Algae: Encyclopedia Arctica 5: Plant Sciences (General)
Algae
EA-Plant Sciences (Wm. Randolph Taylor)
Page | |
Significance of Arctic Algal Vegetation | 1 |
Representative forms of Arctic Algae | 2 |
Factors controlling algal vegetation | 6 |
Marine Flora of the Arctic and Subarctic | 9 |
Western Soviet Arctic | 9 |
Eastern Soviet Arctic | 11 |
North American Region | 12 |
Baffin Bay and West Greenland | 14 |
East Greenland | 15 |
Iceland | 16 |
Jan Mayen | 17 |
The Faeroes | 18 |
Northern Coast of Norway | 19 |
West Soviet Arctic (Murman Sea) | 19 |
Spitsbergen | 20 |
Summary of Marine Algal Vegetation | 22 |
Freshwater Algal Vegetation | 23 |
Algal Floras of Various Regions | 28 |
Summary of Freshwater Algal Vegetation | 32 |
Bibliography | 34 |
EA-Plant Sciences (Wm. Randolph Taylor)
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
reach a northern limit in Scandinavia, except for a few species in Greenland, etc., and Myriophyllums and Utricularias also reach only midway on the West Greenland coast, while in the sea Zostera disappears a little north of the southernmost portion. We find, however, a very considerable bulk and range of animal life dependent on the great plant group the Algae, vast in variety of species and vast in economic importance in all parts of the world, but in cold regions often the sole ultimate source of organic matter.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
between plankton and bottom-growing types are limited to very small, even microscopic organisms. In the sea the chief bottom types are often large and are of the classes of chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae (brown algae), and Rhodophyceae (red algae), although there are some Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) and Myxophyceae (Cyanophyceae or blue-green algae). The plankton types in the northern seas are almost exclusively Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyceae (peridinians), and are, therefore, quite microscopic. These are groups which must be studied and described separately, so the reader is referred to the articles “Phytoplankton” and “Algae: Planktonic Groups” in this Encyclopedia, for they are the greatest food sources in the sea, and of prime importance. While diatoms and peridinians are also important in freshwater plankton, other algae of the green and blue-green groups are very important too, and almost all forms are microscopic, though their abundance makes them a major food source. The bottom vegetation in freshwater ponds consists chiefly of organisms belonging to these groups of small species, though they are usually different from the marine species. The bottom vegetation of the sea includes numerous small forms as well as intermediate ones, and culminates in the great rockweeds and kelps several feet in length, which are so conspicuous a feature of northern shores. We will hardly concern ourselves with the microscopic marine species, most of which are diatoms.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
rarely below low tide level. The commonest will be forms like Calothrix or Rivularia , filamentous and, like the rest, microscopic as individuals, the colonies of which comprise blackish or dark blue-green velvety or gelatinous crusts of considerable extent on stones or woodwork. There will be a few others which barely discolor the rocks, and in places Hyella , which lives in and discolors the substance of mollusk shells. However, the marine blue– green algal flora of the Arctic Sea is a sparse one.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
appear almost exclusively in the littoral and immediate sublittoral zones. Probably because they cannot withstand ice action well enough, the Fucaceae or rockweeds alone persist in this zone in any quantity, and chiefly toward the south. The widespread Ascophyllum is one of these, and the others are chiefly members of the genus Fucus , which is represented by several species. These Fucaceae are richly branched, strap-shaped plants with inflations of the blades serving as floats, swollen fruiting tips and, in Fucus , blades marked by midribs and tufts of minute whitish hairs from minute pits in the surface.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
centimeter in diameter, and Alaria , again a long entire blade, but with a midrib and numerous fertile leaflets at the base.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
The only comprehensive account of these marine plants and their circumboreal distribution yet attempted is The Algae of the Arctic Sea (79). Kjellman wrote it with firsthand knowledge, since he accompanied Nordenskiöld to Spitsbergen, to Novaya Zemlya, and to northern Siberia on the Vega expedition, during 1872-80. In the following discussion, the term arctic algae will refer to types characteris– tically found in the Arctic, but that does not mean that they are exlusively arctic. The major marine flora of the Arctic is very similar around the whole circuit. The species found in northern Asia and northern America are much the same, so the questions to be answered concern, not continental floras, but the controlling conditions which limit the plants in their abundance.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
night the presence of ice cuts down the light to minute proportions; for the thick shore ice, fortified by overlying snow, is an effective block.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
produce violent currents in the Mathochkin Shar Strait, which separates the islands, with accompanying severe ice action.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
kelp flora east of Novaya Zemlya is the change in the Alarias, as Alaria membranacea and A. pylaii are replaced by A. dolichorachis , A. elliptica , and A. oblonga . There are a few species lacking on the American side which are present here, but they are represented in the northern Norwegian or Spitsbergen floras. Along the general Siberian coast littoral algae appear to be nearly absent, and kelps even in rather deep water are seldom met with. Conditions are somewhat better than usual in the eastern parts of the Kara Sea at Taimyr Island and east of Cape Bolshoi Baranov in the East Siberian Sea.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
the Gulf of Alaska (139) are clearly subarctic, having their chief relation– ships with the floras to the south, and little in common with the arctic flora.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
Canadian Arctic Expedition materials. The first paper dealt with 28 algae in material from Depot Island in the north and James Bay in the south; Howe had material from James Bay and as far north as Richmond Gulf on the eastern side, so that he was able to increase that total to 61 species and varieties — about a fourth as many as occur in Baffin Bay to the northeast. There is little in– formation about luxuriance, most of the material having been altogether frag– mentary, but the writer, from this and other sources, gathers that the character of the shore and bottom is generally soft and not suitable for good algal development. One notes a scarcity of kelp, Chorda and a fragment of Alaria alone being recorded, and only one Fucus . Most of the material was secured by dredging, and some shallow-water types ( Sphacelaria , Pylaiella , Chordaria , etc.) occurred at the surprising depth of 18 meters. A few plants, hitherto absent in our circuit, presage the appearance of North Atlantic and northern Norwegian algae, such as Ralfsia deusta and Turnerella pennyi .EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
have been reported a littoral Enteromorpha zone and at the low tide line a continuous belt of Fucus , with two species of Laminaria in deep water.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
littoral development of fuci and kelps, but the fuci grow a few meters below low tide line instead of in the littoral, and the kelps are still lower. There is a good vegetation of Lithothamnia at considerable depths, and such noncalcareous red algae as Turnerella , Phycodrys , Phvllophora , and Polysiphonia arctica . there were algae in clumps frozen in the ice at Cap Am e ^ é ^ lie (77°32′ N.lat.), and this seems the limit of recorded living specimens on this side, though there were fragments on the ice at the upper limit of observations, Hyde Fjord (83°15′ N.lat.). There are about as many species at Danmarks Havn as are known from Scoresby Sound (70° 21′ N.lat.), and they were the same species, in general, although with a few notable omissions, such as Scaphosphora, Chordaria , Dictyosiphon , Punctaria , and Chaetomorpha . The number of North Atlantic species is far smaller in northeast Greenland, and the whole flora is more markedly arctic because of this omission.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
are chiefly fissured and eroded basalt; sometimes dolerite; sometimes on the south, however, volcanic tuff. More than half the flora (124 species) is un– distinctive, appearing in all suitable areas on the island. The small arctic group of 11 species, including Turnerella , Polysiphonia arctica , and only Laminaria nigripes to represent the great arctic kelp vegetation of Baffin Bay, appear almost exclusively on the north and east coasts, where the cold currents prevail and the tides are [: ] least, being only 0.76 to 2.3 meters in range. Here the subarctic elements dominate, as they do in northeast Iceland also. However, the southwest coast is more boreal, though with a considerable sub– arctic element, the warm boreal being represented by such genera as Chondrus, Bonnemaisonia , and Leathesia . This element is barely represented in northern Iceland and is absent in the east. On the south coast, the greater, eastern portion is sandy and not very productive of algae, but the western border is better. The southwest coast is rocky and has the greatest [: ] tides, of 1.2 to 4.3 meters. In the southwest, the flora is much like that on the small rocky area of the south coast. As a whole the flora resembles that of Finmark, with a tendency for the eastern flora to resemble that of the White Sea in its subarctic character, while that of the south and southwest resembles the flora of the Faeroes.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
considerable depths (about 5 meters); kelps at 5 to 20 meters; Polysiphonia and abundant Turnerella still deeper at 50 meters; and the deepest reported vegetation of Phycodrys and Pantoneura at 110 to 118 meters. This seems to be the usual shift in growth habit in the Arctic where there is considerable risk of abrasion by floating ice. Kjellman considers the flora to be inter– mediate between that of East Greenland and Spitsbergen, but peculiar in several respects, and with a few species which he considered new and endemic. The variety of kelps and the presence of Polysiphonia arctica , Turperella , etc., testify to the arctic characters, as does the absence of the plants which Jonsson ascribes to the boreal groups.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
vegetation. When we compare the list of species we find that the chief charac– teristic is a reduction in the variety, for by Kjellman’s listing, the Murman Sea flora is much less than half as rich as that of northern Norway. There are a few new types, perhaps a score, but these do not much reduce the loss. In the western area and the White Sea, the Fuci are still prominent, though Himanthalia and Halidrys are gone; but in the eastern area, Ascophyllum and Pelvctia have left the flora, only two species of Fucus remaining instead of the eight or nine which according to his 500 classification occur in Norway. Though still in the flora, Rhodymenia has shifted to a sublittoral habitat. Certain other forms become more prominent. Forming brown crusts on the rocks, we find Ralfsia deusta widely distributed, while Pantoneura , Halosaccion , and Euthora become common and luxuriant. The more truly arctic additions to the flora do not appear in the White Sea and western area, but rather in the east, with the advent or marked increase in the prominence of Haplospora, Phyllaria lorea, Laminaria nigripes , L.fissilis , and Sarcophyllis , and the presence of d ^ e ^ structive ice action which presages the shifting of the brown algal flora into deep water, as its constitution shifts from a rockweed-dominated to a kelp-dominated list.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
fields and the position well within the area of drifting pack ice assuring conditions suitable only for a strongly arctic vegetation. The flora is not a very poor one, though somewhat smaller than that of [: ] northern Norway; but it is much more extensive than that developed on the Siberian coast. Certain general features are apparent. First, it is rare to find many plants in the littoral, although about 14 species have been so reported, all sporadicall ; y. There are a few fairly characteristic groupings in deeper water. One, based on Fucus evanescens and Rhodomela Lycopodioides , with Polsyiphonia arctica and other species, is quite often met at a few meters depth. Another, found occa– sionally at 9 to 27 meters depth, is based on Lithoderma , associated with Phyllophora interrupta , Laminaria solidungula , etc. In fact, the L. solidungula vegetation is common and luxuriant in Spitsbergen. Another feature is the occasional presence and apparent continuing growth in detached masses on the bottom, often in huge bulk, of normally attached species, such as Phyllophora interrupta , Desmarestia aculeata , and Kallymenia rosea .EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
Subarctic, where the littoral growth is heavy or the sublittoral accessible, the recent resurgence of utilization of kelp for alginic acid and of red algae for various gels may well encourage exploitation.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
only with the areas of interest to Scandinavian scientists. While we have many more species listed, less is told about even the most characteristic individual species among them.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
of lakes and streams is very generous, and the algae of the subarctic regions are largely responsible for this. Where the lakes are too shallow for produc– tion of major fish, algae and submerged mosses and vascular plants (often not true aquatic genera) will serve as the food source for the lesser fauna.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
snow, as Scotiella . Organisms characteristically forming an ice flora rather than one on snow are Ancyclonema and Mesotaenium , producing a purplish-brown color, the former in particular being reported from Greenland. Numerous other species are minor but normal constituents of the snow and ice flora, which is by no means an inconsiderable source of organic matter, involving, as it may, great areas. In the Arctic the long periods of darkness probably limit growth more than the cold.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
occasion. There is nothing peculiar about this. The area is hardly even sub– arctic, to be sure. Strøm reports (159) various subarctic, alpine, and sub– alpine lakes with similar floras in which diatoms, Dinobryon , Sphaerocystis , and Anabaena were the important plant elements; earlier (160); in discussing some larger arctic-alpine lakes, he reported from these a very meager plankton flora.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
indication that they are striking elements in the flora, as they are in high mountains in Canada (165). The Norwegian reports (158; 157; 159) are chiefly from alpine and southern areas, but make the Scandinavian Peninsula phycologi– cally very well known.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
marshy ground, and snow fields, exhibiting rather little variety. The flora is strongly arctic; for instance on Franz Josef Land, there are, in desmids, no species of Micrasterias or Closterium, but many Cosmaria, and Prasiola, Gloeocapea, and especially Nostoc populations are, as usual, common.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
distinctive features appear in the studies of the more or less exposed algal colonies (120; 121). In spite of the prevailing damp, algae on shrubs, masonry, woodwork were not evident. On turf walls Prasiola was common. Among the hillocks of the myri, such blue-green algae as Stigonema and Scytonema were common. Meadows near the sea that were occasionally flooded by salt water were commonly covered with Vaucheria . Shady mountain clefts were dominated by desmids and diatoms. About the margins of caves there was much Trentepohlia . Bird cliffs were not unexpectedly dominated by Prasiola , which favors areas besprinkled by bird dung, and species of blue-green algae. Hot springs as on Spitsbergen are a feature of the country; blue-green algae were abundant in them.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
and aquatic algae of the land masses also show little distinctive variety in the different geographical areas apart from that controlled by local climate. The species concerned are seldom exclusively arctic in distribution, with some notable exceptions in the desmids. Even here, the most distinctive feature is the dominance of Cosmarium and considerable suppression of certain other genera. Among subaerial green alage, Prasiola is important. Among blue-green algae we not the abundance of Gloeocapsa and especially of Nostoc — not in variety but of individuals. On the whole one can say that, in terms of reducing variety and abundance, freshwater algae are among the slowest of plants to respond to the repressions of the arctic climate.EA-PS. Taylor: Algae
BIBLIOGRAPHY1. Agardh, J.C. “Alger insammlade pa Grönland of Dr Sv. Barggren och P. Oberg, bestämda af Prof. J. G. Agardh. — Redogorelse för en expedition till Grönland ar 1870 af A. E. Nordenskiöld, Bilaga II,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers. Förh . vol.27, pp.1080-81, 1871.
2. ----. “Birdrag til kännedomen of Spetsbergens Alger, jemte Tilläg,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl, vol.7, no.8, pp.1-49, 1868.
3. ----. “Bidrag till kännedomen of Grőnlands Laminarieer och Fucaceer,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl . Vol.10, no.8, pp.1-31, 1872.
4. ----. Om Spetsbergens Alger . Lund, Akademisk Program, 1862.
5. Ashmead, S. “Alage. Enumeration of arctic plants collected by Dr. J. J. Hayes in his exploration of Smith’s Sound between parallels 78th and 82nd during the months of July, August and beginning of September 1861,” Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. Proc . vol.96, 1864.
6. ----. “Plants from Smith’s Sound. Alage,” Jones, T.R., Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland , London, 1875, p.255
7. Babington, C. “Lichens from Barrow and Davis Straits…alga,” Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland . 1875.
8. Bachmann, H. “Beiträge zur Algenflora des Susswassers von Westgrönland,” Nitt. Naturf, Ges. Luzern , vol.8, pp.1-181, 1921.
9. Bell, H.P. and MacFarlane, C. “Marine algae from Hudson Bay,” Contri. Canada . Biol. & Fish. Vol.8, no.3, pp.65-68, 1933.
10. Berggren, S. “Alger fran Grönlands inlandsis,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers . Förh . vol.28, no.2, pp.293-96, 1871.
11. Boldt, R. “Deamideer fran Grönland,” Ibid ., vol.13, no.3, 5, pp.1-48, 1888.
12. ----. “Grundrragen af Desmidieernas Utbredning i Norden,” Svenska Veten– skapsakad. Bihang. Handl. Vol.13, no.3,6, pp.1-110, 1887.
13. ----. “Nagra sötvattens-alger fran Grönland,” Botaniska Notiser , 1893, pp.156-8, 1893.
14. Borge, O. “Beiträge zur Algenflora von Schweden, 2. Die Algenflora um den Torne-Trasksee in Schwedish-Lappland,” Botaniska Notiser , pp.1-110, 1913.
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15. ----. “Chlorophyllophyceer fran Norska Finmarken, “Svenska Vetenskap– sakad. Bihang. Handl . Vol.17, no.3, 4, pp.1-15, 1892.
16. ----. “Die Sűsswasseralgenflora Spitsbergens,” Norske Videnskaps-Akad. Mat.-Nat. Kl. Skrifter , vol.11, pp.1-39, 1911.
17. ----. “Sűsswasseralgen von Franz Josefs-Land, gesammelt von der Jackson– Harmsworth’schen Expedition,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers . Förh . vol.56, no.7, pp.751-66, 1899.
18. ----. “Susswasserchlorophyceen gesammelt von Dr. Osw. Kihlman in nörd– lichsten Russland, Gouvernement Archangel,” Ibid . vol.19, no.3, 5, pp.1-41, 1894.
19. Børgesen, F. “Algues d’eau douce. (Sauf les Diatomees),” Ostenfeld– Hansen, C. Contribution a la Flore de l’Ile Jan Mayen, Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.21, pp.18-3221897.
20. ----. “Conspectus algarum novarum aquae dulcis, quas in insulis Fearoen– sibus invenit,” Dansk Naturhist. Foren. Medd. 1899, pp.317-66, 1899.
21. ----. “En för Faerøerne ny Laminaria,” Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.20, pp.403-5, 1896.
22. ----. “Ferskvandsalger fra østgrönland,” Medd. Grønland , vol.18, no.1, pp.479-81, 1894.
23. ----. “Freshwater algae from the ‘Danmarks-Expedition’ to North-East Greenland (N. of 76° Lat.),” Danmarks-Ekspedition til Grønlands Nordøstkyat 1906-1908. vol.3, no.3, pp.71-90, 1910.
24. ----. “Freshwater algae of the Faeroes,” Bot. of the Faeroes , based upon Danish Investigations, vol.1, pp.198-259, 1901.
25. ----. “The marine algae of the Faeroes,” Ibid ., vol.2,pp.339-532, 1902.
26. ----. “Nogle Ferskvandsalger fra Island,” Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.22, pp.131-8, 1899.
27. ----. Om Algevegetationen ved Faerøernes Kyster; en Plantegeografisk Undersøgelse . København, Acad. Diss. 1904.
28. ----, “Om et Par Smaaerhverv før Faerøerne og Island,” Atlanten , vol.2, no.14, pp.1-4, 1905.
29. ----. “Om Faerøernes Algvegetation. Et Gensvar. 1, 2,” Botaniska Notiser, 1904, pp.245-74; 1905, pp.25-56, 1904-05.
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29a. Børgesen, F., and Jonsson, H. “the distribution of the marine algae of the Arctic Sea and of the northernmost part of the Atlantic,” Botany of the Faeroes , vol.3, Appendix: I-XXVIII. Copenhagen, 1901-08.
29b. Børgesen, F., and Ostenfeld, C.H. “Phytoplankton of lakes in the Faeroes,” Ibid . vol.2, pp.558-624, 1903.
29c. Boye, P. “Bidrag til Kundskaben om Algvegetation ved Norges Vestkyst,” Bergens Mus. Arbog , 1894-1895, vol.16, pp.16-46, 1896.
29d. Brown, R. “Cryptogamic Plants from Baffins Bay,” Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland. London, 1875, p.238.
29e. ----. “On the nature of the discoloration of the Arctic Seas,” Ibid . pp.311-18.
29f. Cederkrentz, C. “Freshwater Algae from Labrador.” Soc. Fauna flor. Fenn. Memor. Vol.19, pp.216-22, 1944.
30. ----. “Sűsswasseralgen aus Petsamo,” Soc. Fauna Flor. Fenn. Memor. vol.5, pp.140-58, 1929.
31. ----. “----.” Ibid . vol.7, pp.237-48, 1932.
32. Collins, F.S. “Algae of the Neptune Expedition,” Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18. Report , vol.4, Botany, B, Marine Algae, pp.29B, 1927.
33. ----. “Bering Strait and Arctic Ocean Algae,” Ibid ., vol.4, pp.2 [: ] 1B-16B, 1927.
34. Croall, A. “Florula Discoana. Marine Algae,” Jones T.R. Manual of the Natural History … of Greenland . London, 1875, pp.276-80, 1875.
35. ----. “Marine algae,” Brown, A. The Florula Discoana. Contributions to the phytogeography of Greenland within the parallels of 68° and 70° North Latitude by R. Brown ,” Bot. Soc. Edinb. Trans . vol.9, pp.45-67, 1868.
36a ^ 35a ^ . Dall, W.H. “Arctic marine vegetation,” Nature , vol.12, p.166,1875.
36. De la Pylaie, A.J.M.B. Flore de l’Ile de Terre-Neuve et les Iles St. Pierre et Miclon . Paris, 1829.
37. ----. “Quelques observations sur les productions d’ile de Terre-Neuve, et our quelques algues de la cote de France apartenant au genre Laminaire,” Annales Sci. Nat . vol.4, pp.174-84, [: ] 1824.
38. Dickie, G. “Algae and Diatomaceae,” Nares, G.S. Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Sea during 1875-6 in H. M. Ships “Alert” and “Discovery ,” with notes on the Natural History. Edited by H.W.Feilden. London, 1878, vol.2, App.XIV, Botany , pp.323-6.
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39. ----. “Algae,” Hooker, J.B. “An account of the plants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and arctic America during the Expedition of Sir Francis M’Clintock in the yacht ‘Fox,’” Linnean Soc. J . Bot . vol.5, pp.86, 1861.
40. ----. “XXIV (VI). Florula Discoana, freshwater algae,” pp.280-83; XXIX. The Algae, In ; Flowering Plants and Algae of Greenland, Davis’ Strait and Baffin Bay, Collected by Dr. P. C. Sutherland and determined by Sir W. J. Hooker and G. Dickie M.D.,” pp.239-41; “LXXV. Arctic Algae collected in Davis strait … Captain Penny’s Expedition 1850-51,” pp.515-19; “LXXVI. On Algae col– lected in Cumberland Sound, by Mr. James Taylor, with remarks on arctic species in general,” pp.519-52; “LXXVIII. Algae, In : An Account of the Plants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and Arctic America … in the yacht ‘Fox’ by J. D. Hooker,” p.526; Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History … of Greenland . London, 1875.
41. ----. “Notes of algae collected on the coast of northwest America, by Mr. R. Brown,” Bot. Soc. Edinb. Trans . vol.9, pp.465-7, 1868.
42. ----. “Notes on a collection of algae procured in Cumberland Sound by Mr. James Taylor, and remarks on arctic species in general,” Ibid . vol.9, pp.235-43, 1867.
43. ----. “Notes on a collection of plants from the northeast shore of Lan– caster Sound,” Linnean Soc. J. Bot . vol.11, pp.34-35, 1871.
44. ----. “Notes on flowering plants and algae collected during the voyage of the ‘Isabel,’ Algae,” Inglefield, E.A. A Summer Search for Sir John Franklin; with a Pap into the Polar Basin . London, 1853, pp.140-4.
45. ----. “Notes on the algae,” Sutherland, P.C. Journal of a Voyage in Baffin’s Bay and Barrow Straits in the Years 1850-1851 . London, 1852, vol.2, pp. exci-cc.
46. ----. “On the algae found during the Arctic Expedition,” Linnean Soc. J. Bot . vol.17, pp.6-12, 1878.
47. Ehrenberg, C.G. “Über eine frische Probe der die Crimson Cliffs scharlach– roth farbenden Substanz aus der Baffin’s Bai und das begleitenden Kleinste Loben,” Akad. Wiss. Berl. Monataber , vol.741, 1851.
48. Farlow, W.G. “Alage,” p.214. In ; Wetherell, H.E. Botany. List of Plants Obtained on the Peary Auxiliary Expedition of 1894. Geogr. Club Penn. l(5), Appendix C:208-15, 1895.
49. ----. “List of algae collected at points in Cumberland Sound during the autumn of 1877. Contributions to the natural history of Arctic America made in connection with the Howgats Polar Expedition, 1877--78, by Ludwig Kumlien,” U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull . no.15, p.169, 1879.
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50. ----. “Notes on arctic algae; based principally on collections made at Ungava Bay by Mr. L. M. Turner,” Amerc. Acad. Arts Sci. Proc . vol.31, n.s. vol.13, pp.469-77, 1886.
51. Foerov, B.C. “Sur les algues d’eau douce de Novaia Zemlia,” Wissenach. Meeresinst. Ber . Vol.12, pp.13-47, 1925.
52. Foslie, M. Contributions to a Monograph of the Lithothamnia . Edited by H. Printz. Trondijem, 1929.
53. ----. “Contribution to the knowledge of the marine algae of Norway. I. East Finmarken,” Tromsø Mus. Aarsh . Vol.13, pp.1-186, 1891.
54. ----. “----. II. Species from different tracts,” Ibid . vol.14, pp.36-56, 1892.
55. ----. “The Norwegian forms of Lithothamnion,” Norske Videnskaps-Akad. Skr . 1894, pp.29-208, 1895.
56. ----. “Om nogle nye arktiske havalger,” Norske Videns Keps-Akad. Forh . 1881, vol.14, pp.1-14, 1881.
57. ----. “Remarks on Lithothamnion murmanicum ,” Ibid . 1908, vol.2, pp.1-8.
58. Gardner, G. “Liste annotee des especes de pteridophytes, de phanerogamies et d’algues recoltees sur la cote du Labrador, a la baie d’Hudson et dans le Manitoba nord, en 1930 et 1933,” Soc. Bot. Fr. Bull . vol.84, pp.19-51, 1937.
59. Gobi, C. “Die Algenflora des Weissen Meeres und der demselben zunächts– liegenden Theile des Nordlichen Eismeeres,” Akad. Nauk. Mem . Vol.26, 1878.
60. Grönblad, R. “Algen, hauptsäclich Desmidiaceen, aus dem Finnischen, Nor– wegischen und Schwedischen Lappland. Mit Berűcksichtigung der Organismen des Phytoplanktons und des Zooplantons,” Societas Fauna Flora Fenn. Acta , n.s. B, vol.11, no.5, pp.1-46, 1942.
61. ----. “Einige Desmidiaceen aus Sibirien,” Finska Vetenskaps-Soc. Commenta – tiones Biol . Vol. 1, no. 9, pp.1-9, 1924.
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