladed paddle may be explained by the fact that the Eskimo never produced a "feathered" double paddle, with blades set at right angles to one another. So, to paddle against strong winds, he developed the long and very narrow blade which in turn made the whole paddle very long for a double-blade. The long blade enables a deep dip being made, so little propulsion effect is lost.

The kayak used on the northeast coast of Labrador is shown in Figure 22 and differs slightly from that of Hudson Strait. The northeast coast kayak has a very slight V-bottom and a strong concave sheer, with relatively great rocker in the bottom fore and aft. While the boat trims by the bow afloat, the rocker probably makes the boat more maneuverable than the Hudson Strait model, though less easily paddled against strong winds. The V-bottom is formed by using a heavier, deeper keelson than is used in the chines. The latter are thin, wide battens, on the flat. The V-bottom appears to help the boat run straight under paddle and may be said to contradict the inten– tion of the strongly rockered bottom, to some extent at least.

Greenland

The west coast of Greenland is the home of the sharpie-model kayak, having a flat bottom and flaring sides. At the extreme north, the kayaks shown in Figures 23 and 24 are representative. These kayaks have clipper bows with sterns of varying depth and shape, concave sheers, and varying degrees of camber in the bottom fore and aft. Most of their greatest

Page 045a

^Fig. 22^

Page 045b

^Fig. 23^

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^Fig. 24^

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beam well aft and so draw more water forward, as in the Labrador and Baffin Island types. The chief characteristic of the construction of this type is in having the transverse frames in three parts, somewhat the same structure as in the umiak. However, these kayaks depart from umiak construction in having the frame heads rigidly secured by trenoning them into the gunwales. This is done to give some measure of transverse rigidity to the structure which would otherwise be lacking, since the keelson, stem, and chines are light battens. Figure 23 shows the details of the construction used. These kayaks are highly developed craft, stable, fast, and seaworthy. The construc– tion is light and strong to withstand the severe abuse sometimes given these craft. The purpose of the can on the fore part of the manhole is not known with certainty; it may be fitted to allow a tow line to be passed around the manhole and to prevent this from slipping upward and interfering with the paddler's comfort. It will be noted that the shape of the manhole in many of the eastern types of kayaks already described ceased to be oval or circular. U-shaped manholes, or bent-rim manholes approaching this form, appear in the more stable types; there is reason to suppose that such shapes indicate craft which are not righted at sea by the paddler and in which the watertight paddling jacket or waistband is not used.

Farther ^ south, ^ along the west coast of Greenland, and apparently also on the opposite Baffin Island coast, a modified design of kayak is used. This type is shown in Figure 25 and shows relationship to both the flat-bottom kayak of northern Greenland and to the northwest Labrador type. In this model the clipper bow is retained but the stern and cross-section resemble the Labrador kayaks. The construction, however, is fundamentally that employed in northern West Greenland. As in the Labrador type, the dead rise in the bottom is formed by the use of a deeper keelson than chine members. The

Page 046a

^Fig. 25^

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EA-Transp. & Commun. Chapelle: Skin Boats

gunwales do not flare as in the Greenland model, however, but stand vertical in the side, flaring slightly at bow and extreme stern. The frame heads are rather loosely tenoned and are commonly secured to the gunwales with lashings. Transverse stiffness is obtained in this model by employing a rather heavy, rigid keelson fixed to the stern block and by a tripod arrange– ment forward, consisting of the stem batten and a pair of transverse frames placed at the junction of the stem and keelson with their heads firmly lashed and tenoned into the gunwales. The construction, though strong, is rather rough compared to other Greenland types. It is possible that this model of kayak was introduced into Greenland from Baffin Island. The manhole rim, in this type, is not bent but is made up of short straight pieces as shown in the draw a ing. The double-bladed paddle used is shown in the plan and resembles that used in Labrador. This is a rather heavy kayak of very good qualities but not as maneuverable as some of the flat-bottom kayaks farther north.

The style of kayak used on the southerly west coast of Greenland has changed in model rather markedly since 1883. This change has apparently affected the kayaks used on the east coast of Greenland also. In this part of the Arctic, the Eskimos are notable kayakers and the boat is not only well designed but also carries highly developed equipment and weapons for its work. The model used is a graceful one, V-bottom, with raking ends and rather strong sheer. In the old boats, represented by Figures 26 and 27, the sheer was strong at bow and stern. The kayaks are narrow but their shape gives them much stability. Plates of bone were attached to the bow and stern to protect them from ice; these bone "stem bands" or "bang-plates" were usually pegged

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to the stem and stern; in rare cases lashing is seen. Figure 26 shows the construction used; light strong gunwales and a three-batten longitudinal system with bent transverse frames. The keelson and chines are light, rec– tangular in section, and placed on edge. They are shaped slightly to fair the skin covering, seal skin. The cover passes under the manhole rim. Bow and stern are made of plank on edge, shaped to the required profile. The gunwales are strongly tapered in depth fore and aft. The thwarts or deck beams are rather numerous; in addition to the two heavy thwarts supporting the manhole, there are eight to twelve others but these are very light in scantling. There is usually one more forward of the manhole than there is aft. The fore thwart of the manhole stands slightly inside the cockpit and is strongly arched. The after one is clear of the cockpit opening and has very little arch. The deck, where it sweeps up to the raked manhole is sup– ported by two light short battens or carlins, 24 to 36 inches long; usually there were two abaft the manhole as well. The fastenings were lashings except at the ends of the hull where pegs were used to secure the keelson to the stem and stern. Sinew lashings were also used here in some examples. The whole framework was light, strong, and neatly made. In some of the gun– wales did not flare with the sides the whole length and near the stern a knuckle was thus formed in the skin cover, as in Figure 27. This appears to have been rather unusual, however. The exact amount of flare and dead rise varied village to village.

The old kayaks used in East Greenland had more rake in the bow than the examples and also were marked by a sheer that was almost straight from the bow to within a foot or so of the stern, where it turned up sharply to a high stern, as in Figure 26. These kayaks also had less flare and dead

Page 048a

^Fig. 26^

Page 048b

^Fig. 27^

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rise than most of the southern West Greenland models. The amount of rocker in the keelson vafied a good deal; that shown in Figure 2 4 ^ 6 ^ appears to have been about the maximum; a straight keelson does not seem ever to have been used. The manholes were fitted to allow use of the watertight paddling jacket; the projecting rim shown at the after side of the manhole in Figure 26 was probably intended to prevent the drawstring in the skirt of the jacket, which held it to the rim, from slipping over the top. This form of kayak has been the most widely described type and has been much admired; it was a fast and handy hunting boat.

This old form of lower Greenland kayak has apparently become obsolete and has been replaced, since the '80's, by the style shown in Figure 28. The modern version has the same construction as the old but the model has undergone much alteration, as can be seen. The rake of the bow and stern have become much greater; the sheer is now almost straight. The flare of the sides has been increased and the dead rise in the bottom has been reduced. The new model has spread northward on both the east and west coasts. It is undoubtedly an improvement over the old style, being faster (particularly against a head wind) and quicker turning. However, it would probably be found to be some– what harder to right when capsized than the old model. The new model is more stable than the old but is not suited for unskilled users; a few American soldiers were drowned in such kayaks during the last war through rashly venturing into rough water before becoming practiced in the use of the craft.

Fittings and Techniques

The intricate arrangement of deck lashings shown are required tohold weapons and accessories. Just ahead of the paddler there is a stand or

Page 049a

^Fig. 28^

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tray on low legs to hold the coiled harpoon line; weapons of various types, lance, darts, and harpoons, are held under the deck lashings. Toggles of bone or ivory, often carved, are used to tighten and adjust these lines. The Greenland kayaks carry far better developed deck fittings and gear than is seen in any of the western types.

The paddler's seat, in most kayaks, consists of a portion of heavy skin with fur attached. Sometimes this is supported by a few short, thin battens laced loosely together. These, and the fur seat sometimes are as long as the paddler's legs. No back rest is known to be used. Seat, and any batten supports, are loosely placed and are not part of the kayak structure.

The kayak is usually entered by floating the boat near a stone or low bank and stepping into it with one foot, after carefully wiping it. With the body steadied by placing the paddle upright on the shore or outside the kayak, the other foot is wiped and placed in the boat. The paddler then slides downward and works his legs under the deck until he is seated. Getting out of a kayak is almost the reverse of this process. Great care is exercised to avoid getting dirt into a kayak as it might chafe the hide cover. Hence the care in wiping the feet before entering. The practice of entering the boat ashore and throwing man and kayak into the water was un– doubtedly very rare but is said to have been practiced not only at King Island but in some parts of Greenland on occasion.

Lashing two kayaks side by side, or parallel, with spacing rods, was commonly practiced to enable the craft to ferry persons or cargo across streams. Some Alaskan kayakers thus converted kayaks into catamarans and then fitted a mast and sail, but such an arrangement was never used in rough

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water. Both Alaskan and Greenland hunters often lashed two kayaks together in order to rest in rough water. Many kayakers, using the narrow models, use the paddle, laid athwartships across the deck, to help steady the kayak when resting or throwing a weapon; this is basically the same idea as holding the sculls in the water in a racing shell, to steady the boat.

The methods used to right a capsized kayak by its paddler, without aid, have often been mentioned but few attempted to record the exact details of the operation and the scanty descriptions found do not give sufficient explanation. As far as can be judged, great strength and quickness are required in the paddler, and the kayak must be of suitable design. The Eskimos are reported to be gradually losing this skill and a detailed record of kayak-righting methods should be made, before it is too late.

Excepting a few specially wide kayak models, some or all of which may have been introduced under European influence, the kayaker, to avoid cap– sizing, had to have at least one of his hand ^ s ^ constantly upon a paddle the blade of which was in the water. The weapons that a kayaker might use were determined by the nature of his craft. So his weapons were those that could be manipulated by one hand — the harpoon, spear, dart, knife, and bolas. The dart might be sped with the help of a throwing stick. The harpoon fre– quently and the dart occasionally would have an inflated bladder attached to its line, and such a ^ ^ float might range from an actual bladder, with a buoyancy of a pound or a few pounds, to a sealskin bag which had a 200 or even 300 pound lifting power. The floats were for the double purpose of slowing up the beasts to which they had become attached, and of bringing them to the surface after a dive or "sounding."

There were at least three reasons why a bow was ill suited for kayak use, and was in fact never employed except for a stunt. To begin with, a bow resuires the full employment of two hands; next, an arrow will sink and a hunter cannot afford to waste his weapons; then an arrow does not readily carry a float to buoy up a wounded or dead creature; and, finally, the Eskimo bow ralies for its [: ] springiness not upon the wood from which it is constructed but upon a rope ot twisted sinew lashed against the back of the wood frame, and this sinew loses its springiness if it gets wet, or even damp.

All eastern kayaks appear to have been propelled with the double– bladed paddle, but folklore indicates the single-blade kayak paddle may have once been used. Greenland kayaks have been reported as carrying a small square sail for occasional use.

The timber used in kayak building was usually driftwood. Fir and pine, or more often spruce, thus were used for longitudinals. Bent frames were commonly of willow. Scarphing in the frames of kayaks seems to have been far less common than in umiaks; when found the scarphs are in the gunwales. Sinew is generally used in all lashings and for sewing material. The heads of frames are tenoned into the under side of the gunwales and are then either lashed or pegged (with treenails of wood or bone) to retain them in place. All scarphs are of the hooked type and are usually quite short; the hooked scarph is perhaps the best one when the fastenings are lashings. In the joining of frames and longitudinals, the lashings are commonly individual but, in some types of kayak, continuous lashings (connections in series using one length of sinew) are occasionally found. Where possible, the lashings are turned on so that the turns cross right and left. In some

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parts of the framework two pieces of timber are "sewn" together; holes are bored along the edges to be joined and a lacing run in with continuous turns, over and over. Sewn joints are common in the stems of Alaskan kayaks.

Gunwales and battens are most commonly lashed through holes bored in them and bow and stern members. The practice of passing the skin cover over the manhole rim seems to have been confined to the Alaskan kayaks. Bone knobs at stem and stern heads were used in the Coronation Gulf kayaks and in many Greenland models, so far as the existing evidence shows. Bone stem bands were more widely employed, however, having been used at Kodiak and Nunivak islands, in the Aleutians, at Norton Sound in Alaska, and in Greenland and Baffin Island in the east. It is probable that these bands were once in wider use than thus indicated. Most Alaskan kayaks would come stern to the wind when paddling stopped while most of the eastern craft came head to the wind. Each type was developed by long periods of trial and error to produce the greatest efficiency in meeting the conditions of use in a given locality. This had made the kayak a more complicated and more developed instrument of the chase than is to be found in any other form of hunting canoe.

Howard I. Chapelle

	Page
Introduction	1
Curraghs and Conacles	2
Special Features of Eskimo Skin Boats	5
Umiak Types	11
Asia	12
Alaska	14
Eastern Canadian Arctic	23
Greenland	25
Kayak Types	27
Asia	32
Alaska	33
Mackenzie Delta	39
Coronation Gulf	41
Eastern Canadian Arctic	41
Greenland	45
Fittings and Techniques	49
Bibliography	55

Arctic Skin Boats: Encyclopedia Arctica 9: Transportation and Communications