001      |      Vol_XII-0310                                                                                                                  

        Ruby Collins

November, 1948 AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA

760 wds - Text

15 wds - Bibl

        AGIAPUK RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, drains

an [ ?] rea of 700 to 800 miles north of Grantley Harbor and Imuruk Basin,

and empties into the Basin about wenty-four miles from Teller, at about

65° 12′ N.Lat., 165° 40′ W. Long.

        Rising in the limestone hills fifteen or twenty miles

northwest of Grantley Harbor, the Agiapuk flows first southward then

eastward along a lowland basin, approximately parallel with the Harbor,

for about [ ?] wenty miles to its junction with American River (q.v.), its

main tributary. American River is, in reality, larger than the Agiapuk.

Throughout the east-west part of its course, the Agiapuk drains a broad,

gravel-filled lowland, but, in the vicinity of its head [ ?] aters, the valleys

are narrow and the gravel deposits are of small extent.

        Collier gives a good description of this [ ?] lowland

section of the Agiapuk: "Having an area of about 60 square miles ... it

is dotted over with many lakes, and, from the surrounding hills, it has

the appearance of a filled lake or estuary. As they approach the plain,

the tributaries of the Agiapuk River have broad valleys and flood plains.

A mining sh [ ?] ft has been sunk on Allene Creek, one of the tributaries

from the south, and is said to have failed to reach bed rock at a depth

of 65 feet. Below a sur acelayer of gravel, blue clay containing bark

and other driftwood was found. Mammoth bones are reported to be common

within this basin."

        Previous to its confluence with American River, the

Agiapuk receives Sunrise, and North Creeks from the south, and innumerable

smaller affluents.

002      |      Vol_XII-0311                                                                                                                  
AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA

        North Creek , itself , is joined by Allene, Swanson, John, North,

Nickle, and Saturday Creeks, all of which rise in the mountains only a

few miles north of Grantley Harbor. Swanson Creek drains from the south–

eastern flank of Mukacharme Mountain, which, [ ?] with its associated hills,

forms the divide between streams flowing northward into the Agiapuk and

those flowing southward into Grantley Harbor.

        After meeting American River, the Agiapuk bends more and

more southward until it is flowing almost directly south toward Imuruk Basin.

Here the Agiapuk makes many meanders on the broad flood plain, from which

the upland rises by gentle slopes to flat-topped hills with elevations of

600 to 800 feet. For this last twenty-mile stretch, [ ?] it is joined by several

unnamed streams as well as by Mitchell, and Flat Creeks.

        Collier gives the following description of the Agiapuk in

the first decade of this century: "Being easy of access and supporting a

large Eskimo population, the Agia puk was one of the first streams of Seward

Peninsula to receive attention from prospect [ ?] rs, but up to the present time

no rich or extensive deposits of auriferous gravels have been discovered in

its basin. Colors of gold have been found in many of its tributaries and

nearly all of them have been st [ ?] ked and prospected. Small amounts of gold

have been produced on Allene Creek...In general the rocks of the Agiapuk

basin are less metamorphosed than the gold-bearing rocks in other parts

of the peninsula. They consist mainly of Silurian limestones that are re–

garded as equivalent to the Port Clarence member of the Nome group and gen–

erally have not been so productive of gold as the lower members of that

group. United States Geological Survey parties traversed part of the

Agiapuk basin in 1901, and again visited the region in 1903, but very few

prospectors were seen on either trip, though prospect holes, claim stakes,

and other evidences of white men were everywhere abundant."

003      |      Vol_XII-0312                                                                                                                  
AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA

        The Agiapuk was not destined to develop into a gold–

producing stream. As a waterway to the richer deposits on American River,

it was important in the [ ?] development of this part of Seward Peninsu–

la, but, although as late as 1930 there was a renewal of gold mining

interest along the Agiapuk, [ ?] no placers of commercial value

were ever found on it.

        Except for the scattered native population, there have

never been any settlements on the Agiapuk.

        Beechey was the first white man to record the name of

this river, which, in 1827, he wrote Agee-ee-puk. It has also been

written Ageepuk, Agiopuk, and Ahgeeapuk. The persistent last syllable,

puk, probably means big .

004      |      Vol_XII-0313                                                                                                                  

       

[ ?] AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA

        SOURCES

        U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper No.314. Plate I.

Washington, D.C., 1913.

        Collier, Arthur J., and others. Gold Placersof Parts of Seward Gold Placersof Parts of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska. Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin, No.328)

        Brooks, Alfred H., and others. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.

        Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of

Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, D.C., 1902.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington,

D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.299)

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0314                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins ALAGNAK RIVER, ALASKA

23 April 48

        150

        ALAGNAK RIVER, ALASKA (Alaganak; Aliknuk; Lockenuck), in the northern part of the Alaska

Peninsula, drains from Kukaklek and Nanwhyenuk Lakes (q.v.) between 59° and

59° 10′ N. Lat. and 155° and 156° W. Long. The Alagnak takes a

generally westerly course across the coastal lowland for about 50 miles and

joins the Kvichak River (q.v.) at its mouth just north of 59° N. Lat.

Tebenkof reported the name in 1849.

        The Alagnak is one of the many Bristol Bay rivers reported by the

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1938 to be poorly surveyed and dangerous

to navigate. These rivers are characterized by a tidal rise at the mouth

of from 15 to 24 feet, by the appearance of shoals and banks at low

tide not only at the mouth but often for [ ?] everal miles outside, and by

strong tidal currents running as high as 6 knots. Recent maps show no

settlements on the banks of the Alagnak, although there is a salmon cannery at ✓

its mouth.

Sources: VS GB; Baker; U.S.C.P & Suppl.

[ ?] in Colby; Sundborg

001      |      Vol_XII-0315                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA

        1415 wds - Text

50 wds - Bibl

        AMERICAN RIVER, sometimes called the North Fork of the Agiapuk

River (q.v.), western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, drains a large area west of

the Kougarok Basin. The American rises in the mountains about forty miles

north of Grantley Harbor (q.v.) and flows in an easterly direction for about

fifteen miles, then t [ ?] rns and flows nearly southward for about thirty more

miles to its junction with the Agiapuk. The upper reaches of the American are torrential, but, for these

last thirty miles, the river meanders torturously across a comparatively

broad, gravel-filled valley. It is navigable for small boats and canoes

for about thirty miles above the mouth.

        No ¶ The upper reaches of the American are torrential, but, for these

last thirty miles, the river meanders torturously across a comparatively

broad, gravel-filled valley. It is navigable for small boats and canoes

for about thirty miles above the mouth.

        Along its early east-west course, the American is joined by many

unnamed streams, but, starting with its southward bend, the tributaries become

larger and can be identified. The first of these is Portage Creek, coming

in from the north. This river rises in the divide separating the American

from [ ?] Shishmaref Inlet and the Arctic Ocean drainage systems. Below this

point, Burke (with its affluent Fisher Creek), Goldrun, Budd, Dome, Camp,

and Igloo Creeks enter the American from the east. Newton Creek, just north

of Camp Creek, is the only named western affluent, but there are a great many

unidentified streams entering from this direction.

        Of the eastern affluents, Budd Creek is the most complicated

and economically the most important. About fifteen miles long, it is joined,

three miles from its mouth, by Windy Creek, which itself receives Trilby

Creek a few miles above its junction with Budd. About ten miles above its

mouth Budd Creek forks, the two parts coming from the north and the south, [ ?]

their direction being determined by the strike of the bed rocks. This

south fork is called Eldorado Creek. According to Collier: "Below the forks

the creek sinks, leaving its bed dry except in times of high water. After flowing

        24

002      |      Vol_XII-0316                                                                                                                  
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA

underground for about two miles, the creek rises again in a number of

springs. This sink occurs where a massive bed of limestone, dipping downstream

at a small angle, cuts across the creek."

        Kougarok (Kugruk) Mountain rises up 2,787 feet only a few miles

from the northern headwaters of Budd Creek.

        Windy Creek enters Budd from the south about five miles from its

mouth and is it [ e ?] self about five miles long. Collier notes that "near the head

of the creek its bed contains many bowlders of greenstone, which are derived

from sills intruded in the limestone near its head. The valley of Windy Creek

is broad and gravel filled. Along the sides of the valley, back from the

creek bed, the gravel extends up the slopes, forming some well-marked gravel

benches. A cut bank of the creek shows 6 feet of muck overlying 6 feet of

gravel."

        Igloo Creek, also called Lewis Creek, enters the American only a

few miles above its junction with the Agiapuk. Again accordin g to Collier,

"this creek, like Budd Creek, flows west across the strike of the bed rock,

which, as on Budd Creek, consists of limestones, calcareous and graphitic

schists, with some intruded sills of greenstone, which are highly altered.

Like Budd Creek, Igloo Creek sinks for about a mile of its course, probably in

crossing the same bed of limestone that causes the sink on Budd Creek. In

its lower course Igloo Creek meanders over a broad flood plain, from which

the hills rise by very gentle slopes to the flat-topped upland. Practically

all of Igloo Creek and its tributaries have been staked, but little evidence

of prospecting or asse [ n ?] ssment work and no active mining was being done. (i.e.

in 1901) Colors of gold have been found on the creek, but the exact localities

are not known to the writer. Igloo Creek, except where it sinks in passing

over limestone beds, carries a large amount of water, which is ample for min–

ing the creek bed on a large scale at all seasons."

        26

003      |      Vol_XII-0317                                                                                                                  
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA

        Igloo Creek has a complex system of tributaries, including Yale,

Magnolia, Mascot, and Blackcrook from the north, and Caribou, Louisville,

Kentucky, Virginia, Ruby, and Lone Creeks from the south. A group of hills

well of over 1,000 feet high separates the headwaters of these northern tributaries

to the Igloo from the headwaters of Trilby and Dome Creeks.

        The entire course of American River lies within the permafrost zone.

The ground remains frozen the year around in the mountainous sections of the

upper river, but thaws for a few feet below the surface along the lower flats

section. This area is also beyond the timber line, but small willow and

alder, sometimes measuring only one inch thick, grow along the banks of the

more southerly streams in the system. These can be [ ?] used for fuel. The

lowland flats are, during the summer, thickly overgrown with moss, grasses,

and shrubs. These supply forage for pack animals, although summer overland

travel is very difficult because of the thick layer of h a lf-frozen mud over–

laying the frozen sub-soil.

        Here, as elsewhere on Seward Peninsula, the best weather comes dur–

ing the long, cold, dark winters. Travelling southward in August from the

Kugruk and over the divide to the headwaters of the America, Collier, in the

company of others from the U.S. Geological Survey, was held up much more by

heavy rain and fog than by the difficulties of the terrain. He mentions low

clouds and heavy fogs again and again, and then, on August 22, while in camp

on Igloo Creek, re p orts that one inch of snow fell followed by "several days

of bad weather." Describing their trip across the lowland flats, he adds, "In

places it was so marshy that the horses would have been lost but for the

solid ice which was found to overlie the moss as a depth of about 2 1/2 feet."

        Considering all this, it can be easily understood why the eraly early

miners to American Creek transported equipment almost exclusively by water

in preference to bringing it in directly overland.

        26

004      |      Vol_XII-0318                                                                                                                  
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA

Mining The first reports of gold along American and its associated rivers

appears in Brooks, who recorded that Ernest [ ?] G. Rognon, the U.S.

Commissioner for the Port Clarence Mining District at Teller, knew of strikes

on Budd and [ ?] Burke Creeks in September, 1900. Brooks adds: "Since then

there have been rumors of further discoveries in this drainage basin. Colors

are said to be found on many other creeks. What little information we cou [ ?] d

gather about [ ?] the bed rock would lead us to believe that the same rock se [ ?] ies

occurs on the Agiapuk that is found on the Kugruk. What we know of the trend

of the beds on both sides of this basin would tend to confirm t is view. If

the region becomes a gold producer, it will be found to be easily accessible

from Port Clarence either by boat or by pack train."

        Collier, who [ ?] rev isited this region in 1901, writes as follows: " [ ?] long

the upper parts of Budd Creek many claims have been staked, and assessment work,

consisting of prospect pits and c or ro sscut ditches, has been done in a number of

places. Windy Creek is staked by one company for about 3 miles of its length.

No prospectors were seen on Budd Creek or its tributaries, and no active mining

has been done. This creek carries sufficient water for sluicing, except at the

places where it sinks in passing over limestone. The same is true of Windy

Creek, the large southern tributary."

        But this early [ ?] show of promise was not destined to develop into

anything significant. After a brief mention, in 1908, of a ditch on Windy

Creek, American River and its tributaries drop out of the story of gold

mining on Seward Peninsula until about 1929, when one company again investigated

the value of the deposits on that stream. These could not have been hopeful

since the creek does not again appear in the mining history of this part of

Alaska.

        Due, no doubt, to the failure of prospectors to find gold in

        25

005      |      Vol_XII-0319                                                                                                                  
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA

paying quantities anywhere along American River, no settlements have ever

grown up on its banks or on any of its tributaries.

        There is now a winter trail running from Teller across Grantley

Harbor and so overland to American River and northward to Shishmaref Inlet.

Via Teller, points on American River are connected with Nome and other towns

on the coast of Norton Sound, with Tin City, and with Shelton, on the [ ?] uzitrin,

from which places trails run northward to Kotzebue Sound. There is an 800-foot

landing strip on Windy Creek, but no other airplane facilities in the Americ [ ?] n

River system.

006      |      Vol_XII-0320                                                                                                                  
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA

        Sources

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton

Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, 1901.

        Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,

1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 314)

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin

No.328)

        Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska. Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Surv [ ?] y.

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.299)

        U.S. Geological Survey. Alaskan Mineral Resources Alaskan Mineral Resources , 1907. Washington, 1908.

001      |      Vol_XII-0321                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins 1,755 wds-Text ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

February, 1949

        50 wds-Bibl.

        ANIKOVIK RIVER (Anakovik) western Seward Peninsula, Ala ks sk a,

empties into Bering Sea a few miles west of Cape York and south of Cape Prince

of Wales.

        Of the section of coast enclosing the Anikovik, Captain F.W.

Beechey wrote, in 1827: "To the southward of Cape Prince of Wales the coast

trends nearly due east, and assumes a totally different character to that which

leads to Schismareff Inlet, being bounded by steep rocky cliffs, and broken by

deep valleys, while the other is low and swampy ground. The river called

by the natives Youp-nut (the present Anikovik) must lie in one of these valleys;

and in all probability it is in that which opens out near a bold promontory,

to which I have given the name of York, in honour of his late Royal Highness.

On nearing that part of the coast we found the water more shallow than usual."

        Lutke recorded the name of this river as the Up-nut, but, since

Brooks' U.S. Geological Survey report of 1900, this the Eskimo name has, with great

consistency, retained its present form.

        The Anikovik rises in the York Mountains about fifteen miles from

the coast, leaves these mountains by a westerly course and then flows almost

directly south into the sea. Throughout the greater part of its length it

flows across the York Plateau, in which it has cut a comparatively broad

valley. The lower river has a broad , flat flood plain from one hundred y ards

to one-half a mile in width. The gravels here measure several feet deep

and from two to three hundred feet wide.

        Writing in 1900, Brooks remarks: "In the upper part of its course

the river flows in greenstones, but below its bend to the south it cuts the

phyllites and slates which have already been referred to. It carries colors

for the lower 10 miles of its course, but no paying claims have yet been devel–

oped on it. On some claims about 2 miles from the sea a little prospecting has

been done, and it is claimed that the yields show 10 to 15 cents to the pan.

        26

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0322                                                                                                                  

       

VILHJALMUR STEFANSSON

67 MORTON STREET

NEW YORK 14

002      |      Vol_XII-0323                                                                                                                  
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

The nugge st ts are sometimes chunky and sometimes flat. The former are probably

from the quartz-calcite blebs and the latter from the mineralized slates. The

gold is usually rounded and well polished. Much magnetite occurs with the gold.

A rough estimate of the fall of Anakovik River makes it about 15 to 18 feet

per mile."

        The main tributaries to the Anikovik are Ishut, Buhner, and Deer

Creeks from the west, and Moonlight, Banner, and Flat Creeks from the east.

72

        Gold

Mining

        Estimating the gold-bearing potentials of these streams, Brooks

felt that the basin-shaped valley of the upper Ishut, Buhner, and

Deer Creeks offered the best pooepots prospects , since they all ran over bed-rock slates

which had proved to be mineralized elsewhere in the district. The original

discovery of coarse gold in the York district was made on Buhner Creek, but at

the time of Brooks' report (1900) little prospecting had been done there.

Collier reports, in 1901, that the entire season for that year probably produced

only about $200 in gold.

        In 1903, only one party of prospectors mined the gravels of the

river and they earned only $600 for one month's work. About half a mile from

the coast, the river water was diverted by a ditch so that the river bed was

exposed. The gravels here contained small amounts of gold, but could have be en

worked profitably only by a large company owning several [ ?] miles of

river-bed.

        Nothing more is heard of the Anikovik placers until 1914, when

the American Gold Dredging Company put two dredges there and operated for both

tin and gold at the same time. One of these dredges had formerly been used

on Peluk Creek, near Nome. After being towed along the shore of Bering Sea

to the mouth of the Anikovik, it d ug its own way across the bar and into the

river. But gold was never to prove a large source of income in this part of

Seward Peninsula. Here, contrary to other districts on all sides, tin becamse promised to become

25

003      |      Vol_XII-0324                                                                                                                  
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

the most important product.

        Tin

Mining It was Alfred H. Brooks, while on a U.S. Geological Survey recon–

naissance of Seward Peninsula, in 1900, who first recognized

evidences of stream tin (cassiterite) on Buhner Creek and Anikovik River.

This tin, ignored by the prospectors in the region, was found associated with

the gold in these two streams. With characteristic modesty and caution, Brooks

remarks, "It is worth while to call the attention of the prospectors and miners

to the desirability of being on the lookout for stream tin, and, if possible,

of tracing it [ ?] to its source in the bed rock. From the description of the

occurrence which has been given it is plain that its source can not be far

distant."

        When Collier visited this region during the summer of 1901, the

prospectors had only just receive d the bulletin in which Brooks described his

findings. Up to this time they had ignored this heavy metal which they found

associated with garnets, magnetite, and gold in the sluice boxes. Subsequent

to Collier's departure , considerable prospecting for tin was done with the result

that it was found on the Anikovik and all its tributaries, as well as on

Baituk Creek and other streams flowing into Bering Sea. It was also found

on Grouse, Buck, Yankee, Mint, and other waterw a ys flowing northward from the

other side of the York Mountains into the Arctic Ocean.

        Collier explains the presence of tin in these streams in the

following manner: "The region about York in which the Anikovik River and other

tin-bearing streams are located has, in recent geologic time, been reduced to

a plain, possibly in part by wave action and in part by subaerial erosion. At

this time a considerable thickness of rock strata was undoubtedly removed by

erosive agencies, and the heavier constituents of these rock masses must have

been more or less concentrated upon the plain surve surface . Subsequent to this base–

leveling the York p lain has been elevated to a plateau, which has been dissected

26

004      |      Vol_XII-0325                                                                                                                  
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

by the creeks and rivers of the region. That t he elevation of this plateau

is an occur r ence of comparatively recent geologic time is shown by the fact

that the smaller creeks flow in sharply cut V-shaped canyons, and have scarcely

begun to broaden their valleys. As these valleys and canyons are developed,

the heavier materials of the surface are naturally reconcentrated in them. If

during the base-leveling period the heavier concentrates of the erosive agencies

were transported to any extent from their original sources, and if they are again

concentrated in subsequent creek beds, they may be found removed some distance

from their original sources. It is possible that the rocks from which they came

may in some instances have been wholly removed, leaving no evidence in the present

bed rock to show what they may have been.

        "Waterworn pebbles and bowlders of [ ?] gabbroic greenstone of the

type which forms large masses about the head of the Anikovik River are common

in the beds of the Anikovik River and Grouse Creek. These bowlders are frequent

along Buhner Creek, where the tin was first found. No rock of this character

has been found in the bed rock within the Buhner Creek Basin, or indeed within

5 miles of Buhner Creek. There is no evidence that these bowlders were trans–

ported to their present place otherwise than by being rolled along with currents

of water. The possibility of their being floated on shore ice at some time of

submergence must be considered. The wide distribution of the stream tin in

this region, together with the fact that pebbles and bowlders of known origin

have been widely distributed independently of the present drainage, suggest

at least that the original source of the stream tin may be some distance from

the present deposits, and is not necessarily to be found within the present

drainage of the streams where it occurs. Acid igneous intrusions, such as

Cassiterite veins, are usually associated with, are found in Cape Mountain and

Brooks Mountain. The slates of Brooks Mountain have suffered great metamor–

phism. The York River, which is reported to be very rich in tin, heads in this

mountain and carries granite pebbles and bowlders, which suggests that the tin

28

005      |      Vol_XII-0326                                                                                                                  
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

had its origin near the granite contact. The wide distribution of this mineral

in the creeks of the York district justified the belief that the veins from

which it is derived will yet be discovered."

        With the discovery of lode tin on Cassiterite Creek, in 1903,

interest in tin mining grew. Much prospecting and mining were done throughout

the York district. By 1905 a reported 130 tons of tin ore concentrates had been

shipped to the States. These concentrates averaged 65% tin, or 1,300 pounds

of tin to the ton. With tin selling at 29-30 cents per pound at that time,

the value of these shipments can easily be estimated. However, the cost of

transporting them Outside and, in several instances, to Europe, plus the cost of

smelting, probably ate up most of the profit. Although the United States was and is the

largest consumer of tin in the world, this was the first discovery of that

metal in the United States or its possessions with the result that smelters

in the United States were not equipped for reducing tin ores. This lack of

smelting equipment worked an early hardship on the new industry and has con–

tinued to do so ever since.

        In 1905, Harrison wrote: "Considered in the light of all available

data I believe that tin mining in Seward Peninsula is a very promising industry.

Any person [ ?] familiar with quartz mining knows that a great deal of expense is

connected with the development of ledges, and money nust be expended in order to

develop the tin ledges of this part of Alaska. Transportation facilities

must be provided so that the ores can be transported from the mines to the sea–

board, and thence to a smelter conveniently and favorably situated. It is the

general opinion that this smelter should be const ur ru cted somewhere on Puget

Sound. The large quantity of fuel required for smelting ores makes it apparent

that the tin ore can be concentrated and the concentrates shipped to a smelter

on Puget Sound and reduced there at a less cost than fuel [ ?] can be shipped to

Alaska and used by a smelter to secure the same results at the mines. The

27

006      |      Vol_XII-0327                                                                                                                  
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

development of the tin mines of Alaska is simply a question of time and the

intelligent use of capital."

        For an explanation of the failure of these high hopes for the

Alaskan tin industry see the article on Tin City York mountains.

3

007      |      Vol_XII-0328                                                                                                                  
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No. 299)

Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait .

London, 1831.

Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on Progress Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on Progress

of Investigations in 1914 of Investigations in 1914 . Washington, 1915. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin 622 Bulletin 622 )

Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton

Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, 1901.

Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska. Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, 1905.

001      |      Vol_XII-0329                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins ANIUK RIVER, ALASKA

May, 1949

350 wds

        ANIUK RIVER, northwestern Alaska, one of the major northern

tributaries to the Noatak (q.v.), heads in the vicinity of Howard Pass, in

the Brooks range, and flows in a generally southwesterly direction to the

Noatak.

        Many of the tributary valleys of the Aniuk have the open U–

shaped formations typical of valleys previously occupied by glaciers.

        Fauna Creek, one of the early tributaries to the Aniuk, rises

on the south side of a 4,680-foot peak in the Range, and the first several

miles of the main river pass [ ?] between mountains attaining ever higher

elevations that this. Soon, however, the Aniuk plunges down upon the broad

lowland , to which it gives its name , and across which it works a widely

meandering course for about twenty-five miles. Many travelers have note d

that the Aniuk adds a large amount of clear water to the Noatak.

        The entire lowland section and all but the steepest and

highest parts of the mountainous section of the Anuik [ ?] valley are

covered with an unbroken growth of grasses, sedges, mosses, lichens, and stunted

bushes. Where this growth is thick, it retards the thawing of the underlying

permafrost layer (q.v.) and absorbs great quantities of moisture. Thereby

is formed the spongy cushion of low-growing vegetation so characteristic

of arctic and sub-arctic regions. Summer travel across such terrain is accutely

exhausting since, with every step, the entire foot and sometimes much of the

leg punches through the surface growth and into the underlying half-frozen

gravels beneath.

        Although the winter trails which lace most of Alaska do not

reach up the Noatak and its tributaries, the pass, mentioned above, from the

headwaters of the Aniuk to the Ipnavik, a tributary to the Colville (q.v.),

is much used by the Eskimos living on both sides of the Brooks R ange.

002      |      Vol_XII-0330                                                                                                                  
ANIUK RIVER, ALASKA

Stoney mentions a settlement on the Aniuk, named for the river, but this

would seem to have disappeared sometime during the last fifty years.

        References:

        Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska . Washington,

1930.(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)

        Smith, P.S. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska . Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 536)

        Stoney, G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.

001      |      Vol_XII-0331                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins 120 wds ARCTIC LAGOON, ALASKA

February, 1949

        ARCTIC LAGOON, on the northwestern shore of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska, appears as such on Gibson's 1908 map of the Peninsula, but is uniden–

tified on more recent maps.

        This shallow body of water, which is separated from the Arctic Polar

Ocean Sea by a narrow sandspit, receives many of the streams in the northern

drainage system of the York Mountains. These include the Pinauk, Nuluk, and

Kugrupaga rivers (q.v.), and Trout Creek. Several other tributaries to this

lagoon are unnamed.

        The lagoon, which lies between Lopp Lagoon and Shish [ ?] maref Inlet,

is about twenty-four miles long and about four miles wide at the widest greatest . The

Eskimo village of Sinrazat lies on the sandspit at a point where it is

interrupted, a few miles from the northern end of the lagoon.

Source: Gibson, Arthur. Map of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Nome, Alaska, 1908.

001      |      Vol_XII-0332                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins AROLIC RIVER, ALASKA

July, 1948

        456 wds

        AROLIC RIVER, southewestern Alaska, enters Kuskokwim Bay via

two channels, North Mouth and South Mouth, about midway along the

eastern side of the bay just north of 59° 40′ N. Lat.

        The Arolic is formed by the junction of two streams, South Fork

and East Fork. South Fork is fed by streams rising in a chain of peaks

of the Ahklun Mountains which forms the divide between its waters and

those of the Goodnews River. South Fork receives many unnamed tribu–

taries all along its course which trends northward along the valley

east of Island Mountain and so to its junction with East Fork. This

fork drains from a mountain lake which lies in the Ahklun Range at about

59° 25′ N. Lat., [ ?] 161° W. Long. and trends in a westerly direction

for about 8 miles. to its [ ?] confluence with South Fork. A few miles

south of this junction Dear and Fox Creeks enter from the south,

and in the same vicinity an unnamed tributary, fed by Tyone, Keno, and

Flat Creeks, which rise in the vicinity of Thumb Mountain, and another

shorter stream, Snow Creek, enter from the north.

        Another group of streams in the Arolic system flows down from

the eastern slopes of the chain formed by Figure Four Mountain, Yoke Moun–

tain, and Yukon Hill, just east of Jacksmith Bay (q.v.). These, from

south to north are: Domingo, Lucky, McLane, Red Lodger, Canyon,

Minnesota, and Boulder Creeks. These flow in a generally northeasterly

direction to the stream which trends northward along the valley floor to

join the Arolic about 5 miles southeast of Yukon Hill. Another group

of streams rises in the vicinity of Island Mountain on the eastern

side of the valley. These from south to north are: Faro, Dry, Kowkow,

Trail, and Butte Creeks, all of which flow in a generally northwesterly

direction to the main river of the valley.

002      |      Vol_XII-0333                                                                                                                  
AROLIC RIVER, ALASKA

        After this junction the Arolic receives no tributaries and flows

in a northwesterly direction for about 8 miles at which point it

divides and follows two channels, North Mouth and South Mouth, to

Kuskokwim Bay. South Mouth, for part of its length, itself divides

in two, but it joins again about two miles from the bay. Measuring

from the confluence of South and East Forks the Arolic is about 30

miles long.

        Since the discovery of gold near Butte Creek in 1900

small-scale mining has been carried on in the vicinity north of Island

Mountain. In 1939 the Goodnews Bay Mining Co. transferred a dragline

from Platinum Creek, Goodnews Bay, to an unspecified point near

Butte Creek on the Arolic River. Wilson & Horner [ ?] were reported in

1947 to be working a gold placer, with a crew of four, on Canyon Creek.

        The only settlement on the river is Arolic on the North Mouth

near the Bay.

        --------------------

Sources: Tewkesbury; VSGB

° in Baker; USCP; Colby

001      |      Vol_XII-0334                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA

March, 1949

Text-1,355

Bibl-100

        BALDWIN PENINSULA is an irregular extension of the northwest–

ern part of Alaska separating Selawik Lake and Hotham Inlet from Kotzebue

Sound, an arm of the Polar Sea.

        This peninsula is nine or ten miles wide at the point at which

it leaves the mainland. About fifteen miles northwest of this point the pen–

insula forms Atti [ n ?] nuk Point, the southern entrance point in to Selawik Lake, (q.v.)

while at the same time the southern side of the peninsula forms the northern

shoreline of Eschscholtz Bay (q.v.) In this vicinity, A a finger-like extension of the southern side

of the peninsula at this point is called Choris Peninsula, which extends

southward toward Chamisso Island (q.v.) and separat ing es Eschscholtz Bay from

Kotzebue Sound. Here the main body of the peninsula resembles an isosceles

triangle, but almost immediately the apex of this triangle stretches northwest–

ward in a thin neck of land which, after about fourteen miles, widens to form

the square, club-like head of the peninsula. Th is e head is about nineteen

miles long and about twelve miles wide at the greatest. The final two-thirds

of the peninsula forms the southern shoreline of Hotham Inlet, and the

northern shoreline of Kotzebue Sound.

        The promontories on the head of the peninsula are: Pipe Spit,

near the entrance to Hotham Inlet; and Nimiuk Point, about midway of the

northen side of the peninsula; and Cape Blossom on the Kotzebue Sound,

side, approximately opposite Nimiuk Point.

        Throughout it area Baldwin Peninsula is spattered with

tiny lakes and laced with equally small streams.

        Choris Peninsula has two 300-foot hills separated by a low,

sandy neck of land. For some distance N n orthward of this point, Baldwin Peninsula is low

but then rises into low bluffs. These bluffs, which continue across to

Hotham Inlet, are the most unusual feature of the peninsula, since they are

002      |      Vol_XII-0335                                                                                                                  
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA

composed of ice and frozen mud. The bluffs are gradually melting and sliding

down into the Inlet. The bluffs on the Kotzebue Sound side of the Peninsula

are highest in the vicinity of Cape Blossom, where a flashing light is shown

from a small white house about 200 feet above the water.

        Capt. F.W. Beechey, R. N., in H.M.S. Blossom , explored this

part of Alaska in September, 1826. He named this promontory after his ship.

After examining the icy bluffs in the vicinity of the cape, he wrote:

        "In another excursion which I made along the north side of the sound [ Kotzebue

Sound ] , I landed at a cape which had been named after the ship, and had the

satisfaction of examining an ice formation of a similar nature to that in

Escholtz Bay, only more extensive, and having a contrary aspect. The ice

here, instead of merely forming a shield to the cliff, was imbedded in the

indentations along its edge, filling them up nearly even with the front. A

quantity of fallen earth was accumulated at the base of the cliff, which

uniting with the earthy spaces intervening between the beds of ice, might lead

a person to imagine that the ice formed the cliff, and supported a soil two or

three feet thick, part of which appeared to have been precipitated over the

brow. But on examining it above, the ice was found to be detached from the

cliff at the back of it; and in a few instances so much so, that there were

deep chasms between the two. These chasms are no doubt widened by the tendency

the ice must have towards the edge of t h e cliff; and I have no doubt the beds

of ice are occasionally loosened, and fall upon the beach, where, if they are

not carried away by the sea, th e y become covered with the earthy materials

from above, and perhaps remain some time immured. In some places the cliff was

undermined, and the surface in general was very rugged; but it was evident in

this as in the former instance, that the ice was lodged in hollow places in

the cliff. While we continued here we had an example of the manner in which

the face of the cliff might obtain an icy covering similar to that in Escholtz

003      |      Vol_XII-0336                                                                                                                  
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA

Bay. There had been a sharp frost during the night, which froze a number of

small streams that were trickling down the face of the cliff, and cased those

parts of it with a sheet of ice, which, if the oozings from the cliff and the

freezing process were continued, would without doubt form a thick coating to

it.

        "Upon the beach, under the cliffs, there was an abundance of

drift birch and pine wood, among which there was a fir-tree three feet in

diameter. This tree, and another, which by the appearance of its bark had

been recently torn up by the roots, had been washed up since our visit to this

spot in July; but from whence they came we could not even form a conjecture, as

we frequently remarked the absence of fl o ating timber both in the sound and

in the strait."

        In contradiction to Beechey's findings, is the statement

from the report of the 1881 cruise of the Corwin , under Captain C. L. Hooper,

which reads in part: "Cape Blossom is the northwestern termination of the

peninsula between Hotham Inlet and Seolowick [ Selawik ] Lake on one side and

Kotzebue Sound on the other. It presents seaward a sheer cliff, which was

described by Beechey as having an ice formation similar to that at Elephant

Point, to be described hereafter. Although I visited this place several times

during my two cruises, yet I saw no signs of ice against the face of the cliff

like that at Elephant Point, which remains the same from year to year. Cape

Blossom is highest at its western extremity and gradually becomes lower to the

eastward, until it forms only a low narrow neck, across which the natives easily

draw their boats. To the northwest of the cape a shoal extends eight miles

from the shore, and as it shoals up suddenly inside the seven-fathom curve,

it is [ ?] very dangerous and should be approached, even in clear weather,

with great caution."

004      |      Vol_XII-0337                                                                                                                  
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA

        There must have been some kind of ice formation in this area,

however, for as late as 1901, Mendenhall gives what he feels is the definitive

explanation of these cliffs: "Many writers since Kotzebue have discussed the

origin of these ice cliffs, but the explanation given by Mr. L. M. Turner,

Messrs. E. W. Nelson and C. L. Hooper, and Prof. I.C. Russell seems to be

entirely adequate. It is that many of the numerous lakelets scattered about

over the tundra are gradually buried by the advance of their mossy borders

toward the center. After their burial they are frozen, as is the entire tundra,

a few inches below its surface and are later revealed by lateral river cutting,

as in the Kowak delta, or by the work of waves, as at Elephant Point, and

appear as masses of comparatively clear ice in the general deposit of frozen

mud, sands, and vegetable matter."

        Kotzebue (q.v.), the only named town on Baldwin Peninsula,

occupies very nearly the same site as the former native settlement of

Kikiktak Kikiktak , which Stoney recorded as Ki-ra-targ-ga-roak Ki-ra-targ-ga-roak in 1886. As early

as 1880 , this settlement had a known summer population of two hundred or more,

and has remained an important trading and distribution point ever since.

        The coast northward from Cape Blossom to the mouth of

Hotham Inlet is still the summer gathering place for the natives of this

entire region. For the purpose of trading and fishing they come down the

major rivers of the mainland on the east, from as far west as Cape Prince

of Wales, the Diomedes, and King Island, and from as far north as Point

Hope, one hundred and fifty miles up the coast of the Polar Sea.

        A northern [ ?] branch of the winter trail around Norton

Sound and across Seward Peninsula connects Baldwin Peninsula with settlements

to the south. Branches of this trail lead eastward up the Kobuk River, and

northward along the Polar Sea to Barrow.

        Several herds of reindeer graze on Baldwin Peninsula,

and meat in any quantity may be obtained there.

005      |      Vol_XII-0338                                                                                                                  
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No. 299)

Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ...

in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ...

in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28. London, 1831. 2v.

Hooper, C.L. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas Corwin,

in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas Corwin,

in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 . Washington, 1884.

Mendenhall, W.C. Recon n aissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska Recon n aissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska .

Washington, 1902. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional

Paper No.10)

Stoney, G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.

United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II . 5th (1947) edition. Washington,

1947.

VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0339                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BATTLE LAKE, ALASKA

22 April 48

        60 w

        BATTLE LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern section of the Alaska Peninsula,

is a narrow, spoon-shaped lake, about 9 miles long, lying in a valley southeast

of Lake Kukaklek (q.v.) and about 5 or 6 miles north of Lake Kulik (q.v.), near

59° N. Lat. and 155° W. Long. Battle Lake is surrounded on all sides by

mountains 2,000 to 3,000 feet high from which several small stream flows into

the lake.

Sources: VS GB: Baker; Aeronautical Chart No.136

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0340                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BECHAROF LAKE, ALASKA

21 April 48

        220

        BECHAROF LAKE, ALASKA (Becharoff, Betchareff, Bocharof, Bochonoff)

the largest lake on the Alaska Peninsula, extends northwest-southeast across

58° N. Lat. from about 155° 55′ to 156° 53′ W. Long. The lake is roughly

rectangular in shape except for a tail-like extension from its southeastern

corner. The main body of the lake is about 15 miles wide and 36 miles long,

to which the southeastern extension adds approximately 19 miles of varying

widths. Severson Peninsula extends about 7 miles straight into the lake from

its southeastern shore, leaving only a two-mile entrance to the southern

arm. The farthest tip of this arm is only a scant five miles from Portage

Bay, Shelikof Strait, on the northeastern side of the Alaska Peninsula. The

Kejulik River has its source in the mountains northeast of Becharof Lake.

It follows a winding, southwesterly course, and is fed by Gas Creek,

Margaret Creek, Catrine Creek, and several unnamed tributaries. Kejulik

River runs into the eastern and of Becharof Lake just above Severson Peninsula.

The Egegik River (q.v.) drains from the northwestern end of the lake. A

winter trail connecting Kanatak (q.v.), on Portage Bay, with Egegik, Naknek,

and Koggiung (q.v.), on Kvichak Bay, runs along the south shore of

Becharof Lake.

        Becharof Lake was named after a master in the Russian Navy who was

at Kodiak Island in 1788.

Sources: Baker; U.S.C.P.: VS GB

+ suppl

001      |      Vol_XII-0341                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BESBORO ISLAND

August, 1948

        192 w. Text

25 Bibl

        Besboro Island, Norton Sound, about 11 miles off the

west coast of Alaska, is really the top of a mountain protruding 1,012

feet above the sound. Although the western side of western side of

the island is bold-to, a shoal extends for about two miles in a

northeasterly direction from the northern end. Sailing south from

Cape Denbigh, Captain James Cook, who named this island, was

deflected by this same shoal on September 17, 1778. "At seven we

were abreast of Besborough Isle," wrote Ellis, assistant surgeon to

the Cook expedition, "between which and the main we proposed going,

but in the space of ten minutes we shoaled our water from ten to four

fathoms and a quarter, so of course tacked ship and stood SW our distance

form the island being three-quarters of a mile s ." In 1870 Dall reported:

"When the snow melts and the ice goes out of the small rivers ...

myriads of water-fowl arrive, and breed on the steep cliffs of

Besboro Island." There are no settlements on Besboro Island, but

it is an important landmark, since it can be seen from St. Mich ea ae l

Island (q.v.) on a clear day.

192 wds

        Ellis, W. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and

Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,

and 1780; in search of a North-West Passage. and 1780; in search of a North-West Passage. London,

G. Robinson, 1782.

        Dall. Alaska and its resources. Alaska and its resources. Boston, Lee & Shepard, 1870.

U.S.C.P. & Suppl.

50 wds bibl.

001      |      Vol_XII-0342                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BETHEL, ALASKA

14 July 1948

        BETHEL, ALASKA, about 65 miles up the Kuskokwim River, is

the center of trading, religious, and education al activities for the entire

lower Kuskokwim Valley. It was founded in 1885 as a Moravian Mission by

William H. Weinland and John H. Kilbuck.

        Bethel, with a reported 376, but an estimated population of 450,

of [ ?] which about one-third is white and two-thirds are Eskimo, is the

metropolis for this section of Alaska. During the summer season of naviga–

tion freight and passenger vessels make regular trips between Seattle and

Bethel. Bethel is the head of deep water navigation up the Kuskokwim

and therefore the point at which cargoes are transferred to lighters for

the remainder of their journey to Akiak, Napamiute, Sleitmut and McGrath,

to name only a few of the many towns and villages along the more than 500–

mile course of the Kuskokwim. Bethel has one lighterage and two river

transportation companies to handle this traffic , but T the airplane however

is fast replacing this slower method of freighting. Bethel has a new two

✓ airfields , a 2,800 - foot airfield on the town on west side of the river and a 5,000–

foot hand-surfaced landing area on the east side directily across from the town Bethel receives

airmail service from Anchorage, and mail, express, and

passenger air service from Fairbanks. There are two post office s one

a third-class Government office and another run by the U.S. Army.

Regular mail deliveries arrive monthly by way of the Yukon and Holy Cross

Mission. From the Mission it is carried over the Portage to the Kuskokwim

and then down the Kuskokwim in small boats as far as Kinak on the west

side of the mouth. The Alaska Communications System of the U.S. Army

maintains a telegraph and radio station in Bethel, several airlines

maintain radio stations, and, in [ ?] 1940, the Moravian Mission Orphanage

was operating station KEP. Despite the fact that swamps and marshes border

both sides of the lower Kuskokwim, Bethel is connected by road with

Tuluksak, 40 miles up the river, and with Kwinhagek, 90 miles to the south,

002      |      Vol_XII-0343                                                                                                                  
BETHEL, ALASKA

at the mouth of the Kanektok River (q.v), Kuskokwim Bay.

        The Moravian Mission runs an orphange which housed 33 children

in 1947 and maintains a training school each year from January 1 to

March 15. In December, 1947, there were at least three members serving

the mission. This mission owns a reindeer herd which, in 1942, was

estimated to have increased beyond 4,000 head. Bethel also has a

Native school, a Territorial school, a modern $250,000 Government

hospital for Natives, and a resident Deputy Marshal.

        The chief activities of the area are fishing, fur trading, and

placer gold mining. In 1947 Bethel had 5 licensed fur dealers and one

fur farmer. That same year three companies, Marvel Creek Mining Co.,

Peandori Placer Mining Co., and Wilson & Horner were operating gold

placers on Marvel, Cripple, and Canyon Creeks, respectively. These

streams lie southeast of Bethel between it and the most northerly of

the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.). The placers are equipped with draglines,

bulldozers, and hydraulics. Marvel Creek Mining Co. operated during 1945

although many other mines throughout Alaska shut down during World War II

because of the shortage and the high cost of labor.

        Bethel is seriously endangered by the storms which accompany the

spring break - up each year. These storms cause the [ ?] Kuskokwim to erode

its banks at the Mission end of the town. In 1947 the river cut into

the graveyard, opened graves , and caskets, and carried away bodies.

A store and several houses have been moved away from the banks along

Front Street, but the Territorial and Federal Schools, and the airport

are threatened unless more permanent protective measures are taken. Nels

Anderson, Chairman of the Bethel Chamber of Commerce, recommended in 1939

that the entire town be moved back from the river to higher ground. In

1946 this had not yet been done, and the Deputy Marshal, although

003      |      Vol_XII-0344                                                                                                                  
BETHEL, ALASKA

approving the idea, explained that since the town lay between the river

and a swamp, the evacuation would be extremely difficult. In February,

1947, Bethel citizens were recommending that a road be built over this

swamp before the spring breakup and the entire town moved to the ridge

beyond it, a safe mile from the river. This mass movement would have

been easier before Bethel had reached its present proportions. By

1947 the town had two private air carriers, 6 general stores, 2 liquor

stores, 3 restaurants, a water, light, and power company, a theater,

bakery, book dealer, and billiard parlor. Provisions and gasoline may

be obtained in the town as well as limited supplies of coal although

the price of coal is very high. Because of the number and size of the

reindeer herds in the vicinity, deer meat is available and reasonably

priced.

        The territory around Bethel is swamp and treeless tundra.

Caribou abound and hundreds of thousands of geese and ducks of many

varieties breed in the lake-studded area northwest of the town. The

peninsula between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon Rivers is

the breeding ground for the game fowl not only of western Alaska but also

of western Canada and the United States.

        The weather is characterized by a high relative humidity,

strong winds, a comparatively light snowfall and temperatures ranging

from the mid-seventies to the sub-zero fifties. The following chart

reproduces in part the 1947 U.S. Weather Bureau Report for Bethel:

        --------------------

Sources: VSGB; USCP; Tewkesbury; Colby; Sundborg; Annabel; Tuttle

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0345                                                                                                                  

       

Bethel Weather Report -1947 T-Trace

       

	Temp. of the Air	Mean Relative Humidity	l Precipitation Tota in Inches	Wind	Clear Days	Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days	Snow fall Total in Inches
Maximum Velocity	Aver. Hourly Velocity MPH	Prevailing Direction.
Max.	Date	Min.	Date	MPH	Direct.
Jan.	36°	5	ࢤ52°	25	87	2.10	-	-	10.5	N	16	15	20.2
Feb.	47°	8	ࢤ45°	2	83	0.34	-	-	12.4	NE	11	17	2.9
Mar.	39°	18	ࢤ27°	13	84	14.00	24	NE	0.8	NE	11	20	1.5
Apr.	49°	27	ࢤ4°	-	85	0.13	-	34	-	10.2	N	8	22
May.	74°	31	21°	1	77	0.62	34	-	8.6	S	0	31	2.3
June.	73°	17	37°	2	76	2.64	40	-	8.9	S	0	30	0
July.	75°	19	42°	11	86	2.23	-	-	9.3	S	2	29	0
Aug.	No Report
Sept.	56°	10	25°	25	82	1.52	40	S	10.0	NW	2	28	T
Oct.	52°	6	6°	19	87	0.95	34	-	11.0	NE	3	28	4.9
Nov.	45°	21	ࢤ5°	16	94	1.32	38	-	11.0	NE	2	28	9.2
Dec.	38°	3	ࢤ26°	29	92	0.83	36	-	10.2	NE	3	28	4.5

001      |      Vol_XII-0346                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA

November, 1948

        1,000 wds-Text

50 wds - Bibl

        BLUESTONE RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Al a ska, was the site of

an initially rich but later disappointing gold strike in 1900, and was

named by Barnard, of the U.S. Geological Survey, that same year.

        The Bluestone rises south of Grantley Harbor (q.v.) and southeast

of Port Clarence (q.v.), in a basin-shaped valley in the foothills of

the Kigluaik Mountains, and flows in a generally northeasterly direction

to Tuksuk Channel. This is the channel which connects Grantley Harbor with

Imuruk Basin (q.v.).

        From the one thousand-foot heights overlooking the Bluestone

Basin, several small streams flow down into the Bluestone. Travelling

down-stream these are: Alder, Right Fork, Ruby, Lucky Strike, Leroy, and

Gold Creeks.

        Right Fork is joined by Ring, Eagle, and Windy Creeks. None of

these streams is more than ten miles long, and [ ?] most of them are consider–

ably shorter.

        Brooks points out that, while the small streams in this vicinity

have comparatively straight valleys, the larger waterways, of which the

Bluestone is a good example, twist and turn most unexpectedly. "The

Bluestone," he continues, "... flows through a broad, flat valley nearly

east, then turning northward at an angle of 80° continues in this direct–

tion with the same character of the valley for about 4 miles, then, turn–

ing northeasterly, enters a narrow rock canyon. On emerging from the

canyon, about 5 miles below, it enters a broad valley again, and after

two more right-angle bends flows into Tisuk [Tuksuk] Channel. These irregularities [ ?]

[ ?] ... are due...to change of

drainage."

002      |      Vol_XII-0347                                                                                                                  
BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA

        In 1900, Brooks, continues, reported " P p lacer gold has been reported from

many creeks of the district, but so far the only claims that have been

worked are on Gold Run, a name given to the Upper Bluestone, and on

Alder Creek, a tributary of Gold Run. At a number of other creeks suffici–

ent prospecting has been done to show the presence of placer gold. The

placers which have thus far produced gold in the region all lie immediately

above the canyon on Gold Run and its tributaries...The gravels are coarse

and frequently contain large bowlders, which suggest ice transportation.

The surface indications are usually not particularly favorable, though

as high as 50 cents to the pan has been obtained. On bed rock fabulously

rich pans have been reported, and $2 to $3 pans are no uncommon.

The largest nugget which had been found at the time of the writer's visit

was worth somewhat under $100. The gold is, as a rule, coarse, dark

colored, and of irregular outline."

        From this account, report it can readily be understood why hopes ran so

high for the Bluestone District directly after the 1900 strike. This

enthusiasm persisted for about ten years, by which time most claims had

been worked out, and mining activities gradually decreased.

        In 1908 these was a town a t the mouth of Alder Creek called Sullivan.

This could be reached by wagon road from Teller, eighteen miles away.

There was also a road leading across [ ?] a low divide to the head of

Tisuk Creek, then down the Feather River, to Norton Sound and Bering Sea. During the

summer months stages ran daily from Sullivan to both these points.

        In addition to the richness of the original strikes in the Blue–

stone are a , one of the reasons for the optimism of the stampeders to the dis–

trict was the anticipated ease with which supplies could be brought in.

003      |      Vol_XII-0348                                                                                                                  
BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA

Many of the original claim holders had come from Nome (q.v.). They

knew from experience of the disadvantages and dangers of the Nome road–

stead; they had probably waited for supplies to be lightered ashore at

Nome, and had perhaps lost some much-needed equipment in the storms

which sweep the Nome beach every summer. Port Clarence was known to be

the deepst and safest harbor anywhere on the coast of Seward Peninsula , and

T the Bluestone miners expected that cargoes could easily be landed at

Teller. However, this expectation was short-lived. Shoal water also

edges Port Clarence, as well as Norton Sound so that, although it has a safer roadstead, Teller

is no more accessible to deep-water vessels than is Nome.

        This fact, combining with the speedy depletion of th

Bluestone deposits, doomed the hopes of the first miners in that region.

From about 1910 to 1930 there was little mining activity along the

Bluestone, but the reduction of the gold content of the dollar in 1933,

which had the effect of increasing the value of gold, gave new impetus

to mining here, as elsewhere in the Territory. By 1936 the U.S.

Geological Survey reported: "Placer mining in the Port Clarence dis–

trict was decidedly on the upgrade in 1936, owing principally to the

highly successful operation of two dredges. These were situated on

Gold Run, a tributary of the Bluestone River, and on Dese Creek, which

flows directly into Grantley Habor." The latter dredge was worked by

N.B. Tweet and Sons. In 1939 production for the Port Clarence area

was below that for the previous few years, but only because the largest

dredging company at work there, the Bartholomae Oil Corporation, had

restricted mining operations so as to recondition the plant and equipment.

Hopes were, then, again running high when the World War II restrictive

order making gold non-essential went into effect in 1942. This put

an end to almost all gold mining in the entire Territory, and killed

004      |      Vol_XII-0349                                                                                                                  
BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA

new-born enthusiasm of the Bluestone operators. As of this writing

(1948), gold mining in Alaska has not recovered from the effect of this

ruling. (See Bluff and Nome articles.) By 1947, three men still held

titles to gold property on Gold Run Creek, but the amount of actual

mining activity was negligible.

        The town of Sullivan, as such, has disappeared,

although most recent maps indicate that there are mining camps in the

vicinity of its former site.

        A winter trail now runs along the same route as was

taken by the stage-coaches leaving Sullivan daily for Shea's Roadhouse,

and a road leads from the camps in the Sullivan area to Teller.

        Sources:

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin-

sula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, sula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok,

Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Washington,

D.C., 1908. (U.S. Geoloigal Survey. Bulletin , No. 328)

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton

Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.

        Brooks, Alfred H. Report on Progress of Investigations of Mineral Re- Report on Progress of Investigations of Mineral Re-

sources of Alaska in 1908. sources of Alaska in 1908. Washington, D.C., 1909.

        Smith, Philip S. Mineral Industry of Alaska in 1936. Mineral Industry of Alaska in 1936. Washington, D.C.,

1938. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 897-A)

Baker

001      |      Vol_XII-0350                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BLUFF REGION

September, 1948

2100 wds

100 wds - bibl

        The BLUFF REGION lies midway of the a deep bite in the

southern coastline of Seward Peninsula , Alaska, which extends from Rocky Point to

Cape Nome in the northern part of Norton Sound. Topkok Head, a promentory at

the mouth of the Topkok River midway of this bite, is the coastal extremity

of a series of high bluffs which skirt the shore for a distance of about 30

miles northwestern from Golovnin Bay (q.v.). Beyond Topkok Head and Cape Nome, 32 miles away these

highlands trend inland leaving an ever-widening stretch of moss-covered sand

and gravel along the coast between it and Cape Nome, 32 Miles away Westward from Cape

Nome the highlands once more crowd closer to shore, although they leave a

4 to 6 mile fringe of plain for the remaining 12 or 13 miles to Nome, itself (q.v.).

        Although the coastline in this area is edged by a narrow shoal,

the water one mile or more from shore is deep and the bottom regular. Topkok

Head rises abruptly 586 feet out of the water on its seaward side, and is

the most conspicuous landmark in the vicinity. A 572-foot yellow bluff about

6 miles east of Topkok Head is likewise conspicuous, but is not so

prominent as the Head itself.

        From east to west the rivers of the Bluff Region enter Norton

Sound in the following order: Koyana, Daniels, Eldorado, Ryan, Silverbow

(Little Anvil) Creeks, and the Topkok River, which is the largest of the group.

None of these streams is very long, however, because the watershed for the

entire area rises not more than 4 miles from the coast. From north to south

the tributaries to the Topkok are California Surprise, Allen, and Rock

Creeks, all from the west.

        There are only two towns in or near the Bluff area: Chiukak,

halfway between Rocky Point and Daniels Creek, and Bluff, at the mouth of

Daniels Creek. These towns are connected by the winter trail which runs

from Golovnin Bay around the southern shore [ ?] of Seward Peninsula and then

northward to Kotzebue Sound.

        25[1?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0351                                                                                                                  
BLUFF REGION

        Chiukak is an Eskimo village called Chiokuk by Petrof in 1880

and Seookuk by Jarvis in 1898.

        ¶Bluff, on the other hand, is a white mining

settlement on the si te of the gold strik e made by William Hunter and Frank

Walter in September, 1899, one year after the Anvil Creek strike in the Nome

district. Although Hunter and Walter found placer gold at the mouth of Daniels

Creek in September, the first c a l aims were made by J.S. Sullivan, George

Ryan, and others in December of the same year. In January, 1900, Hunter

returned to Daniels Creek with H.C. Malmquist and three other partners who and staked

5 five tundra claims along the beach adjacent to the creek. These men bought

Discovery Claim at the mouth of the creek and organized the Black Chief

Mining Co.

        ¶ Alfred H. Brooks writing in 1901 describes what happened immediately

thereafter: "The find on the creek was kept secret for a time, but by the middle of

March the rush from Nome began and soon many people were on the ground. A

miners' meeting decided that 60 feet back from high water belonged to the beach

and, as such, could not be claimed. The crowd worked on this ruling, every man

where he could, until July 8, when United States troops under Lieutenant Erickson

stopped work on the claim at the mouth of Daniels Creek pending litigation. During

the few months of work it is estimated that nearly three-quarters of a million

dollars were taken from a strip of beach less than 1,000 feet long and 50 feet

wide. Two men on an area of 27 square feet reported taking out $37,000. It is

said that three men took out $10,000 in five days. It was common for rockers

to make from $100 to $300 a day. These extraordinary returns were of short

duration, for the richest part of the small strip of beach was soon exhausted. The

first week of August, when Mr. Richardson visited the camp, called Bluff, about

200 men were present. There was little inducement for them to stay, however,

for the rich beach had been gutted, and the whole region had been staked."

        ¶ In

1908 Brooks wrote again: [ ?] "It is estimated 23

003      |      Vol_XII-0352                                                                                                                  
BLUFF REGION

that the gold tenor of much of the pay streak must have averaged $150 to the

cubic yard, or about $1 to the pan. This is far richer than the best part of the

Nome beach sands, and, in fact, is the richest marine placer ever found. In

gold content it has been equaled by only a very few claims in the peninsula."

        ¶ In 1900, only $200,000 was taken from the old beach which stretches across the present

mouth of Daniels Creek, although the lower part of the creek continued to be

exploited until 1902. Most of this gold came from Discovery Claim which,

by this time, was being worked with the aid of a gasoline engine which pumped a

sluice head of water from the sea. Between 1900 and 1902 gold was discovered

on Eldorado and Ryan Creeks and on Swede Gulch, but lack of water impeded

their development.

        ¶ Brooks continues: "In 1902 a strong company called the Topkok

Ditch Company began the construction of a waterway from the head of Klokerblok

River to Daniels Creek. This work was completed late in the summer of 1903,

and sluicing began. In 1904 the company had about 16 miles of ditch in operation,

and in 1906 extended the conduit about 4 miles. This enterprise is a most success–

ful hydraulic mining operation and demonstrates what can be done under favorable

conditions and with intelligent and economical management. When the heavy

gravel deposits of Daniels Creek have been sluiced off, the water of the Topkok

Ditch Company can be utilized to mine the shallower deposits of Eldorado, Ryan,

and other smaller creeks." It is remarkable that a stream less than one mile

long could be put to such hard work.

        ¶ By 1905 the Topkok Ditch Company

owned 35 miles of ditch and 5,000 feet of 28 ″ -30″ pipe, as well as a [ ?]

tunnel a quarter of a mile long connecting the headwater s of Daniels Creek with

the Klokerblok River and Skookum Creek. In 1906 an ancient beach deposit

below sea level was discovered near Bluff giving new impetus to the production

of the area, but despite this development only one man was working there in 1913,

and Topkok Ditch was dry. Within the next few years lode deposits were found

near Bluff and a gold mill was set up there. By 1920 a fairly thorough 27 [!?]

004      |      Vol_XII-0353                                                                                                                  
BLUFF REGION

U.S. Geological Survey examination of the zones of mineralized schist had

revealed rich lode deposits on Daniels Creek and many other streams nearby,

and the Bluff area again became the scene of energetic activity.

        ¶ Brooks visited

the region and reported in 1920: "... the deposits adjacent to and just east of

Daniels Creek are the most valuable of the region. Here the mineralized schist bands

in the limestone were staked as lode claims soon after the Daniels Creek placers

were discovered. The original locators have carried on development work on these

claims in a small way for some 20 years. Three lodes are recognized from Daniels

Creek eastward, the Sea Gull, Idaho, and Eskimo lodes. They trend in a general

northerly direction and except where they crop out on the cliff face are concealed

by the tundra vegetation and exposed only by mining operations...Four claims

are staked along the strike of each of the three lodes, extending from the sea

cliff nearly to the head of Daniels Creek valley. The most southerly claim on

the Eskimo lode is held by John Corrigan; the remaining eleven claims by Charles

Megan, Henry Megan, and W.J. Somerville. The schist zones have been traced by

pits and shafts and are said to contain gold wherever prospected. Most of the

work has been done about three-quarters of a mile from the beach, where fourteen

shafts, ranging in depth from 30 to 100 feet and aggregating 657 feet were

pointed out to the writer...The shafts have been sunk chiefly for prospecting

purposes, and it is said that no shaft failed to find gold-bearing quartz in

sufficient quantities and rich enough to mine. The present mill equipment will

handle, efficiently, only the oxidized surface portion of the lodes. There is

no timber in the vicinity of Bluff, and mine supports are difficult to obtain. As the

lode material is soft no considerable depth can be reached without danger from

caving. Only the present working shaft is timbered; all the others are caved

and inaccessible...Four men were employed in mining at the time of the writer's

visit. Dumps are taken out during the winter, and the ore is milled [ ?]

in the summer." Some cinnabar was discovered in the lodes although not in 27 [ ?]

005      |      Vol_XII-0354                                                                                                                  
BLUFF REGION

commercial quantities.

        We have seen the town of Bluff expand to a high of 200, shrink

to one, and slowly grow again. The 1939 population was 14, and gold placer,

gold quartz, and cinnabar were still being removed from the area. The village

is was still strictly a mining community, without a post-office or a school,

although it does have a landing strip of unspecified length.

        H. Foster Bain in his report for December, 1946, covered the

past, present, and future of the gold mining in Alaska. He writes in part:

"The outlook for lode mining is obscure, despite the fact that scouts have been

maintained in the Territory for a number of years by several of the larger

mining interests...So far as Alaska gold mining is concerned, it is a further

fact, probably of considerable significance, that so large a proportion of the

output has been and continues to be from the placers. This, coupled with the

further fact deduced from the observation and experience of geologists in many

lands, that big placers are seldom if ever derived from big lodes but rather come

from the break-down of country rock cut by many little stringer lodes, is discourag–

ing to the search for profitable lode mines...It may well prove that in Alaska,

as in California, any really important lode mines found in the future will have

no significant relation to the placers. It may also prove that there are no

big ones to be found." Discussing Juneau mining developments in particular,

but telling a story which relates to all Alaska gold mining, he goes on to

explain the virtual shut-down of the industry throughout the Territory over

since the beginning of World War II. "It will be noted that there were no profits

from the operation through a term of years while the mine was being built up and

equipped or, again, after 1941, when war conditions affected operations adversely.

It was not only that prices of supplies and labor rose in these later years; but,

perhaps more importantly, shortage of manpower reduced output and increased unit

costs. The management struggled to keep the operation going, but the decision 27 [ s. ?]

006      |      Vol_XII-0355                                                                                                                  
BLUFF REGION

of the War Labor Board decreeing an increase in wages with retroactive

payment finally made it cheaper to pay shut-down expenses than to continue to

operate at a deficit...It is to be expected that the company, with its heavy

investment and large remaining ore reserve, will make every effort to resume

operations as soon as possible; but the whole wage pattern in Alaska has been

so distorted by the war that resumption will be extremely difficult, and delay is

to be expected. It is to be remembered that gold miners operate against a fixed

price for their output and have no way to compensate for higher costs by increasing

the sale price of their product. In 1932, for the first time in many years, the

price of gold, in terms of United States dollars, was increased substantially,

but it is considered that since then the cost of taxes, supplies, and labor have

increased so much as to wipe out the margin of profit so created...The record

shows clearly that the mine can only be operated profitably [ ?] by mass production

methods and on a large scale. There is no way to run...a small mine, and this

fact also precludes resuming operation on a small scale and building up the

tonnage gradually...Any consideration of possible increase in price of g l o ld

involves to many factors of national policy and of politics that the subject

is hardly worth discussing. Meanwhile, one of the largest inudstrial units in

the Territory, with abundant raw material and complete and proved equipment,

remains idle." ¶ This story has been repeated in big and little throughout

Alaska, and it is only to be expected that relatively small operations like

those at Bluff will be slower to recover than the Juneau giant.

        22 [ s. ?]

007      |      Vol_XII-0356                                                                                                                  
BLUFF REGION

        References:

U.S.C.P. & Supplement

VSGB

Colby

Tewkesbury

Baker

        Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula; a book of information about Nome and Seward Peninsula; a book of information about

Northwestern Alaska. Northwestern Alaska. Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan Press, c1905.

        Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry. Wash. D.C.,

Bureau of Mines, 1946. (U.S. Bur. of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular

7379. December, 1946)

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Redonnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Redonnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton

Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, G.P.O., 1901.

(U.S. Geological Survey)

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others). GoldPlacers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, GoldPlacers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence,

and Goodhope Precincts and Goodhope Precincts . Wash. G.P.O. 1908. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin No.328)

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska, report on progress Mineral Resources of Alaska, report on progress

of investigations in 1905, 1907, 1909, [ ?] 1913, 1917, of investigations in 1905, 1907, 1909, [ ?] 1913, 1917,

1920. 1920. Wash. G.P.O. 1906-1922. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Bulletins Bulletins No.284, 345, 442, 592, 692, 722)

        Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface water supply of Seward Peninsula, Surface water supply of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska Alaska . Wash. G.P.O. 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water- Water-

Supply Paper Supply Paper 314)

001      |      Vol_XII-0357                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA

26 May 48

        1000

        BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA, the center for the red salmon canning

industry [ ?] of sou thern Alaska and the Alaska Peninsula, may be said

to include all that part of Bering Sea east of a line dra wn from Cape

S arichef, Unimak Island, northeastward to Cape Newenham, the tip of the

peninsula which separates Bristol from Kuskokwim Bay (q.v.). Bristol Bay

is cut off from the Pacific Ocean on the south and east by Unimak Island

and the Alaska Peninsula, and is bounded on the north and northwest by

the territory around Kvichak, Nushagak, Kulukak, and Togiak Bays (q.v.),

all northerly arms of Bristol Bay. Naknek River, a tributary to Kvichak

Bay, is the head of deep water navi [ ?] ation in Bristol Bay, although

small cannery vessels proceed up the several arms of the bay and, in

some cases, to the head of the rivers which flow into them. The waters

along the northeastern and northern coasts of Bristol Bay are shoal

sometimes for as many as 6 miles offshore and are dangerous to navigate

except in daylight on a rising tide and then only with constant use

of the lead. Available surveys of this area are old, and it is felt that

considerable change in the channels has taken place since they were made.

Because of the funnel-shaped configuration of the mouths of the

Ugashik, Egegik, Naknek, Kvichak, and Nushagak Rivers, and of the bays

into which they flow, tidal currents are strong and run as fast as 6 knots.

In addition, the tidal range in these bays and rivers is sometimes as

much as 26 feet. The currents in Bristol Bay are therefore considered

to be partly tidal, although the bay is also thought to form the eastern

part of a permanent eddy which flows eastward past Cape Newenham and dis–

charges along the north shore of Unimak Island flowing westward.

002      |      Vol_XII-0358                                                                                                                  
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA

        The shores of Bristol Bay are mostly low, lake-studded, treeless

tundra, but the high, volcanic mountains along the central parts of

Unimak Island, and the Alaska Range which borders the southern side of

the Alaska Peninsula, would serve as [ ?] unmistakable land marks except

for the fog which prevails throughout the area during the season of

navigation. Fog persists from spring through fall, although it is

heaviest during the summer months, so that only what low landmarks are

visible beneath the fog may be used as guides to navigation. Very little

is known about ice conditions in Bristol Bay. It is probably free from

heavy ice sometime between mid-May and mid-June, and there is reason

to believe that it is occasionally open to navigation the year around,

although the rivers and bays associated with it are always closed from

late in the fall to May or June.

        Water transportation to Bristol Bay Points is supplemented by

overland and air carriers. Although the flat, marshy tundra is impassable

in summer, it is excellent terrain for winter travel by dog sled. Two

trails running from different points on Shelikof Strait and over the

Alaska Range connect settlements along the northern coast of the

Alaska Peninsula with points on Lake Clar k Iliamna Lake and the Kvichak

River with Dillingham, Togiak, Goodnews, and other settlements to the

west and northwest. It was reported in 1940 that a new airline, called

Naknek Airways, was opening in Koggiung, near the head of Kvichak Bay [ ?] ,

which would serve all Bristol Bay points. Dillingham, the largest settle–

ment on Nushagak Bay, had six air carriers in 1947 and was reported to

be constructing an airport with a 2200-foot runway. Besides these local

services, planes from Anchorage and Fairbanks make regular stops at most

Bristol Bay settlements.

003      |      Vol_XII-0359                                                                                                                  
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA

        The shallow waters of Bristol Bay, which nowhere exceed

300 feet and which receive so many lake-fed rivers and their associated

bays, offer an ideal habitat for the red salmon, or sockeye, which spawns

only in river systems containing lakes. The canning season runs from

mid-June to mid-July during which time not only the men employed [ ?]

[ ?] and brought in by the canneries but also almost the entire popula–

tion of the towns of Egegik, Naknek, Koggiung, Nushagak, Dillingham,

and other smaller villages along the northeastern coast of Bristol Bay

turn fisherman for a month. Workers are in such demand and the pressure

of the short season is so great, that the canning companies not only

pay the citizenry for their catch but also supply them with boats, nets,

and credit in the company stores. [ ?]

[ ?] Cannery buildings, wharves, fresh-water pipe lines, cranes,

[ ?] marine railways and other company installations in the Bristol Bay

area represent an investment of more than $20,000,000. To balance this,

the red salmon sells for $15.00 or more per case, the annual catch is

worth about $12,000,000, and the industry gives employment to over 8,000

men. In order to protect this valuable industry themselves the canneries have

insisted on certain restrictive regulations. Traps are illegal; all

fishing must be done with gill nets and from small boats fitted only

with oars and a sail. The catch must be returned to the cannery or to

a tally scow anchored on the fishing grounds within 24 hours, and many of

the companies have a much shorter time-limit. Because buoys would

catch and tear the nets, no such markers are maintained in Bristol Bay,

a condition which adds considerably to the difficulty of navigating

these waters. All cannery operations must be based on the tidal intervals,

since low tide exposes bars, shoals, and mud flats all along the shores

of Bristol Bay and its tributaries. Most cannery vessels are specially

004      |      Vol_XII-0360                                                                                                                  
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA

constructed so that they will not be damaged when they lie high and dry

at low tide. After the middle of August, when the hundreds of cannery

vessels and their thousands of workmen depart, Bristol Bay is quiet and

little frequented. For the remainder of the year the chief activities

are hunting and trapping.

        Bristol Bay was named by Cook in 1778 in honor of the Admiral,

Earl of Bristol.

Sources: Colby; Sundborg; Baker; USCP & Suppl; VSGB; Allen,Edward W. North

Pacific

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0361                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

21 April 48 BROOKS, LAKE, ALASKA

        70 wds

        BROOKS, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern section of the Alaska

Peninsula, lies midway between 58° and 59° N. Lat. on 156° W. Long. It is just

south of Naknek Lake (q.v.) from which it is separated by a high mountain.

A short, swift river connects it with Iliuk Arm, a southeastern extension

of Naknek Lake, and it is fed from the east and south by several small

streams rising in the foothills of the Aleutian Range, which borders the

eastern side of the Alaska Peninsula.

Sources: VS GB

001      |      Vol_XII-0362                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

April, 1949 BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA

        Text - 770 words

Bibl - 100 "

        BUCKLAND RIVER, is the largest tributary to Eschscholtz Bay, an

arm of Kotzebue Sound, which indents the northeastern side of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska. The Eskimo name for this river has been recorded variousl y

as Kaniek Kaniek , Kotsokotana Kotsokotana , Kunguk Kunguk , Konguk Konguk , and Kongak Kongak , but it was Beechey

who, in September, 1826, gave it its present name.

        "Having now the assistance of the barge," Beechey wrote, "I

e mbarked in her to examine narrowly the shores of Kotzebue Sound. Proceed–

ing to survey the head of Escholtz Bay, shallow water obliged the boat to

anchor off Elephant Point, where I left Mr. Collie with a party to examine

again the cliffs in which the fossils and ice formation had been seen by

Kotzebue, and proceeded to the head of the bay in a small boat. We landed

upon a flat muddy beach, and were obliged to wade a quarter of a mile before

we could reach a cliff for the purpose of having a view of the surrounding

country. Having gained its summit we were gratified by the discovery of a

large river coming from the southward, and passing between our station and a

range of hills. At a few miles distance the river passed between rocky

cliffs, whence the land on either side became hilly, and interrupted our

further view of its course. The width of the river was about a mile and a

half; but this space was broken into narrow and intricate channels by

banks — some dry, and others partly so. The stream passed rapidly between

them, and at an [ ?] earlier period of the season a considerable body of

water must be poured into the sound; though, from the comparative width

of the channels, the current in the latter is not much felt.

        "The shore around us was flat, broken by several lakes, in which

there were a great many wildfowl."

        Beechey called this river the Buckland, "in compliment to Dr.

002      |      Vol_XII-0363                                                                                                                  
BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA

Buckland, the professor of g eology at Oxford, to whom I am much indebted

for the above mentioned description of the fossils, and for the arrangement

of the geological memoranda attached to this work."

        The Buckland rises about 75 miles southeast of Eschscholtz Bay

and opposes the drainage flowing on the one hand into Norton Bay and on

the other into the lower Koyukuk, in the Yukon River system. Dead water

extends about 30 miles from the mouth and there are no serious rapids

for another 30 miles upstream.

        ¶ Speaking of one of the few ascents of this [ ?]

river by the white man, Mendenhall writes:"On the 9th of September, 1849,

Capt. Henry Kellett, commanding H.M.S. Herald Herald , at that time in Kotzebue

Sound, started with several boats' crews to visit the natives reported to

live some distance up the Buckland River. Captain Kellett himself ascended

the stre a m about 30 miles, until a rock obstruction which prevented the

passage of the heavier boats was encountered. He then returned and Command–

[ ?] er Moore, of the Plover Plover , and Lieutenant Maguire, of the Herald Herald , with

lighter boats ascended about 30 miles farther, passing several rapids en

route. These officers reported that the river contained several obstruc–

tions within the 60 miles explored by them, and at the head of this

stretch a strong rapid, half a mile in length, through which they could not

pass. Pine (spruce) trees were reported as occurring sparingly in the Buck–

land Valley, and an account is also given of the presence of fine basaltic

columns along the river.

        Only the last thirty miles of the Buckland, and the entire course

of its main tributary, West For k may be said to be on Seward Peninsula

proper. The upper Buckland system fans out far to the southeastward to

the highland which marks this part of the interior of [ ?] northwestern

Alaska. The data on the territory surrounding the upper reaches of the

main river [ ?] are still incomplete, and the many tributaries to the Buckland

003      |      Vol_XII-0364                                                                                                                  
BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA

in this section are unnamed.

        West For k , which enters the main stream from the south

about 35 miles up from its mouth, and soon after the Buckland bends

sharply to the west, rises in an irregular group of hills north of the

Koyuk (q.v.) and east of the Kiwalik (q.v.) Rivers.

        Although there are a few mining camps on West Fork, the only

settlement in this vicinity is Buckland (65° 59′ N.Lat., 161° 10′ W.Long.)

about fifteen miles above the mouth of the river.

004      |      Vol_XII-0365                                                                                                                  
BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's

Strait ... 1825,26,27,28. Strait ... 1825,26,27,28. London, 1831. 2v.

Collier, A.J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin

No.328)

Mendenahall, W.C. Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to [ ?] Kotzebue Sound Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to [ ?] Kotzebue Sound

Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Professional

Paper Paper No.10)

Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, Fairhaven gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,

1905 1905 . (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No.247)

Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula ,

Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Water-Supply

Paper Paper 314)

001      |      Vol_XII-0366                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 CALIFORNIA RIVER, ALASKA

        115 wds

        CALIFORNIA RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, drains an area

between the Agiapuk and the Don Rivers, flows almost directly southward to empty

into a lagoon on the north side of Port Clarence. California is a prospector's

name, first reported by Gerdine, in 1901.

        The upp e r four miles of this river work s a southeasterly course

out of the mountains, after which it turns due south and continues in this direc–

tion to its mouth, a few miles west of Teller Mission. A narrow s and spit

cuts the lagoon into which the California empties off from the Port proper.

This lagoon is extremely shoal and is [ ?] navigable to only the smallest

craft.

Sources: Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d. ed. Washington, 1902.

001      |      Vol_XII-0367                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

July, 1948 CARTER BAY, ALASKA

        372 wds

        CARTER BAY, a small eastern arm of Kuskokwim Bay, indents the

mainland about 15 miles north of Goodnews Bay (q.v.). This bay is

about 6 miles long on its north-south axis and is separated from Kusko–

kwim Bay on the west and south by Carter Spit, a low sand spit from 50

to 300 yards wide. Carter Bay is protected, therefore, on all sides

except the north. It is shoal and dotted with mud flats although the

channel around the point of the spit offers anchorage to launches and

small craft. Indian River, from which fresh water can be obtained by

boats at high tide, enters the eastern side of Carter Bay. This river is

formed by the confluence of North Fork and South Fork a few miles

inland from the bay. North Fork rises in the Ahklun Range northeast

of the bay and flows in a southwesterly direction to the valley separat–

ing Cot Mountain from Tooth Mountain, where it is joined by Nautilus

Creek. It then turns westward to follow a meandering course to its

junction with South Fork. South Fork rises in Explorer Mountain,

a 3,000-foot peak in the Ahklun Range northward of Goodnews Bay,

and takes a westerly and northwesterly course around Tooth Mountain

to its meeting with North Fork. Tooth Mountain has a sharp, rocky

pinnacle on the northern edge of its summit and is easily recognized

from Carter Spit. A few cabins grouped around the mouth of the

Indian River form the village of Carter which lies on the long winter

trail leading eastward to Dillingham and other Bristol Bay towns and

northward to Eek and Bethel (q.v.) on the Kuskokwim.

        An inland branch of the main winter trail which runs along

the shore of Kuskokwim Bay leads from a point midway of the north side

of Goodnews Bay, northward between Explorer Mountain and Carter Bay,

across South Fork and North Fork, past Island Mountain to a placer

mine on the Arolic River (q.v.) a few miles inland from Jacksmith Bay (q.v.).

002      |      Vol_XII-0368                                                                                                                  
CARTER BAY, ALASKA

        The vicinity around Carter Bay, with the exception of the

peaks mentioned above, is low, treeless tundra, which, although

unsuitable for agricultural purposes, is covered with moss and many

kinds of wild flowers during the summer months.

        ---------

Sources: VSGB; USCP & Suppl

Baker; Colby

001      |      Vol_XII-0369                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

March, 1949 CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA

        Text - 910 wds.

        CHAMISSO ISLAND (66° 14′ N.Lat., 161° 49′ W.Long.) at the

entrance to Eschscholtz Bay, Kotzebue Sound, off the north shore of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska, was discovered and named by Kotzebue in August, 1816.

        "The land that lay to our right," Kotzebue reported, "in sailing

up, was an island, seven miles in circumference. The open sea, indeed, lay

before us; but my hope of penetrating far in that direction was diminished,

when the boat that was sent out to sound, nowhere found the depth above five

or six fathoms...We took an excursion to the island, which I called after our

naturalist, Chamisso...We had an extensive prospect from the point of this very

high island; the land to the south seemed to join every where; in the north,

nothing was to be seen but the open sea: on the east, Chamisso Island is

separated from the continent by a channel, which is five miles broad in the

narrowest part. The surrounding land was high and rocky. Snow was no where

to be seen; the mountains were covered with moss; and the shore was clothed

in luxuriant verdure. Chamisso Island was of the same nature, where we had

now chosen a green spot, on which we intended to drink tea. I readily confess,

that I seldom felt myself happier, than on this spot; to which the idea of being

the first European that ever put his foot on this land, may have greatly con–

tributed. The weather was at 12° heat, (a height that the thermometer never

arrived at without the sound,) and extremely fine. We found in our tongue of

land, under ground, several store-rooms, lined with leaves, and filled with seals'

flesh. Probably, therefore, the Americans in their hunting parties, have their

station here; and to mark the place, have erected a small ill-built stone pyramid.

The island, which has only a small landing place, rises almost perpendicularly out

of the sea; the rocks round about, and the islands to the west, are inhabited by

numerous puffins; and the many egg-shells which we found on our way, were an

002      |      Vol_XII-0370                                                                                                                  
CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA

indication that foxes destroyed the nests: hares and partridges were here in

plenty; and cranes, on their passage, rested on this island. On places pro–

te [ ?] ted against the north wind, grow willows from two to three feet high, and

these are the only trees that we saw in Beering's Straits. We perceived also

seals as we returned to our ship, which had taken their station on some large

stones on the west side of the island."

        Chamisso Island has a grassy hill about 231 feet high, and its

shores are rocky everywhere except at the north [ ?] ast end, which extends into a

low sand spit. Shoals extend half a mile or less from the north and east

sides.

        Puffin Islet, just west of Chamisso Island, which is probably one

of the outlying islands mentioned by Kotzebue, is [ ?] itself rocky and has two

conspicuous rocks southward of it. The water separating it from Chamisso

Island, is shoal and rocky, but the water off the north and west sides is deep.

        Before being driven out of this region by the oncoming winter,

Beechey left instructions and supplies for the Franklin Expedition, w h ich he had

hoped to find along this coast. Beechey writes: "It now remained for me to

consider how Captain Franklin could be most benefited in the event of his

party arriving after our departure. It was evident that we could do no more

than put him in possession of every information we had obtained, and leave

him a temporary supply of provisions and bartering articles, with which he could

procure others from the natives. To this end a barrel of flour was buried for

him upon the sandy point of Chamisso, a place which, from the nature of the

ground, was more likely to escape observation than the former one, where the

newly turned turf could not be concealed. A large tin case, containing beads

and a letter, was deposited with it, to enable him to purchase provisions from

the natives, and to guide his conduct. Ample directions for finding these were

both cut and painted on the rock; and to call the attention of the part y to the

003      |      Vol_XII-0371                                                                                                                  
CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA

spot, which they might otherwise pass, seeing the ship had departed, her

name was painted in very large letters on the cliffs of Puffin Island,

accompanied with a notice of her departure, and the period to which she had re–

mained in the sound. Beneath it were written directions for finding the cask of

flour, and also a piece of drift-wood which was deposited in a hole in the cliff."

        Between Choris Peninsula and Chamisso Island, and immediately to

the north of the island, is Chamisso Anchorage, the only place on the arctic coast

of Alaska which can be called a harbor. Good shelter from all winds will be

found here. The deepest water is close to Puffin Islet. Finding almost

everywhere else in this region only shoal water, Kotzebue gratefully recorded

his discovery of this anchorage. "We found," he writes, "at fifty fathoms

from shore, from two and a half to three fathoms depth, on a very good bottom.

Ships may lie at anchor, and undertake repairs as safe here as in the best

harbour, particularly as the depth in many places permits them to lie almost

close to the shore."

        Early in the season fresh water will almost alw a ys be found on

Chamisso Island. The mean rise and fall of the tide here is four feet,

and the maximum range is five feet.

004      |      Vol_XII-0372                                                                                                                  
CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's

Straits ... in the years 1815-1818. Straits ... in the years 1815-1818. Translated by H.E. Lloyd.

London, 1821. 3v.

U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Pt.II. Alaska. Pt.II. Fifth (1947) Edi [ ?] tion.

001      |      Vol_XII-0373                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

November, 1948 CLARENCE, PORT, ALASKA

        2,425 wds - Text

50 wds - Bite

        CLARENCE, PORT, Alaska, the only good harbor along the west shore

of Seward Peninsula, and one of the earliest rendezvous for the whaling

fleetings of the mid-nineteenth century, lies south of Cape Prince of Wales

and north of Cape Douglas.

        The west side of the Port is formed by a narrow sand spit which

extends northwestward from the mainland for about eight miles, just north

of Cape Douglas, and then [ ?] bends northward for another nine or so

miles to Point Spencer, the southern entrance point to Port Clarence.

[ ?] Therefore, starting at Point Spencer, the shores of Port Clar–

ence run southward and then eastward to the mainland and so northward

to Cape Riley and Teller. Across the entrance to Grantley Harbor [ ?] from

Teller, the northern shoreline of the Port runs slightly north of west to

Point Jackson, the northern entrance point to the Port.

        In addition to the Point Spencer formation, several other sand

spits characterize Port [ ?] Clarence. One of these, a few miles

below Cape Riley, extends southwestward from the mainland into the

Port itself and terminates with Jones Point. Another forms most of the

north side of the Port and separates its waters from several shallow,

coastal lagoons. Point Jackson is on one of the arms of this north-side

spit.

        Port Clarence, unlike other arms of Bering Sea, is a good harbor,

free from ocean swell. The four-mile wide entrance is clear of danger and

carries 42 to 54 feet. A shoal, which widens as it continues southward,

runs along the west side of the Point Spencer sand spit, but the point

itself is bold, with depths of over forty feet less than one-quarter

mile offshore to the north and east. There is a safe, well p - protected

anchorage of twenty-five feet or more just inside the Point.

002      |      Vol_XII-0374                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

        Southward , along the east side of the Point Spencer spit , another

shoal mak e s out into the Port itself, completely filling in the south [ ?]

end of the Port and enclosing Jones Point. Along the east side of the

Port, above the Jones Point sand spit, and all along the north side, relatively

deep water is found quite close to shore. The deepest water is [ ?]

generally found in the northern part of Port Clarence, where an average

of forty-two feet reaches to within a mile of the shore. The bottom is

regular throughout the Port, shoaling very gradually toward shore in

all directions.

        Point Spencer is marked with a flashing light, and there is also

a light on the north side of the entrance to Grantley Harbor.

        The only navigational dangers in this area are not in

Port Clarence itself, but in the approach to the Port. A ledge, with a

reported least depth of only about ten feet lies nearly five miles offshore,

about halfway between Cape Douglas and Point Spencer. Vessels approaching

Point Clarence from the south must give this ledge a berth of at least

five miles before hauling in for an entrance.

        Fog in this vicinity is frequent and particularly dense r during

the summer. Port Clarence is free from ice from the last part of June to

the freeze-up in October.

        Port Clarence leads into Grantley Harbor (q.v.), which in t e u rn

leads, by way of Tuksuk Channel, into Imuruk Basin (q.v.).

        Surrounding Although the sand spits forming so much of the shoreline

Country of Port Clarence are low, highlands approach the Port

fairly closely in those sections where the mainland forms the shoreline.

All along the east side of the Port, above the Jones Point sand spit, the

foothills of the Kigluaik Mountains, which in some cases rise to over

1,000 feet, begin to appear less than one mile from shore. Again, between

003      |      Vol_XII-0375                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT,

the northern entrance point to Grantley Harbor and Point Jackson, on the

north side of the Port, the highlands associated with 1,527-foot

Mukacharni Mountain crowd close to the shore. Westward of this point the

foothills of the York Mountains rise several miles north of Port Clarence.

        Captain Frederick William Beechey, who visited and named Port Clarence,

in September, 1827, describes the surrounding countryside as follows:

"The northern and eastern shores of Port Clarence slope from the mountains

to the sea, and are occasionally terminated by cliffs compo a sed of fine

and talcy mica slate, intersected by veins of calcareous spar of a [ ?]

[ ?] pearly lustre, mixed with grey quartz. The soil is covered

with a thick coating of moss, among which there is a very limited flora: the

valleys and hollows are filled with dwarf willow and birch. The country

is swampy and full of ruts; and vegetation on the whole, even on the north

side of the harbour, which had a southern aspect, was more backward than

in Kotzebue Sound; still we found here three species of plants we had not

seen before. Plants that were going to seed when we left that island [Kotzebue Sound] were

here only just in full flower, and berries that were there over ripe were

here scarcely fit to be eaten...We saw several reindeer upon the hilly

ground; in the lakes, Wild ducks: and upon the low point of the inner harbour,

golden plover, and sanderlings, and a gull very much resembling the

larus sabini."

003a      |      Vol_XII-0376                                                                                                                  
Clarence, Port

Tributaries As would be expected, these various mountain systems

send streams into the Port. Four unnamed streams enter

south of Jones Point sand spit, and tiny Fox Creek enters just north of

this spit. Yellowstone and Willow Creeks drain into the east side of the

Port below Cape Riley. Along the north side, Mission Creek flows down

from the Mukacharni group, and California, Thompson, and Don River, from

the York group. These last three streams enter the lagoon inside Point

Jackson, but, since their waters do finally contribute to Port Clarence,

they may be spoken of as tributaries to the Port.

        Fresh water may be obtained at the Teller Reindeer Station, at the

mouth of Mission Creek. Except during the dry season, it may also be

obtained from Yellowstone and Willow Creeks, below Cape Riley.

        Settlements The only existing settlement on the shores of Port

Clarence is Teller (65° 15′ N.Lat., 166° 21′ W. Long.)

on the sand spit forming the southern entrance point to Grantley Harbor.

Teller, with a 1939 population of about 118, has a post office, a Territorial

and Alaska Native Service school, two general stores, a fur dealer, an

oil station, a light plant, a U.S. Commissioner, and a reindeer unit manager.

It is the seaport for Imuruk Basin, and the Kuzitrin, Kruzgamepa, and

Kougarok Rivers, all of which streams drain areas rich in gold, tin,

graphite, and copper. Teller is fortunate in having one of the finest,

natural harbors in [ ?] northwestern Alaska. Lighterage facilities are

available. Much of the Hollywood moving-picture The Eskimo was filmed

at Teller.

004      |      Vol_XII-0377                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

        There is a Moravian Mission on the north shore of the Port.

According to latest information (1947), the reindeer station nearby is not

in operation. Bering City, which had a population of about 200 at the

height of the Bluestone Gold Rush in 1900, has now disapp [ ?] ared.

        There are several landing strips in the Port Clarence area: one

at Point Spencer, 8,500 foot long; and two at Teller, 1,000 and 1,400

feet long respectively. Port Clarence receives monthly air mail service

from November 1 to May 31, and semi-monthly water-borne mail service during

the rest of the year.

        Trails Several well-developed winter trails meet at Teller. From

Nome, one trail cuts overland northward and westward to Teller,

and the other follows the coast to Cape Douglas, and then takes a direct

northeasterly route first overland and then across part of Port Clarence

to Teller. At Iron Creek, the overland trail from Nome is joined by

several others from Solomon, Council, Golovnin, and points to the east.

Just above Pilgrim Springs, this same trail from Nome is joined by others

from the Kotzebue District, to the north and northeast, Another trail

runs overland and almost directly southward from Shisharef Inlet, while

yet another branch follows the coast down from the Inlet, passing around

Cape Prince of Wales and so eastward to Teller.

        History Port Clarence was known to the early Russian explorers

as Kaviaiak Bay .

005      |      Vol_XII-0378                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

Insert 1.

        In 1827, Beechey wrote in part: "Having passed the night off Cape York on the

31st, we steered to the eastward, and shortly discovered a low spit of land

[ Point Spencer ] projecting about ten miles from the coast, which here

forms a right angle, and having a channel about two miles wide between its

extremity and the northern shore. We sailed through this opening, and

entered a spacious harbour, [ Port Clarence ] capable of h l o lding a great

many ships of the line. We landed first on the low spit at the entrance,

and then stood across, nine miles to the eastward, and came to an anchor

off a bold cape, [ Cape Riley ] having carried nothing less than five and

a half fathoms water the whole of the way...To the outer harbour, which for

convenience and security surpasses any other near Beering's Strait with

which we are acquainted, I attached the name of Port Clarence, in honour of his

most gracious Majesty, then Duke of Clarence."

        The town of Bering, on the eastern shore of Port Clarence, was recorded

by Brooks [ ?] in 1900.

005a      |      Vol_XII-0379                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

        Beechey gives the following description of the native settlement

of Nooke, which existed at one time grew up on the present site of Teller: "Upon the low point

at the entrance of the inner harbour, [ Grantley Harbor ] called Nooke by

the natives, there were some Esquimaux fishermen, who reminded us of a

former acquaintance at Chamisso Island, and saluted us so warmly that

we felt sorry their recollection had not entirely failed them. They appeared

to have established themselves upon the point for the purpose of catching

and drying fish; and from the number of salmon that were leaping in the

channel, we should have thought they would have been more successful. They

had, however, been fortunate in taking plenty of cod, and some species of

salmon trout: they had also caught some herrings."

        As late as 1870 Dall identified this settlement as Nookmut, and

reported it as being one of the principle villages of the Kaviagmuts. In July,

1892, Sheldon Jackson brough 171 reindeer to this spot and established

a reindeer station there. He named the station Teller after Henry Moore

Teller, then

006      |      Vol_XII-0380                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

Secretary of the Interior, who had helped him with his reindeer project.

The station later moved to the north shore of Port Clarence, while the

settlement was officially established and given a post office in April,

1900. Beechey, in 1827, called this place Nooke, and I t is still known

locally as The Nook , although designated officially as Teller.

        Mining & Port Clarence District, the largest mining district of

Commerce Seward Peninsula, with a recording office at Teller, includes

the former Port Clarence, Blue Stone, Agiapuk, York, and Good Hope Districts.

        The Gold Run, or Blue Stone Country, so called after streams of

the same name, promised in 1900 to become the richest gold mining section

in all the Peninsula. The diggings, however, proved to be spotty, and,

although $20,000 was removed from the mouth of Alder Creek, a tributary

to the Bluestone, and, although the gold was coarse and several large

nuggets were found, subsequent developments proved disappointing.

        T he greatest single mining problem in this area has been that of

maintaining a reliable water supply. Early in the season the streams

do not supply enough water for mining operations; then, with the arrival

of the spring rains, these same streams turn into torrents which break

through any dams previously designed for their control. Harrison writes:

"When water is utilized by means of ditches and made available for all

parts of the open season, this region will produce its quota ofgold."

        Early in the [ ?] century, a great many people had faith

in a bright future for Teller. It occupies what has been called "the

best townsite in the peninsula," since the ground on which it is built

is dry, and since it faces the best harbor for hundreds of miles around.

Realizing the extreme disadvantages and dangers of the Nome roadstead

(see Nome article), it was even planned to build a railroad across the

sixty or so miles of grassland between Teller and Nome, so that all

007      |      Vol_XII-0381                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

cargoes might be unloaded at Teller and carried overland to Nome.

However, it was soon discovered that the deep water of Port Clarence did

not extend as far as Teller, any more than did the deep water of Norton

Sound reach to Nome, with the result that all cargoes had, at both

places, to be lightered ashore over one or two miles of shoal water. More–

over, it [ ?] soon became clear that the Nome roadstead was free of ice

several weeks before Port Clarence was open to navigation.

        Up to 1906, all supplies for the Kougarok District were sent

via Teller. From there they were brought by small steamer through Grantley

Har b or and Imuruk Basin, and so up the Kuzitrin River to Igloo, fifty

miles inland, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Kuzitrin. At Igloo

cargoes were transferred to flat-bottomed river boats and towed up the

Kuzitrin and its tributary, the Kougarok. With the completion of the

Seward Peninsula Railroad, no w called The Pupmobile, to Lanes Landing on

the Kuzitrin, about halfway between [ ?] gloo and the mouth of the Kougarok

River, most supplies for the interior were brought in by rail rather than

by water. This development was a serious economic blow to Teller.

        Bering City, a gold rush boom town just below Cape Riley on the

east side of Port Clarence, offered vessels some advantages over Teller.

Deep water steamers could approach much nearer to the shore and the

harbor was better protected from easterly and northeasterly winds.

        Soon after the discovery of gold in the Bluestone District in

1900, Teller had a population of over 1,000 people, and Bering City

had 200, but, by 1908, Teller had shrunk to 100 and Bering City had

disappeared.

        In 1927, although five individuals still held gold property near

Teller, the actual mining going on in the district was negligible.

Teller still has the only good harbor anywhere along this coast and may,

008      |      Vol_XII-0382                                                                                                                  
CLARENCE, PORT

sometime, be developed as a port through which trade with Asia can be

carried on.

        Sources:

        USCP. Alaska. Pt.II, 1947

        VSGB; Colby; Baker; Tewkesbury; Sundborg

        Dall, William H. Alaska and its resources Alaska and its resources . Boston, 1870.

        Harrison, E.S. Nome and Sew [ ?] rd Peninsula. Nome and Sew [ ?] rd Peninsula. Seattle, Wash., 1905.

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,

Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok,

Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts .

Washington, D.C.,1908. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin Bulletin , No.328)

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton

Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington,

D.C., 1901. (U.S. Geological Survey)

        Alaska Life, Alaska Life, May, 1945

Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., 1925.

        Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's

Str a it ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 Str a it ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . London, 1831. Vol.II

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0383                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins COVILLE, LAKE, ALASKA

23 April 48

        50 wds

        COVILLE, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska

Peninsula, lies about midway between 155° and 156° W. Long. just northwest of Lake

Grosvenor (q.v.) with which it is connected by a short stream. It is

a narrow lake about 9 miles long and is fed by streams rising in the

foothills of the Alaska Range to the northeast.

Sources: US CP: World Aer onautical Chart No. [ ?] 136;

° in VS GB

001      |      Vol_XII-0384                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins CRIPPLE RIVER, ALASKA

October, 1948 285wds.

        CRIPPLE RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, the site

of considerable gold mining activity subsequent to the Nome Rush, empties

into Norton Sound about twelve miles west of Nome at the mouth of the Snake

River.

        Cripp o l e River drains an area of about ninety square miles and

has an average fall of twenty feet to the mile.

        The headwaters of the Cripple are cut off from the Kigluaik

Mountains by the broad basin of the upper Sinuk River (q.v.), and its

tributaries. Rising in a broad basin and then flowing between heights of

1,000 or more feet, the Cripple flows in a generally southwesterly direction

for about ten miles, and then, veering sharply, follows a southeasterly

course for about ten miles more to Norton Sound.

        From North to south the tributaries to the first half of its

course are: Gold Run (with its affluent, Slate Creek) Aurora, Oregon

(which receives Short Gulch, Nugget Gulch, Hungry c C reek, and Mountain

Creek), Cleveland, Willow, Stella, Elizabeth, and Fox Creeks.

        After turning to the southeast, Cripple River is joined by Sidney,

Arctic (with its tributary Buff Creek), Edward, and Bowhead Creeks.

        Where it crosses the coastal plain, here three miles wide, Cripple

River s becomes deeply entrenched and meandering with banks thirty or

more feet high.

        Although never equall y ing the gold mining activity on the Snake,

an estimated $50,000 in gold had been removed from the Cripple River region

by 1900. There are now no settlements along the river, the old mining

camps having almost completely disappeared.

        Sources:

        VSGB; USCP & Supplement; Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome & Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome &

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900.

Washington, 1901.

001      |      Vol_XII-0385                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins DEERING, ALASKA

March, 1949

        Text - 575 wds.

        DEERING (66° 04′ N.Lat., 162° 44′ W.Long.) is a post office

and settlement at the mouth of the Inmachuk River, northern Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. The 1939 population was estimated at 230, and the town then had a

general store, a licensed fur dealer, an Alaska Native Service School, and

a Friends' Mission.

        Deering has lighterage service and telephone communication with

Candle (q.v.). There is a 2200-foot landing strip. Wheeled plane landings

can be made on the beach. Sea plane facilities are poor, but ski landings

are reasonably safe. Emergency anchorages, one immediately offshore from

the town, southeast of Cape Deceit, and one inside Kugruk Lagoon, a few miles

southeast of the town, are available. There are known to be several herds of

reindeer in this vicinity.

        Deering is only about 50 miles south of the Arctic Circle. The

Eskimos, who comprise a large percentage of the population, spend the long

winter months carving beads and other ornaments from walrus ivory. The

Eskimos of this part of Alaska are famous for the artistry of their products,

although they have e xchanged the tools of their ancestors for modern files,

hack saws, and steel drills. During the summer, the Eskimo men work for the

various gold mining companies in the district.

        Gold was first discovered in this region by miners who left Nome,

in 1900, for less crowded areas parts of the Peninsula. (See Inmachuk River

article.) As Mendenhall reported, in 1902: "Lat e in the fall of 1900 a

movement began from the Nome region towar d the shore of Goodhope Bay and

adjacent parts of Kotzebue Sound, and as soon as navigation opened in July,

1901, the supply station of Deering was established at the mouth of the

Ipnechuk River [the present Inmachuk] . Many prospectors and miners came in from the more southerly

areas at this time and the Fairhaven mining district was created, and so

002      |      Vol_XII-0386                                                                                                                  
DEERING, ALASKA

defined as to include Goodhope, Cripple, Sullivan, Ipnechuk, Kugruk, or

Swan, and Kewalik rivers, together with the northwestern P p ortion of the

Buckland drainage system."

        From the white miners' point of view, Deering is a mining town,

as is proved by the fact that it [ ?] has the offices of the gold mining com–

panies now active on the Inmachuk River, as well as the offices of George Wallin's

coal company on the Kugruk River.

        The Deering Eskimos serve as good examples in refutation of the

popular conception of the lives of these people. Unless they have heard them

mentioned by the white man, these Eskimos have no knowledge of snowhouses. They

themselves, with very few exceptions, live in houses built of shipped-in

lumber and of standard design. Those few who do not own a frame house have

dwellings of drift-wood and sod. Most of the young Eskimos of this generation

have attended the Government school in Deering and are well educated. They

know their native tongue but speak English in their homes. They still eat

dried fish occasionally, but in all basic respects their diet is exactly the

same as that of the average family in the States. They all have radios,

all listen to the world news reports, and dance to the popular dance bands.

In other words, except for the skill with which they carve in ivory, and

the assurance with which they handle small boats, a nd firearms, they are

indistinguishable from the younger generation in any small Stateside town.

003      |      Vol_XII-0387                                                                                                                  
DEERING, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alaska Life Alaska Life . August, 1944; May, 1945.

Mendenhail, Walter C. Reconnaissance from Fot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound Reconnaissance from Fot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound ,

Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional

Paper Professional

Paper No.10)

Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index. 1947 ed.

U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. Aeronautical Chart Aeronautical Chart No.76.

VS Guide book for Alaska. VS Guide book for Alaska.

001      |      Vol_XII-0388                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA

March, 1949

        Text - 1,105 wds.

Bibl - 50 wds.

        DEVIL MOUNTAIN is the only prominent feature of the bro [ ?] d, blunt

peninsula which separates Shishmaref Inlet (q.v.) from Kotzebue Sound (q.v.),

on the northern shores of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Kotzebue named this

880-foot peak Teufelsberg Teufelsberg , in August, 1816. "The summit, "wrote Kotzebue,

"looks as if the fragments of a ruined castle stood on it, of which some

towers were still remaining. These, however, I afterwards recognized to be

stone pillars, resembling those which Saritscheff found on the coast of the

Icy Sea. I called this mountain, Devil's Mountain." This peak has appeared

as Chortof (devil) Mounta i n on some Russian charts.

        Kotzebue noted that Devil Mountain is about 15 miles inland from

Goodhope Bay and that "the land is everywhere green, but has not a single bush

on it." The mountain itself is a basaltic lava mass m a ntled on all sides

by the gravels of the coastal plain. Collier reported, in 1908, that these

gravels are not known to be auriferous and that the streams are sluggish and

[ ?] follow meandering courses across the marshy, lake-strewn grasslands

of the plain.

        Several unnamed streams drain the southern flanks of the mounta in

while Cowpack, Kalik, and Espenberg Rivers flow northward into the Polar Sea.

Nugnugaluktuk, Lane (Kugachuk), and Pish (Kutuk) Rivers flow eastward from

the southern foothills of Devil Mountain into Goodhope Bay, Kotzebue Sound.

        Although there are no named towns along this stretch of coast,

it is the home of several hundred Eskimos who make their living hunting, fish–

ing, and trapping. Cape Espenberg, on the northeastern tip of the peninsula,

is marked by a flashing light. A shoal fringes the san d bars south of Cape

Es p enberg. It was probably this same shoal which gave Kotzebue considerable

trouble one night in August of 1816.

        Telling of his trip in a small boat northward from [ ?] Goodhope

Bay, he writes: "We had scarcely rowed half an hour, when we struck upon a

002      |      Vol_XII-0389                                                                                                                  
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA

shoal; it was the time of ebb, and all the places which we had previously

navigated with ease, were now changed into sand banks, and we heard the

breakers roaring round us. We therefore rowed in another direction; but it was

not long before we were again on a shoal, where the breakers threatened to

swallow us up. A violent wind rendered our situation still more dangerous,

our boat drew much water, we were all exhausted by labour, a nd I saw no means

of escaping death, as we had every moment to expect that the boat would be

seized by the breakers and overturned. The baydare in which our scientific

gentlemen were, had got on before us, and some shots as signals of distress

horible, as - in original which proceeded from them rendered our situation horible. We answered them

with a musket shot, but were not able to go to their assistance. At last the

dawning day relieved us all, we could observe the way we had to take to

avoid the breakers...At last...after inconceivable difficulties, we reached the

Rurick on the morning of the 13th." This night journey back to the mother

ship was instigated by the arrival of eight native boats, each carrying twelve

men and numberless dogs. "Such neighbors," Kotzebue had instantly decided,

"might really prove dangerous to us, as my whole company on this excursion

consisted of only fourteen men, and the loss of some of my sailors would have

made it impossible for me to complete the expedition." However, since these

natives had merely landed nearby and peacably set up camp, Kotzebue's decision

to exchange their company for the dangers of stormy and unknown waters would

seem unduly precipitous. One is forced to the suspicion that some former

action of his own might have given hi [ ?] cause to fear reprisal on the p a rt of

these natives.

        Kitzebue gives what is probably still the best general description

of this part of Seward Peninsula. "As far as the eye could reach, " he

wrote, "everything was green; here and there were flowers in blossom, and

no snow was seen but on the tops of the mountains at a great distance; yet

003      |      Vol_XII-0390                                                                                                                  
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA

one had to dig but half a foot deep to find nothing but frost and ice under

this verdant carpet." Of the Eskimos, or, 'Americans', as he quite correctly

calls them, he wrote: "They are of a middle size, robust make, and healthy

appearance; their motions are lively, and they seemed much inclined to sportive–

ness; their countenances, which have an expression o f wantonness, but not of

stupidity, are ugly and dirty, characterised by small eyes and very high

cheek-bones; they have holes on each side of the mouth, in which they wear

morse-bones, ornamented with blue glass beads, which gives them a most

frightful appearance. They hair hangs down long, but is cut quite short on

the crown of the head. Their head and ears are also adorned with beads.

Their dr e sses, which are made of skins, are of the same cut as the Parka in

Kamtschatka; only that there it reaches to the feet, and here hardly covers

the knee; besides this, they wear pantaloons, and small half-boots, of seal–

skin."

        Elsewhere he remarks: "They are very expert traders, haggle obstinate–

ly, always consult together, and are infinitely happy when they fancy they

have cheated any body. Some old women, who were in their baydares, understood

bargaining still better. There was so much laughing and joking during the

trading, that it appeared as if we were surrounded by the lively South Sea

islanders, instead of the serious inhabitants of the north. Their arms

consist of lances, bows, arrows,and a knife, two feet long, in a sheath;

this military equipment, which they never lay aside, proves that they are in

constant wars with other nations. Their lances, which are of iron, very well

wrought, resemble those which the Russians have sold to the Tschukutskoi; the

glass beads, also, with which they adorn themselves, are of the same kind as

those worn in Asia, which proves that they must be in commercial intercourse

with that continent."

        It does did not occur to Kotzebue that natives who live solely by

004      |      Vol_XII-0391                                                                                                                  
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA

hunting, fishing, and trapping might keep their equipment with them at all

times for other reasons than for making war on their neighbors. Neither

does did it occur to him that these natives might be genuinely happy and satis–

fied with their lot in life, and that, having made an almost perfect adjust–

ment to their environment , they no longer felt "serious" about living in

the north.

005      |      Vol_XII-0392                                                                                                                  
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alaska Life , May, 1945.

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Collier, A.J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,

1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 328)

Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional

Paper Professional

Paper No.2)

Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions,

Alaska, in 1900. Washington, 1901.

Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's

Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's

Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Translated by H.E. Lloyd.

London, 1821. 3v.

001      |      Vol_XII-0393                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins DILLINGHAM, ALASKA

24 May 48

        450 wds

        DILLINGHAM, ALASKA, strategically situated between the mouths

of the Wood and Snake Rivers on the western side of Nushagak Bay (q.v.),

Bristol Bay, is the largest village in this vicinity. It was established

in August, 1905. Although the offical 1939 Census figure showed a

population of 278, the settlement had grown to an estimated 450 by 1947.

        Dillingham, like all the other settlements on Nushagak Bay,

is most active from mid-June to late July when several large red salmon

canneries operate in the Nushagak and Wood Rivers, at the head of the

bay, and in the Snake and Igushik Rivers which enter it from the west.

The Bristol Bay Packing Co. and Pacific American Fisheries maintain

canneries in Dillingham. The second of these companies has a 178-foot

wharf. This wharf has a depth of 2 feet at low tide and can be used

only by lighters even at high tide. Like other salmon companies in

the area, the cannery maintains a radio station and its own supplies of

gasoline and oil. The wharf is fitted with a marine railway capable

of hauling 100 tons.

        According to 1947 reports Dillingham has several other

facilities including a Territorial school, a high school, 5 restaurants,

4 taxicabs, 2 hotels, 5 licensed fur dealers, 3 general stores, 5 transfer

and storage companies, 2 literage services, a saltery, a light plant,

one aircraft and one electrical supplies and service store, a beauty

shop, gift shop, theater, and attorney at law. Two labor unions, the

Alaska Fishermen's Union (CIO) and the International Union of Fishermen

and Allied Workers of America, Local 46, (CIO) have representatives in

Dillingham. Two U.S. Commissioners are stationed in the town, one with

full powers and one acting as Justice of the Peace and coroner. Although

there are no dentists in the town, there is a large hospital staffed with

5 nurses and attended by a doctor from Bethel.

002      |      Vol_XII-0394                                                                                                                  
DILLINGHAM, ALASKA

        Since the waters of Nushagak Bay are too shallow for large

vessels, and since the territory around Dillingham is low, marshy tundra

making summer travel impossible, air service is especially important.

Six air carriers were in operation in 1947, one of which was certified

by the Civil Aeronautics Board. It was reported in November of the same

year that the local merchants had appointed an Airport Committee and

were sponsoring the construction of a 2200-foot runway. Work on

this project had been renewed after a summer delay during which most of

of the volunteer workers were off fishing or busy on Alaska Road

Commission jobs. Everyone in the Nushagak Bay area turns fisherman

during the canning season. The canneries supply boats, nets, and

credit to anyone who wants to fish so that other activities come to an

abrupt however brief hault. The chief activities for the remainder

of the year are hunting and trapping.

        Dillingham is on the long winter trail which connects points

on Kvichak Bay and Iliamna Lake (q.v.) with Owens, Togiak,and Goodnews

(q.v.) to the west.

001      |      Vol_XII-0395                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins DIOMEDE ISLANDS, Alaska

February, 1949

        565 wds.

        DIOMEDE ISLANDS, Bering Sea, Alaska, comprise Big and Little

Diomede. The former belongs to the U.S.S.R., and the latter is a possession

of the United States. The internationl boundary is the meridian which passes

between Big and Little Diomede Islands.

        Vitus Bering would appear to have described one or more both of this

group pair on August 16, 1728. There is some doubt as to whether [ ?] he named

his discovery after the holy martyr St. Diomede, who, according to the church

calendar, is was honored on August 16, or whether he named it after St. Demetrius,

whose day was August 14. The name Demetrius appears on some early maps,

but usage has established Diomede. Michael Gvozdef, a surveyor, who explored

Bering Strait in 1730, called these islands after himself, but this name was

used only briefly. Some recent maps id [ ?] ntify Big Diomede as Rotmanov Island.

        The cliff-like sides of the Diomede Islands rise abruptly out

of the water. There are no beaches, and their tops are a broken table-land.

Big Diomede is about three miles long by one mile wide and rises to a height of

1,758 feet, while Little Diomede is about one-third that area and about 1,200

feet high at the apex. Although the water in this vicinity is deep, the bottom

is rocky and the anchorage poor. There are some exposed rocks off the western

side of Big Diomede, and there is a flashing light on the northwestern corner

of this island.

        The villages on these two islands perch on the rocky slopes well

above the high water level. The chief settlement on Big Diomede is Nunebruk,

and Ignaluk is the principal village of Little Diomede. Ignaluk is constructed

on the steep hillside just above the sand spit which extends from the western

shore of the island. Vessels approaching the village from the [ ?] south and

east will find deep water and good anchorage off the southern side of this

002      |      Vol_XII-0396                                                                                                                  
DIOMEDE ISLANDS, ALASKA

sand spit. From the end of the spit, however, a shoal and reef extend an

unknown distance toward Big Diomede Island. Small vessels may pass between

these islands, but large vessels are warned against the attempt.

        The Diomede Eskimos are Innuits. The y [ ?] are famous for their

seamanship and for their skill in hunting whales, walrus, and seal, and are

equally well-known for their carving of walrus ivory into beads and other items

of adornment. However skilled and courageous in the management of their tiny kayaks, these Innuit hunters are known

to be in the management of their tiny kayaks, they are not foolhardy, as is

clearly shown by the following quotation from Hooper's report of 1881: "Although

the passage from Siberia to America and back is made many times each year by the

natives in their skin boats, and is not considered by them to be attended with

any unusaual amount of [ ?] ager, I could not learn that it is ever made over the ice

during the winter. The natives say the ice is always broken and subjected to

great and sudden changes, rendering any attempts to cross it extremely hazardous.

It is said that open spaces occur from time to time throughout the winter, which

contain numbers of whales, but that owing to the sudden changes which take

place their capture is not attempted."

        For winter dwellings the natives dig caves into the face of the

cliffs. The entrances to these caves are covered with small wooden frameworks

not unlike the woodsheds indigenous to New England. These are the "fortified

places" to which Gerhard F. Müller referred in 1761.

        Ignaluk has a schoolhouse and a general store where the Eskimos

trade their ivory carvings [ ?] and seal mocassions for sugar, flour, canned goods,

and other staples to which the white man has introduced them.

003      |      Vol_XII-0397                                                                                                                  
DIOMEDE ISLANDS,ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hooper, C.L. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenus Cutter Thomas Corwin Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenus Cutter Thomas Corwin

in the Arctic Ocean, 1881. in the Arctic Ocean, 1881. Washington, 1884.

Müller, G.F. Voyages from Asia to America. Voyages from Asia to America. Translated by Thomas Jefferys.

London, 1761.

VSGB

USCP

001      |      Vol_XII-0398                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 115 wds DON RIVER, ALASKA

        DON RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is a northern tribu–

tary to the lagoon on the north side of Port Clarence. The name originated

locally and was first reported by Gerdine, in 1901.

        The Don rises north of Brooks Mountain, in the York range, and

flows eastward [ ?] for about [ ?] four miles, then turns southward to work

its way for another sixteen miles out of the mountains, and across the lowland

bordering Port Clarence. Soon after turning southward, the Don is joined by

Anderson, and El k ington Creeks from the west and east respectively, and, about

six miles above its mouth, by Tozer Creek from the east. Several other streams

enter the D on, but they are unnamed.

        The lagoon into which the Don empties is extremely shoal so that

the river is not approachable to any except the smallest vessles. This same

is true of Thompson Creek, which enters this same lagoon at a point about half–

way between California River (q.v.) and the Don.

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1902.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0399                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins EGEGIK, ALASKA

21 April 48

        150 wds

        EGEGIK, ALASKA, is a fishing village, post office, and cannery

on the south bank of the mouth of the Egegik River, in the northwestern

part of the Alaska Peninsula. The village had a population of 125 in 1939.

Although the cannery is open only from late June to the end of July,

airplane service from Anchorage is available the year around. The Alaska

Packers Association and the Pacific American Fisheries Inc maintain canneries

and radio stations in Egegik. The winter trail which connects Kanatak,

[ ?] Portage Bay, on the northeastern side of the Alaska Peninsula,with

Naknek, Koggiung and other points [ ?] on Kvichak Bay, runs down

the northern side of the mouth of the Egegik River, just across from the

village of Egegik.

Sources: Baker; USCP: VSGB: SUNDBORG: TEWKESBURY

& Suppl.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0400                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins EGEGIK RIVER, ALASKA

21 April 48

        300 wds

        EGEGIK RIVER, ALASKA (Egegak; Igagik; Ugaguk, etc.), drains from

the western end of Lake Becharof (q.v.), in the northern park of the Alaska

Peninsula, and flows in a northwesterly direction for about 25 miles to empty

into Bristol Bay. Tidewater is reported to run a considerable distance upstream.

Egegik River is narrow and rough with rapids for a few miles after leaving

Lake Becharof, after which it widens, then narrows again. The middle half

of its course is dotted with islands. In 1938, $5,000 were spent clearing

a channel through the rapids at the head of the river. The river is now

navi a gable to small boats for its entire length, and to ocean-going vessels

as far as Egegik (q.v.), the largest settlement on the river, [ ?] which is

situated at the mouth where the river widens to about 2 miles. The King Salmon River

(q.v.), largest tributary to the Egegik, enters from the north at a point approximately

opposite the village of Egegik.

        The Alaska Packers Association maintains a cannery and wharf on

the Egegik River. The 80-foot wharf has a 5-ton crane and supplies of fresh

water. The cannery operates a machine shop which will take on small outside

repair work, but the supplies of fuel on the wharf are for c [ ?] nnery use only.

Libby, McNeill & Libby also. maintains a cannery and wharf on the river.

This wharf is 180 feet long but is dry at low water and available only to

small boats even at high tide. This wharf has a 5-ton crane and a marine

railway.

        The Egegik River, which has been variously reported for over a

century, was listed by Lütke in 1828 as the Ougagouk, from the Eskimo

name perhaps meaning swift .

Sources: Baker; USCP & Suppl.; Colby; Sundborg; VSGB; Tewkesbury

001      |      Vol_XII-0401                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins ELDORADO RIVER, ALASKA

October, 1948

        350 wds

        ELDORADO RIVER, southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, enters Port

Safety lagoon,on the north side of Norton Sound, about midway between Rocky

Point and Cape Rodney.

        The headwaters of the Eldorado are separated only by an extremely

[ ?] low divide from the Kruzgamepa, a tributary to Port Clarence. The

Eldorado flo w s almost directly south, first through a wide gravel-filled

basin, then through a narrow valley, whose floor merges with the coastal

plain.

        In the highland section of its course, the Eldorado is joined

from the west by Boldrin, North, and Moonlight Creeks, and, from the

east, by Grassman, Venetia, San Jose, Carl, and Mulligan Creeks. Pajara

Creek enters the Eldorado soon after it reaches the plain, and Beaver

Creek, the longest of these tributaries, joins the Eldorado a few miles

above its mouth.

        The Flambeau River also enters Port Safety lagoon. The Flambeau

rises west of the Eldorado, across a low divide separating it from the

upper reaches of the Nome River, and flows southeastward through a wide

valley to Port Safety. The Flambeau is joined by Iron, and Discovery

Creeks from the west, and by several unnamed streams from both sides of

its course.

        Fox Lake lies just to the west of the mouths of these two vi riv ers,

and is joined to an arm of Port Safety by a narrow channel.

        Port Safety, itself, is a small anchorage for light draft vessels.

The narrow entrance is about eight miles east of Cape Nome and is marked

by four buoys during the season of navigation.

002      |      Vol_XII-0402                                                                                                                  
ELDORADO RIVER

        On the former site of the small town of Safety, at the entrance

to the Port, there is now Port Safety Roadhouse. This roadhouse lies on

the winter trail which skirts the southern shores of Seward Peninsula from

Norton Bay westward.

        Beaver Creek, on that tribuatry to the Eldorado, is the only

true settlement in the entire district. It had a population of 17 in 1939,

and a landing strip 1,100 feet long.

001      |      Vol_XII-0403                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

March, 1948 ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA

        Text - 1,820 words

Bibl. - 100 words

        ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, east of Chamisso Island and Choris Peninsula, and

north of Spafarief Bay, indents the northeastern shores of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. The entrance, between Chamisso Island and the mainland, through

Spafarief Bay, is six or seven miles wide but shoal. East of Elephant Point,

on the mainland, the bay is navigable only for small boats, and the shore at

the head of the bay is difficult of access because of the long, muddy flats

which are bare at low water as much as one-third of a mile offshore. It is

possible that the bay is gradually filling up, and vessels proceeding eastward

from Chamisso Anchorage should use caution.

        Beechey examined this bay very carefully in September, 1826, and

reported as follows: "Having now the assistance of the barge, I embarked in

her to examine narrowly the shores of Kotzebue Sound. Proceeding to survey the

head of Escholtz Bay, shallow water obliged the boat to anchor off Elephant

Point, where I left Mr. Collie with a party to examine again the cliffs in which

the fossils and ice formation had been seen by Kotzebue, and proceeded to the

head of the bay in a small boat. We landed upon a flat muddy beach, and were

obliged to wade a quarter of a mile before we could reach a cliff for the pur–

pose of having a view of the surrounding country. Having gained its summit we

were graitified by the discovery of a large river coming from the southward, and

passing between our station and a range of hills. At a few miles distance the

river passed between rocky cliffs, whence the land on either side became hilly,

and interrupted our further view of its course. The width of the river was

about a mile and a half; but this space was broken into narrow and intricate

channels by banks — some dry, and others partly so. The stream passed rapidly

between them, and at an earlier period of the season a considerable body of water

must be poured into the sound; though, from the comparative width of the

002      |      Vol_XII-0404                                                                                                                  
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA

channels, the current in the latter is not much felt.

        "The shore around us was flat, broken by several lakes, in which

there were a great many wildfowl. The cliff we had ascended was composed of a bluis h

mud and clay, and was full of deep chasms lying in a direction parallel with the [ ?]

front of the eminence. In appearance this hill was s i milar to that at Elephant Point,

[ ?] which was said to contain fossils; but there were none seen here, though

the earth, in parts, had a disagreeable smell, similar to that which was supposed

to proceed from the decayed animal substances in the cliff near Elepphant Point."

        The 'large river' described by Beechey was the Buckland, one of the

major streams on Seward Peninsula, which enters the extreme southeastern corner

of Eschscholtz Bay. The only other named tributary, the Kauk River, a much

shorter stream, enters the northeastern side of the Bay.

        It was in the vicinity of Elephant Point that Kotzebue, in August,

1816, found what he called 'icebergs' on the shores of the bay. "On the 7th,"

he writes, "at 8 o'clock in the morning, we [ ?] left the Rurick, with a fresh

south-east wind, to explore the eastern part of the bay. We had already advanced

so far at noon, that we could distinctly observe, that the land was united every–

where: at the distance of a full mile from the shore, the water had decreased

to five feet; and the hope of discovering a river also vanished. (In this

Kotzebue was wrong, but the cliff which Beechey ascended ten years later,

obstructed his view of the southeastern corner of the bay, and therefore of

the mouth of the Buckland River.) Happily we found a convenie n t place for

landing; the current having formed a small tongue of land, where there was

[ ?] epth enough for us to approach with our long-boat, and I resolved to remain

there for the night. There were two small huts, near ourlanding-place, which

were raised several feet, supported by four pillars, and covered with morse-skin.

These huts did not seem constructed so much for continual residence, as for

magazines for their instruments, and hunting utensils. We here found very

003      |      Vol_XII-0405                                                                                                                  
ESCH [ ?] LHOLTZ B [ ?] Y, ALASKA

elegantly-made arms. I took several arrows, and put in their stead knives, and

a hatchet, on the handle of which, Rurick and the date of the year was carved.

Probably the Americans visit this place, at the hunting time. They perhaps also

keep rein-deer; as we saw many horns of these useful animals lying on the shore.

The land rises a little from t h e coast, but reaches to a considerable height;

and is only covered below with beautiful green, and above with moss...We had

climbed much about during our stay, without discovering that we were on real

ice-bergs. The doctor, who had extended his excursions, found part of the bank

broken down, and saw, to his astonishment, that the interior of the mountain, con–

sisted of pure ice. At this news, we [ ?] ll went, provided with shovels and crows,

to examine this phenomenon more closely, and soon arrived at a place where

the back rises almost perpendicularly out of the sea, to the height of a hundred

feet; and then runs off, rising still higher. We saw masses of the purest ice,

of the height of an hundred feet, which are under a cover of moss and grass; and

could not have produced, but by some terrible revolution. The place which, by

some accident, had fallen in, and is now exposed to the sun and air, melts away,

and a good deal of water flows into the sea. An indisputable proof that what we saw

was real ice, is the quantity of mammoths' teeth and bones, which were exposed to

view by the melting, and among which I myself found a very fine tooth. We

could not assign any reason, for a strong smell, like that of burnt horn, which

we perceived in this place. The covering of these mountains, on which the most

luxuriant grass grows to a certain height, is only half a foot thick, and con–

sists of a mixture of clay, sand, and earth; below which the ice gradually melts

away, the green cover sinks with it, and continues to grow; and thus it may be

foreseen, that in a long series of years, the mountain will vanish, and a green

valley be formed in its stead. By a good observation, we found the latitude of

the tongue of land 66° 15′ 36″, north...I called the bay after our physician,

Eschscholtz, as it was he that made the remarkable discovery there. It seemed

to be uninhabited, and only visited at a certain time of the year, on account

004      |      Vol_XII-0406                                                                                                                  
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA

of the hunting. I do not doubt, that there was a river between the high

mountains, which the shoals, however, would not permit us to investigate."

        Kotzebue was correct in this assumption, as Beechey was to prove

ten years later. Beechey also examined and named Elephant Point, of which he

writes: "I found Mr.Collie had been successful in his search among the cliffs

at Elephant Point, and had discovered several bones and grinders of elephants

and other animals in a fossil state, of which a full description and drawings

from the remains will be found in the Appendix. Associating these two dis–

coveries, I bestowed the name of Elephant upon the point, to mark its vicinity

to the place where the fossils were found; and upon the river that of Buck [ ?] and,

in compliment to Dr. Buck [ ?] nd, the professor of geology at Oxford, to wh [ ?] m I am

much indebted for the above mentioned description of the fossils, and for the

arrangement of the ge o logical memoranda attached to this work.

        "The cliff in which these fossils appear to have been imbedded is

part of the range in which the ice formation was seen in July. During our

absence (a space of five weeks) we found that the edge of the cliff in one

place had broken away four feet, and in another two feet and a half, and a

further portion of it was on the eve of being precipitated upon the beach. In

some places where the icy shi le el ds had adhered to the cliff nothing now remained,

and frozen earth formed the front of the cliff. But cutting through those parts

of the ice which were still attached, the mud in a frozen state presented itself

as before, and confirmed our previous opinion of the nature of the cliff. With–

out putting it to this test, appearances might well have led to the c l o nclusion

come to by Kotzebue and M. Escholtz; more especially if it happened to be

visi s t ed early in the summer, and in a season less favourable than that in which

we viewed it. The earth, which is fast falling away from the cliffs — not

in this place only, but in all parts of the bay — is carried away by the tide;

and throughout the summer there must be a tendency to diminish the depth of

005      |      Vol_XII-0407                                                                                                                  
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA

the water, wich at no very distant period will probably leave it navigable only

by boats. It is now so shallow off the ice cliffs, that a bank dries at two

miles' distance from the shore; and it is only at the shingly points which occur

opposite the ravines that a convenient landing can be effected with small boats."

        In 1901, Mendenhall gave the definitive explanation of the formation

of these ice cliffs. "Many wirters since Kotzebue have discussed the origin of

these cliffs, but the explanation given by Mr. L.M. Turner, Messrs. E.W.Nelson

and C.L. Hooper, and Prof. I.C. Russell seems to be entirely adequate. It is

that [ ?] the numerous lakelets scattered about over the tundra are gradually buried

by the advance of their mossy borders toward the center. After their burial they

are frozen, as is the entire tundra, a few inches below its surface and are later

revealed by later [ ?] al river cutting, as in the Kowak delta, or by the work of waves,

as at Elephant Point, and appear as masses of comparatively clear ice in the

general deposit of frozen mud, sands, and vegetable matter."

        Of the north side of the bay, Beechey wrote: "In our return to the

ship to deposit the fossils, a calm obliged us to anchor on the north side of the

bay, where we landed with difficulty, in consequence of the shallowness of the

beach, and of several ridges of sa n d thrown up parallel with it, too near the sur–

face for the boat to pass over, and with channels of water between them too

deep to wade through without getting completely wet. The country abounded in

l a kes, in which were many wild ducks, geese, teal, and widgeon; and was of the

same swampy nature before described: it was covered with moss, and occasionally

by low bushes of juniper, cranberry, whortleberry, and cloudberry. Near this

spot, two days before, we saw a herd of eleven reindeer, and shot a musk rat."

        Eschscholtz Bay is about 27 miles long and 11 miles wide at the

greatest. Aside from several shelter cabins and a reindeer station, at the

mouth of the Kauk River, the only settlement in the vicnity is Baldwin, a few

miles in [ ?] and and west from Elephant Point. There is a 1100-foot landing area

near Baldwin, and the village is on the winter trail which leads from Deering

006      |      Vol_XII-0408                                                                                                                  
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA

and Kiwalik northward to the Kobuk River and to Kotzebue (q.v.), on Baldwin

Peninsula.

007      |      Vol_XII-0409                                                                                                                  
[ ?] ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voya [ g ?] e to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...in Narrative of a Voya [ g ?] e to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...in

the years 1825, 26, 27, 28. the years 1825, 26, 27, 28. London, 1 0 831. 2v.

Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's

Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Translated by H.E. Lloyd.

London, 1821. 3v.

Mendenhall, W.C. Reconnaissance from Frot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska. Reconnaissance from Frot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska.

Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper, Professional Paper,

No.10)

U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II. Alaska. Part II.

001      |      Vol_XII-0410                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins ETOLIN STRAIT, ALASKA

July, 1948

        840 wds.

        ETOLIN STRAIT, western Alaska, separates Nunivak Island

(q.v.) from the section of the mainland between the mouths of the Kuskokwim

and the Yukon Rivers (q.v.). For several miles offshore from the main–

land, mud flats and extremely shoal water obstruct navigation of the

strait all the way from Cape Avinof, [ ?] its southeastern entrance point,

to Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island. A few miles above Cape Avinof, Kinak

Bay indents the lake-strewn mainland. The head of this bay is divided

by a small peninsula point of land which separates the mouths of the two rivers, the

Kuguklik and the Kinak, which flow into the bay from the northeast.

The first of these rivers rises in an unnamed lake east of the bay

and about 18 miles inland. The native settlement of Kipnuk is on this

river a few miles up from its mouth. Some maps show the Kinak River

rising in Dall Lake about 20 miles northeast of Kinak Bay which lake also

drains into Kinia River. The Kinia flows in a generally southwesterly

direction to empty into Etolin Strait about 18 miles north of Kinak

Bay. In December, 1878, Edward William Nelson [ ?] v isited the two towns

on the Kinia, Chichinak and Sfaganuk, and reported their names [ ?] with

variants of their present form. A few miles north of the Kinia the southern

channel to Baird Inlet empties into the strait. This and the more

northerly channel to the inlet cut Nelson Island off from the mainland.

Agiukchuk, the only settlement on this southern channel was also

visited by Nelson in 1878.

        Baird Inlet, which, except for two narrow channels each

about 22 miles long, is cut off from Etolin Strait and Bering Sea by Nelson

Island. Baird Inlet is a large body of water about 36 miles long from each to west

and about 18 miles from north to south at the widest points. The

It lies somewhat south of midway of the stretch of coast separating

002      |      Vol_XII-0411                                                                                                                  
ETOLIN STRAIT

the mouth s of the Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers. The country on all sides

of the inlet is low, marshy, lake-studded tundra. Many of these lakes

empty one into the other or drain into small rivers and stream, a

great number of which find their way into the inlet. Petrof named this

body of water in 1880 after Professor Spencer F. Baird, the Secretary

of the Smithsonian Institution. Very little is known about this part

of Alaska and most of the lakes and rivers, with the exception of Dall

Lake, about 10 miles south of the head of the inlet, are unnamed and

unexplored.

        Nelson Island fits closely into the mouth of Baird Inlet.

It lies northeast across Etolin Strait northeast of from the north end of Nunivak

Island. Nelson Island is about 43 miles from north to south and about

33 miles from east to west at the widest points. Mud flats obstruct the

southern channel to Baird Inlet and appear again just south of the

northern channel entrance . The northern, eastern, and southern sections

of the island are low, the southern being dotted with tiny lakes, but the

mid-western section is hilly, particularly along the peninsula which juts

out from this western side toward Nunivak Island. Cape Vancouver, the

westernmost tip of this peninsula, rises boldly 1,000 feet above the

water. The shoal water which extends northward from the mouth of the

Kuskokwim River persists along the southern side of this peninsula

past the settlement of Kaliukluk, on the south side of the cape. Deep

water lies directly off the c C ape Vancouver and continues along the north side

of the bite on which Tanunak, a native village of about 65 people, is

situated. From Tanunak northeastward along the shore of the island the

mudflats reappear and persist to the mouth of the northern channel to

Baird Inlet. Kashigaluk, in the center of the island, with a 1939

population of 10, and Kaioliuk, on the north shore a few miles east

003      |      Vol_XII-0412                                                                                                                  
ETOLIN STRAIT

of Tanunak are the only other settlements on the island.

        Etolin Strait was discovered by Adolph Karlovich Etolin in

1821, twenty years before he was made governor of the Russian American

Colonies. He called it Cook Strait after Captain James Cook, but

Krusenstern proposed that it be called Etolin Strait, by which name it

is generally indicated on current maps.

        The mainland east of the strait is part of the 30,000–

square-mile stretch of marsh and tundra between the mouths of the

Kukokwim and the Yukon which is the major breeding ground for the

water fowl not only of Alaska but also for all of western Canada and

the United States. So many ducks and geese nest and rear their young

in this area that the natives collect their eggs by the boatload in

the spring and drive geese by the thousands of geese and half-grown birds into net corrals in July.

Annabel reported in 1948 that not only was their no adequate enforcement

of the laws to protect these fowl from destruction at human hands, but

also that coyotes had found their way into this part of Alaska within the

last few years and that they were adding considerably to the slaughter.

Since this is the major source of game fowl for the United States and

Canada both , it would seem most necessary that protective measures be

taken with all possible speed.

        -----

Sources: uscp;Baker; Annabel. Hunting and Fishing in Alaska; Tewkesbury

Colby; Sundborg

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0413                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 100 wds FAIRWAY ROCK, ALASKA

        FAIRWAY ROCK (65°37′ N.Lat., 168° 44′ W.Long.) Bering Strait,

Alaska, lies nine or ten miles southeast of Little Diomede Island. Fairway

is a 200-foot steep-sided, square-headed granite rock with deep water on all

sides and no outlying dangers.

        According to W.T. Lopp, a late nineteenth century missionary to

the Cape Prince of Wales Eskimos, and namesake of Lopp Lagoon, the top of

Fairway Rock is several acres in area and is absolutely flat. Since its

characteristics are similar and its altitude only slightl y less than that of York

Plateau, it is probably of the same period of erosion.

Sources: Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissance in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, Reconnaissance in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska,

in 1900. in 1900. Washington, [ ?] 1901.

001      |      Vol_XII-0414                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins GOLOVNIN BAY REGION,

September, 1948 ALASKA

Revised October, 1948

        2180 wds - Text

50 wds - Bibl.

        GOLOVNIN BAY (Golofnin), a northern arm of Norton Sound, western

Alaska, was discovered in 1821 by Kromchenko and named after his ship, which

in turn had been named for Captain Vasili Mikhailovich Golofnin, of the

Russian Navy.

        ¶ Golovnin Bay cuts into the south side of Seward Peninsula

west of Norton Bay. The 12-mile wide entrance to this bay extends from

Cape Darby on the east to Rocky Point on the west. From these two points,

the bay extends northward for about twelve miles to its head, where a

two-mile entrance leads into Golovnin Sound. This sound extends about 9

miles in a northwesterly direction to the many-channeled mouth of the Fish

River. About 8 miles above Cape Darby tiny Carolyn Island stands about

one-quarter of a mile off the eastern shore of the bay.

        The foothills of the Darby Mountains extend along the peninsula

which forms the eastern side of the bay, but nowhere approach the shores

very closely except in the vicinity of Cape Darby itself. Inland from the

sand spit which ju ts out from the eastern shore of the bay at the entrance

to Golovnin Sound, the land is low and swampy, and, across the entire head

of the sound, extends a swamp which reaches several miles inland, completely

enclosing the tortuous channels of the mouths of the Fish and Klokerblok

Rivers.

        This swampland and tundra continues halfway down the western

side of the bay and reappears on the point of land , and on the tidal island ,

which extend [ ?] from the west side of the bay towards the sand-spit opposite ,

at the entrance to Golovnin Sound. For the five miles southward to Rocky

Point the western side of Golovnin Bay is high and bold, although fringed

with a low, sandy beach.

        ¶ There is good anchorage with protection from all

winds in the vicinity of the southern sandspit in the entrance to Golovnin

002      |      Vol_XII-0415                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION, ALASKA

Sound, but an extensive shoal cuts across this entrance from the western

side of the bay to within three-quarters of a mile of the eastern shore.

The channel runs around the eastern end of this shoal and so into Golovnin

Sound, which is extremely shallow thoughout and open only to small steamers.

McKee describes this sound as "a large and shallow body of water with

treacherous mud-flats, surrounded by great barren hills and the all-pervading

tundra." There is a mission and reindeer station a few miles above Cape

Darby on the eastern shore of the bay, but the only true settlement in this

area is Golovnin, (see below).

        The Kachauik River enters Golovnin Sound a few miles above Golovnin,

and the Fish River, major tributary to the sound, and one of the largest

streams in southern Seward Peninsula, enters at the head.

        The Fish rises in the Bendeleben Mountains about midway between

Death Valley and Mount Bendeleben. After about 7 miles, it works its way

southward out of the mountains, then, flowing [ ?] in a southwesterly direction,

crosses a twelve-mile stretch of low, marshy tundra, called the Fish River

Flats, then passes thro u gh a mountain chain of 1,000-foot peaks, and finally

veers southward to follow a meandering course down fifteen miles (airline)

of tundra to the head of Golovnin Sound. White Mountain, the main Fish

River settlement, (see below), lies about midway of this section of the river.

        The mountains of the upper Fish River rise to 3,500 feet, and the

valleys through which the main river and its tributaries flow are U-shaped

and glaciated. There is some timber along the streams in the Fish River

Flats area, but otherwise the country is barren of trees. From the west,

in the Flats section of its course, the Fish receives the waters of Boston

Creek, with its two tributaries Baker and Oregon Creeks, and of Pargon River.

It is also joined from the east by Mosquito Creek, Rathlatulik River,

Etchepak River, and Cache Creek.

003      |      Vol_XII-0416                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION, ALASKA

        Pargon River rises in the vicinity of Chauik Mountain, is

joined by Duncan Creek from the south after leavin g the mountains, and enters

the Fish a few miles above its junction with Cache Creek.

        Almost immediately after leaving the mountains below the Flats,

the Fish is joined from the west by its main tributary, the N iukluk River

(q.v.), and, a few miles farther south, by Fox River.

        The Fox rises in the divide separating the Fish River system from

the Solomon (q.v.), the next major river to the west, and flows first

northeastward and then eastward to the Fish. It is j oined by Horton, Slate,

Suiro, and Dewey Creeks at fairly regular intervals along its 17-mile course.

        A few miles below the mouth of the Fox, a group of low hills

diverts the Fish River, the main channel curving around to the west of these

hills, and Steamboat Slough flowing to the east of them. Both these streams

converge, together with Klokerblok River, immediately to the south of this

group of hills, to feed the branched, delta-like mouth of the Fish River.

        The [ ?] Klokerblok originates in the mountains to the west

of the Fish and just north of the Bluff Region (q.v.), at the junction of

O'Brien and Kentucky Creeks. Along the early,mountainous,nine-mile section

of its course, it is joined by Skookum River, with its tributaries, Boil,

Goldbottom, Sourdough, Eureka, and Dewey, and by Basin, Thompson, and

Colorado Creeks. It then continues for another nine miles across the

coastal tundra to the Fish River, being joined by several unnamed streams

on the way.

        Settlements

        The only habitations along the first half of the Fish River are

Omilak, on an early tributary to Mosquito Creek, Telephone Shelter Cabin,

and Boston Shelter Cabin, but White Mountain, at the confluence of the Fish

and the Klokerblok Rivers, is one of the major settlements for the entire

Fish River area. [ ?]

        Around 1900, White Mountain was merely a group of log cabins

004      |      Vol_XII-0417                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION, ALASKA

and a storehouse point for the Wild Goose Mining and Trading Company, which

Chales D. Lane was then operating with remarkable success on Ophir Creek,

in the Council District north of White Mountain.

        Leaving behind the disappointments, hardships, and confusion of

the Nome beach, Lanier Mc K ee made the trip, complete with a library of law

books, from Nome to Council City in July, 1900, stopping at Golovnin and

White Mountain on the way. At Golovnin (which he called Chenik), he and

his three companions built a narrow, shallow-draft boat of the type necessary

for the journey, and christened it the Mush-on . The Arctic Bird [ ?] , a light–

draft stern-wheeler, then making regular runs between Golovnin and White

Mountain, towed them the first twenty-five miles of their trip. McKee

writes: "The Mush-on was the last of the string in tow, which consisted of

a small barge or lighter, containing Wild Goose Company machinery, and the

boats of several others, who were also going up the rivers ... After running

upon and backing off various mud-flats, at midnight the Arctic Bird rested at

the delta of the Fish River ... It was, of course, daylight, — a weird,

grayish effect, — and fairly, but not disagreeably, cold. Then we entered

and pushed slowly up the swift and shallow stream, the mosquitos, for the

first time in our wanderings to date, making themselves manifest and felt ...

For the first time there was a semblance of "God's country." The beautifully

clear stream, — flanked on each side by scrub willows and an occasional small

spruce-tree, — whose tempting water one could dip up and drink ad libitum ,

seemed in places filled with fish, darting swiftly about above the gravel

bed. Hills that appeared more like mountains loomed up in the distance,

gray in the early light. There was the inevitable tundra, of course,

but it seemed less all-pervading — it had finally met with some competition ...

Many times the Arctic Bird would run upon a riffle (where the water runs very

shallow over the gravel), to be temporarily baffled and obliged to back off

005      |      Vol_XII-0418                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION,ALASKA

and seek another course. The stream averaged hardly two feet in depth ...

By noon we were disembarked and camped at White Mountain, a few feet from

the river ... this was the best camping-spot yet. The scene was pretty;

it seemed a healthful place; and water, plentiful and good, was very near

at [ ?] hand."

        As this shows, even in those days, lighterage companies were

making regular trips between Golovnin and White Mountain, which was then,

and still is, head of light-draft navigation on the Fish River. Today

small craft still bring supplies into the district, but a great deal of

freight is carried by air. [ ?]

        White Mountain, with a 1939 population of about 200, now has a

1,500-foot runway for land planes, a post-office, and telephone connection

with Nome. Of the three general stores, two are r un by whites, and the other,

a cooperative, by a Native named Abraham Lincoln. The town also has one

of the few Alaska Native Service Boarding Schools yet established in the

entire Territory.

        Golovnin, on the east side of the bay, was formerly called Chenik, or Dexter's,

after the pioneer who settled there in the [ ?] late 1880's. The Indians

called this settlement Chenik (Cheenik), and Mckee described it, in 1900,

as a scattered settlement on a high hill containing a small Swedish Evangelical

Church Mission, which was caring for 50 or 60 natives. The summer of 1900

brought an epidemic of measles and pneumoni [ ?] which killed whole families,

and which turned the mission into a hospital for most of the natives of

the region.

        Golovnin is now a fishing and mining town of 116 or more people

with a school, post-office, roadhouse, licensed fur dealer, and a Mission

Convent Church. There are two general stores in the village, two herring

salteries, and two lighterage companies carrying freight up and down the

Fish River between White Mountain and Golovnin. In addition to several

006      |      Vol_XII-0419                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION [ ?]

reindeer corrals, there is a cold storage plant for reindeer meat. The

town is connected by telephone with Nome, St. Michael, and Council, and

there is a 2,000-foot landing field for wheeled planes, as well as a

9,900-foot sheltered anchorage for seaplanes on each side of the spit upon

which the town is located.

        History

        Golovnin Bay was an important starting point for a series of

expedition s which [ ?] culminated in the discovery of gold near Council,

on the Niukluk, and its subsequent discover y near Nome. The first explorers

of the interior of Seward Peninsula were the members of the Western

Union Telegraph Company Expedition of 1865-66, who, under the leadership

of Baron Otto von Bendeleben, were seeking a route from G olovnin Bay to

Port Clar ne en ce on Bering Sea for the proposed telegraph line from the United

States to Europe by what way of Canada, Alaska, and Siberia. This party

        27 [ ?]

007      |      Vol_XII-0420                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION

ascended Golovnin Bay and the Fish River, turned up the Niukluk, crossed

the divide, and went down the Kruzgamepa. Then came the news that the

second Atlantic cable had been successfully laid in the summer of 1866,

and the Western Union explorers were hastily recalled. It is said

that they left behind them valuable machinery, piles of telephone poles,

and many fragile wire bridges. They left behind also the gold which Bendeleben

and several of his men had noticed along the Niukluk River. In 1881, John

Dexter, one of the employees of the Alaska Gold and Silver Mining, Milling

and Trading Company (later the Russian American Milling Co.) which

mined galena on Bering Sea and also worked a few gold placers on the

Fish River, left the company and opened a trading station at the present

site of Golovnin, then called Chenik or Dexter's. The galena-gold mining company

closed down, but Dexter stayed in the area and continued to prospect for

gold. Daniel B. Libby, who had been with Bendeleben in 1865-66, was

so forcibly reminded by the Klondike Strike of 1897 of the gold on the

Niukluk, that, despite his age and relative ill-health, he found a backer

and sailed from San Francisco for Golovnin Bay, arriving in August, 1897.

The silver-lead Omalik Mine was already in operation, and a Norwegian

named Johannsen , had panned gold on the Niukluk in 1894 , but had abandoned

it for the Yukon, so that Libby had some indication of the value of the

country. Tom Guarick, an Eskimo , whom Dexter had taught to pan, offered to

guide the Libby party to Ophir Creek, where he had reclaimed an ounce of

gold while on a hunting trip. Libby accepted this offer, and h [ ?] s party,

having made the trip and spent a winter prospecting the entire area,

in the spring of 1898 staked their claims and recorded the Eldorado

Mining District, in the vicinity of Ophir Creek. In so doing they founded

Council City which was to prove to be the first producing camp on Seward

Peninsula. It was from Golovnin Bay that Eric O. Lindblom, Jafet

        28 [ ?]

008      |      Vol_XII-0421                                                                                                                  
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION

Lindeberg, and John Brynteson set out on September 11, 1898 for their

history-making prospecting expedition to the future Nome District during which

they staked Discovery claim on Anvil Creek. When news of this strike

reached Golovnin Bay , it started the Nome Gold Rush which affected first

Golovnin, and particularly John Dexter, then Council, St. Michael and the

Bristol Bay area, then Yukon, and finally the west coast of the United States, and thus

initiat ed ing the economic development of the entire Seward Peninsula.

        7 [ ?]

        Sources: Colby, Tewkesbury; USCP; VSGB;

Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyschlennik, and Sourdough. Alaska, Promyschlennik, and Sourdough.

Norman, Okla., Univ. of Oklahoma

press, 1945.

        French, L.H. Seward's Land of Gold. Seward's Land of Gold. N. Y., Montross, Clarke & Emmons (n.d.)

        French, L.H. Nome Nuggets. Nome Nuggets. N.Y.,Montross, 1901.

        Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., Scribner, 1925.

        Mckee, Lanier. Land of Nome. Land of Nome. N.Y., Grafton (c1902)

001      |      Vol_XII-0422                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA

March, 1949

        Text- 820 wds.

Bibl- 25 wds.

        GOODHOPE BAY, in the southeastern part of Kotzebue Sound,

an arm of the Polar Sea, indents the northern [ ?] hore of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska. Kotzebue named this bay in August of 1816. "I gave up for the

present," he wrote, "the farther examination of this arm, as it would cost

me too much time on account of the shoals, and put it off till next year,

when I might continue it by means of very small baydares from Oonalashka. I

called this bay, the Bay of Good Hope, as I might really hope to make a

very remarkable discovery here. The coasts on the northern part of the arm

rise to a considerabl e height, but gradually become lower the farther one

penetrates to the N., where there are many small lakes and rivers. The

southern coast of the arm is low, and continues so as far as the eye can

reach. It is only in the vicinity of the Devil's mountain, which is fifteen

miles from here, that it becomes mountainous. The land is every where green,

but has not a single bush on it."

        As Kotzebue was to discover, this bay is quite shallow. (See

Devil Mountain article.) It does, however, receive three good-sized tribu–

taries: the Nugnugaluktuk, Lane, and Pish Rivers. The first of these was

recorded by Witherspoon, in 1903. Lane is a prospector's name given to the

stream known to the Eskimos as the Kugachuk . The Pish, likewise, is known

to the natives as the Kutuk . However, neither of these original names

appears on recent maps.

        The Nugnugaluktuk [ ?] rises in a lake twenty or so miles

inland and flows through a divide south of 880-foot Devil Mountain, and

then continues almost directly eastward to the bay. Lane and Pish Rivers

rise in a low divide east of the Serpentine River system and flow northeast–

ward for about twenty miles to the bay.

        The arbitrary line separating the Port Clarence mining district

002      |      Vol_XII-0423                                                                                                                  
GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA

from the Fairhaven precinct passes between the Pish and the Goodhope

Rivers. Goodhope River is the next more easterly affluent to Goodhope Bay.

        The Goodhope system drains an area of 500 square miles. The

main river rises among the lava flows a few miles northwest of Imuruk

Lake (q.v.), proceeds westward for about twenty-five miles, then turns

northward and northeastward for another twenty-five miles, and debouches into

Goodhope Bay. The river may be said to o riginate at the junction of Right

Fork and Cottonwood Creek. Cottonwood, with its tributaries, Trail, Divide,

and Noyes Creeks, are the most important early tributaries, while Esperanza,

placer, and Humbolt Creeks are the main streams in the western portion of

the Goodhope basin. The gravel in the beds of these streams is so coarse

and loose that almost all the low water flow sinks into it and out of sight.

Above placer Creek, the basin includes an area of interbedded limestone and

schist, covered with lava, into which the river has cut a fairly deep and

narrow valley. Below placer Creek the river valley broadens considerably and

merges with the coastal flats.

        R ight Fork has carved a narrow canyon in the lava and receives

part of its water supply from lava springs, which may in turn receive some

water from Imuruk Lake. Because of these springs, Right Fork is more plenti–

fully supplied with water during the summer than some of the other streams

in this system.

        About 1908, some gold was found in these early tributaries to the

Goodhope, but mining did not flourish in this region, probably because of the

lack of a reliable water supply during the summer months, which is the only time

[ ?] when [ ?] placer mining can be carried on [ ?] in this part of Alaska.

003      |      Vol_XII-0424                                                                                                                  
GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA

Traveling eastward around Goodhope Bay, the next tributary is Cripple

River, which receives the waters of Oregon, Mystery, Hoodlu m , Polar Bear,

Excelsior, Long, and Eagle [ ?] (or Pot) Creeks. The Cripple is only

about ten miles long and takes a generally northwesterly direction from the

same lava flows as those in which the Goodhope rises.

        Still traveling eastward, Francis, Clifford, Rex, Sullivan,

and Fox Creek, all relatively short streams, flow into the Bay.

        Although considerable numbers of natives live in this region,

there are no named communities. The nearest settlement is Deering, east

of Sullivan Creek and Point Deceit, at the mouth of the Inmachuk River (q.v.).

The Eskimos here earn their living [ ?] by hunting, fishing, and trapping,

activities which are not hindered by the underlying permafrost in the soil,

as [ ?] are the mining endeavors of the white man.

004      |      Vol_XII-0425                                                                                                                  
GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,

1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper 314)

Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's

Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 ./ London, 1821. 3v.

Translated by H.E. Lloyd.

001      |      Vol_XII-0426                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins GOODNEWS BAY AREA

6 July 48

        1824 wds.

        GOODNEWS BAY, a small, southeastern arm of Bering Sea

south of Kuskokwim Bay, lies just north of 59° N. Lat. and across

161° 40′ W. Long. Two shingle spits, North Spit and South Spit,

reduce the entrance to less than a mile, but there is a deep channel

which leads through the entrance and for a distance of about one mile

inside. This channel affords good anchorage for ocean-going vessels,

but beyond it, for the remaining 8 or 9 miles to Goodnews, at the head

of the bay, the water is shoal and is swept by tidal currents reaching

a maximum of 2 1/2 knots, and, with southerly or easterly winds, by

dangerous rip tides. The tidal range is about 9 feet. Under Beluka

Hill on the north side of the bay 6 feet of water will be found at low

tide, and other deeper anchorages have been reported just inside the

entrance, but most parts of this bay have not been surveyed recently

so that strangers to the region should attempt it only in daylight,

on a rising tide, and with constant use of the lead.

        The largest tributary to Goodnews Bay is Goodnews River

which rises in Goodnews Lake and takes a meandering course southwest–

ward for about 45 miles to the head of the bay. The Ahklun Range

borders the river basin more closely on the northwest than on the

southeast although tributaries to the Goodnews rise in the heights

and mountain lakes on both sides of its course. Middle Fork and

South Fork, the two largest tributaries to the Goodnews, enter from

the east near its mouth. From north to south the main western tribu–

taries are Canyon, Bear, Slate, Olympic, Cascade, Wattamuse, Granite,

and Barnum Creeks. Of these, Barnum, which is joined by Camp Creek,

is the largest. In addition to these tributaries, many small streams

002      |      Vol_XII-0427                                                                                                                  
GOODNEWS BAY AREA

unnamed streams drain from nearby lakes and mountains into the Goodnews

River.

        Beluka Mountain and Lump Mountain border the northern shore

of Goodnews Bay near its head, and several other peaks in the Ahklun Range

rise above the narrow strip of lowland which edges the southern shore of

the bay. These include: Red Mountain, just south of the village of

Platinum, at the base of South Spit; Thorsen Mountain, a few miles south of

Red Mountains; and Susie Mountains a few miles to the east. Crater Hill,

Pyramid Peak, and Dome Mountain lie northeastward from Susie Mountain.

Salmon River follows the valley between Red and Susie Mountains southwest–

ward to Kuskokwim Bay at a point about midway between Chagvan and Goodnews

Bays. The Salmon is joined by Clara Creek and Platinum Creek from the west

and by Medicine Creek from the east. Smalls River rises in a high mountain

valley between Susie Mountain and Crater Hill and flows northwestward into

Goodnews Bay. Tundra Creek joins Smalls River a few miles from its mouth,

and the town of Platinum is on the west side of the mouth.

        Between these peaks in the Ahklun Range and along the whole

extent of the Goodnews River Basin the country is treeless tundra which,

during the summer, is covered with moss and many kinds of wild flowers.

Although the soil is too acid and the climate too rainy for any kind of

crop, the vicinity supports large herds of reindeer and a variety of

other wildlife including fox, ducks, geese, mink, and muskrat.

        In 1926, Walter Smith, an Eskimo, confided to another Eskimo,

Henry Whuya, that he had found 'white gold' in Fox Gulch at the south

end of Red Mountain. Whuya told Charles Thorsen, an old resident and

[ ?] [ ?] miner, about this discovery. Thorsen collected some

samples from the same spot and sent them to Fairbanks for analysis. The

'white gold' was platinum. For many years gold had been known to exist

and had been mined in a small way north of Goodnews Bay, but Smith's find

003      |      Vol_XII-0428                                                                                                                  
GOODNEWS BAY AREA

was the first indication that there was platinum south of the bay.

Thorsen continued his prospecting in the area and discovered platinum

in Clara Creek in 1928. That same year Edward St. Clair made a similar

find on Squirrel Creek. In October, 1936, while three Alaska miners

were hand-drilling on the beach near the head of Goodnews Bay they

hit a heavy layer of platinum gravel on bedrock at about 38 feet. This

gravel was said to be worth about $3.00 per cubic yard. The miners

S taked a claim and then went Outside to buy machinery and tools with

which to work it. News of their find leaked out, reached newspaper

headlines, and started another rush to Alaska. Goodnews River was

staked for miles upstream, new prospectors arrived daily by boat and

plane, and tent cities sprang up around Platinum and the old native

village of Mumtrak, near the head of the bay. Platinum, which had

previously been the site of a few native huts and a trading post,

grew to an estimated 50 in 1938 and to about 600 in 1947, by which

time the town had a general store, a third class post office, a road–

house, a radio sales and repair shop, a fur dealer, a liquor store,

and a bowling alley supported by the Goodnews Bay Mining Company.

Although the town lacked such basic facilities as a hospital or a

school, it did have a pet-shop and kennel specializing in springer

spaniels. The present landing field is 2,120 feet long by 100 feet

wide, and there is a second order CAA weather bureau station in the

town.

004      |      Vol_XII-0429                                                                                                                  
GOODNEWS BAY AREA

The known platinum deposits south of Red Mountain are

important not only because they represent the first placers in Alaska

workable primarily for platinum, but also because they are much richer

than any others so far developed in the United States or its possessions,

despite the fact that the bedrock source of these placers has not

yet been discovered. An analysis of the 1945 platin um, production

figures: Alaska, 26,505 ounces; California, 43 ounces; Oregon, 3

ounces, making a total of 26,551 ounces, shows how slight is the

extra-Alaska contribution to the United States platinum industry.

The following table gives the history of placer platinum production

in Troy ounces:

005      |      Vol_XII-0430                                                                                                                  
GOODNEWS BAY AREA

1927 - 17 ½	1939 - 32,460
1931 - 506	1940 - 33,800
1932 - 720	1941 - 26,221
1933 - 793	1942 - 23,213
1934 - 3,101	1943 - 27,162
1935 - 8,685	1944 - 33,625
1936 - 8,825	1945 - 26,551
1937 - 9,823	1946 - 22, 882 949
1938 - 40,932

        Since 1938 the United States has been the fourth largest

producer of platinum in the world, being preceded by Canada, the

U.S.S.R., and the Union of South Africa, in that order, and being

followed by Colombia, which up to that year had held fourth place.

with the suspension of the OPA price of $35.00 per Troy ounce

on April 29, 1946, the price rose to between $95.00 and $100.00

within the year.

        Platinum, once the supreme luxury metal, was put to hard,

practical use during the war in bomb sights, radar equipment,

magneto contacts, spark plug electrodes, and grids in high frequency

transmission valves. It was used as a catalyst in the manufacture

of nitric acid and for spinerettes and brushings in the manufacture

of rayon. Beginning in 1945 the percentage of sales for chemical,

electrical, dental, and medical purposes dropped markedly, and in

1946 the jewelry manufacturers took 61% of all the platinum produced,

reinstating the metal to its pre-war, primarily decorative status.

        In the early days of platinum mining in the Goodnews Bay

area, a great many individual operators worked separate claims.

Since no one profited under this system, a movement toward consolida–

tion began, so that T t he Goodnews Bay Mining Company now holds a controlling

interest in the area. Incorporated in 1935, this company held, by

1947, more than 150 claims covering 2500 acres of the vicinity around

006      |      Vol_XII-0431                                                                                                                  
GOODNEWS BAY AREA

        6 Platinum. The company maintains an 8 cubic foot dredge with a crew

of approximately 63, a gold-platinum placer with two 4 1/4 yard drag

lines, and a washing plant employing approximately 10 men. Mining

can be carried on in this area with a dragline excavator for about

5 1/2 months of the year. A December, 1947, report tells of the

Goodnews Bay Mining Company personnel flying out and the mine closing

down. The main plant at Platinum Creek is electrified. It has

power for the cleanup plant, the repair shop and the well-equipped

machine shop. There are bunkhouses for single workmen and about

11 small houses for married personnel. There is also a good gravel

road connecting the camp with Platinum.

        The amount of platinum recovered from this area is so great

that in 1938 the Goodnews Bay Mining Company entered into a sales

contract with one of the largest refiners and sellers of platinum in

the United States not only to refine their product but also to feed

it to the market gradually so as to hold up the price. The Goodnews

Bay Mining Company produces about $25,000 to $30,000 worth of platinum

and gold a month. Total 1939 production for the entire Goodnews

Bay area was $300,000 in platinum and $100,000 in gold. Analysis

of the rocks in the vicinity shows the presence of chromium, nickel,

and copper, but not in sufficient quantity to pay for their recovery.

        Efforts are still being made to discover the bedrock source

of the platinum in the Goodnews Bay area. Red and Susie Mountains are both composed of

ultrabasic rocks of the kind with which platinum is usually associated. Since the

northwestern side of Red Mountain was once covered by the Goodnews Glacier, a condition

which would tend to dissipate rather than concentrate any metallic elements which might

be present there, and since most of the placers have been found on the eastern side of

the mountain, it is felt that the lode deposits must lie along those eastern slopes.

However, according to Mertie's report of 1939, they had not yet been found.

007      |      Vol_XII-0432                                                                                                                  
GOODNEWS BAY AREA

        -7-

        The only other towns in the Goodnews Bay area are Goodnews,

and Mumtrak near the head of the bay, Goodnews Bay, shown on some

maps at the base of North Spit, and Barnum, 8 or 9 miles up the

Goodnews River.

        Mumtrak had a population of about 161 in 1936 and a

Federal school. Barnum had a population of 27 in 1939, and Goodnews

Bay, with a population of about 48, is the post office for the area

north of the bay. These four towns are on or are connected with the long

winter trail which runs westward from two points on Shelikof Strait,

joining towns on Iliamna Lake, Kvichak and Nushagak Bays with villages

to the west. A branch of this trail connects Mumtrak with Platinum.

At Goodnews Bay the trail turns northward and follows the coast of

Kuskokwim Bay to [ ?] Eek and Bethel.

        In 1826 Sarichef gave this bay the Russian equivalent

of 'Goodnews,' Port Dobriek Vestei, and Lutke recorded it as Bonnes

Nouvelles Baie, adding "it might better be called the bay of false

reports ." His criticism may have been based on the difficulties

of navigating the bay, but no one, since Johnnie Kilbuck first told

of finding 'white gold'near Red Mountain has thought of Goodnews

Bay as "the bay of false reports."

[ Davis, Hubertw, & Grewspoon, Gerturde M. Platinium aelied [necials?]

1946.) Wash. GPO, 1947.

Sources: USCP & Suppl

Colby

US. Bus. of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, 1946 Wash. G.P.O. 1948

Mertie, J. B., Jr. "Platinum deposits of the Goodnews Bay District Alaska

Wash. GPO 1939 (U.D. Geol. Swu. Bulletin 910-B.)

?]

001      |      Vol_XII-0433                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins GRANTLEY HARBOR, ALASKA

November, 1948

        1,000 wds - Text

50 wds - Bibl.

        GRANTLEY HARBOR, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is an almost

land-locked arm of Port Clarence ,which itself leads by way of Tuksuk Channel into Imuruk Basin (q.v.). . It can be entered by vessels drawing

less than twelve feet and provides an excellent, well-protected anchor–

age for such small vessels.

        Directly across from Teller, the northern sand spit at the en–

trance to Grantley Harbor is marked by a light, and buoys mark the channel

during the season of navigation. The small-boat landing in the Harbor

consists of floats which are raised or lowered on tracks. There are

no docks in the Harbor, and this float-landing is difficult during [ ?]

storms.

002      |      Vol_XII-0434                                                                                                                  
GRANTLEY HARBOR

        Captain Frederick William Beechey, having already sailed around

Port Clarence, entered Grantley Harbor on September 1, 1827. He was

the first white man to [ ?] do so, and [ ?] describes the place as

follows: "On examination with the boats, we found, as we expected, an

inner harbour [ Grantley Harbour ] , ten miles in length by two and a

quarter in width, with almost an uniform depth of two and a half and

three fathoms water. The channel into it from the outer harbour is

extremely naorrow, the entrance being contracted by two sandy spits;

but the water is deep, and in one part there is not less than twelve

fathoms. At the upper end of the harbour a second strait, about three

hundred yards in width, was formed between steep cliffs; but this

channel [ Tuksuk Channel ] was also contracted by sandy points. The

current ran strong through the channel, and brought down a great body

of water, nearly fresh...The boats had not time to pursue this strait;

but in all probability it communicates with a large inland lake [ Imuruk

Basin ] , as described by the natives of Kotzebue Sound. At the entrance

of the strait, called Tokshook by the natives, there is an Esquimaux

village, and upon the northern and eastern shores of the harbour there are

two others: the population of the whole amounted to about four hundred

persons. They closely resembled the natives we had seen before [ in the

Kotzebue District to the north ] , except that they were better provided with

clothing, and their implements were neater and more ingeniously made.

Among their peltry we noticed several gray fox and land-otter skins, but

they would not part with them for less than a hatchet apiece. In addition

to the usual weapons of bows and arrows, these people had short iron spears

003      |      Vol_XII-0435                                                                                                                  
GRANTLEY HARBOR

neatly inlaid with brass, upon all which implements they set great value,

and kept them wrapped in skins. Among the inhabitants of the village on the

northern shore, named Choonowuck, there were several girls with massive

bracelets. One had a curb chain for a necklace, and another a bell

suspended in front, in the manner described the preceding year at Choris

Peninsula.

        "These two ports, [Port Clarence and Grantley Harbor] situated so near Beering's Strait, may at some future

time be of great importance to navigation, as they will be found particularly

useful by vessels which may not wish to pass the strait in bad weather.

To the outer harbour, which for convenience and security surpasses any

other near Beering's Strait with which we are acquainted. I attached the

name of Port Clarence, in honour of his most gracious Majesty, then Duke

of Clarence. To the inner, which is well adapted to the purposes of repair,

and is sufficiently deep to receive a frigate, provided she lands her

guns, which can be done conveniently upon the sandy point at the entrance,

I gave the name of Grantley Harbour, in compliment to Lord Grantley.

        "On the northern side of Grantley Harbour, Mr. Collie found a bad

of purple primulas, anemones, and of dodecatheons, in full [ ?] fresh

blossom, amidst a covering of snow that had fallen the preceding night."

004      |      Vol_XII-0436                                                                                                                  
Grantley Harbor, Alaska

4

        During the nineteenth century, Grantley Harbor, along with Port

Clarence, was an important rendezvous for the many whaling vessels which

sailed these waters. Whaling fleets are a thing of the past, and the

locality is now visited only by trading schooners and an occasional

freighter.

        The Harbor was surveyed by Beechey, in September, 1827, and

named Grantley, "in compliment to Lord Grantley."

        Several small streams rising in the plateau on which Mukacharni

Mountain stands flow southward into Grantley Harbor. From west to

east these are: Bay, Sunset, Igloo, Dewey, McKinley, and Offield Creeks.

From the time of the first strike in this area, in 1900, the

gravels of these streams have been known to be auriferous, but the output

has been small.

        A few streams rising in the foothills of the Kigluaik Mountain s , to

the southeast, also flow into Grantley Harbor. From west to east these

are: Coyote, and Dese Creeks. Very little prospecting has been done

along these streams because of their proximity to the Bluestone (q.v.)

005      |      Vol_XII-0437                                                                                                                  
GRANTLEY HARBOR, ALASKA

        -5- which gave, promise early in the century, of being a valuable gold stream.

        One of the major difficulties in gold mining in this area has

been the problem of a reliable water supply. Early in the mining season,

the [ ?] streams are too small to support dredging or sluicing activities.

Then, with the spring rains, they [ ?] are transformed into torrents,

which destroy any dams previously contructed for their control. It

was originally intended to build a system of ditches to divert these

flood waters and put them to use, but then it was discovered that,

although the gold in the vicinity was coarse and characterized by

large nuggets, the deposits were not sufficiently rich to warrant the

expense of a ditch system. The mining activity in this area is now

negligible.

        Sources:

        USCP. Alaska. Pt.II. 1947

        Baker

        VSGB

        USC & G S Chart 9385

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Gold Placers of Parts of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port

Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin. Bulletin. No.328)

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C., 1901.

        Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's

Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . London, 1831. Vol.II

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0438                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

21 April 48 GROSVENOR, LAKE, ALASKA

        80 wds

        GROSVENOR, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska

Peninsula, is about 17 miles long by only about 2 miles wide. It lies

northeastward of the Bay of Islands, an arm of Naknek Lake (q.v.), and is

surrounded on almost all sides by the foothills of the Alaska Range from

which several small tributaries drain into it. Lake Grosvenor may be

reached by easy portage from the Bay is Islands, or by ascent of the

Savonoski River which connected with an eastern outlet of the lake.

Sources: VS GB

in USCP and suppl.

001      |      Vol_XII-0439                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

July, 1948 HAZEN BAY AREA, ALASKA

        1008 wds

        Hazen Bay, western Alaska, opens into Bering Sea north of

Etolin Strait (q.v.). The bay was named by Edward William Nelson

in 1878 for General William Babcock Hazen, Chief Signal Corps

Officers, U.S.A.

        The entrance to Hazen Bay is about 7 miles wide, and just

within this entrance the bay widens considerably. Several rivers

drain from the many lakes which dot this section of the Yukon delta

and flow into Hazen Bay. The Manopiknak River, shown on some maps

as an outlet of the Yukon River (q.v.), enters the southeastern

corner of the bay, and the Azun (Azoon) River enters farther up

its head. The mouths of these rivers are wide, shoal and completely

clogged with mud flats at low tide. The land which borders the northern

side of fo the bay is a marsh edged on the west by more mud flats and

cut by several small streams. Some maps show the settlements

Ukak and Anakak on the shores of Hazen Bay.

        ¶ About 10 miles above

Hazen Bay the Manakinak River enters Bering Sea. The Kashunuk

River, thought to be another outlet of the Yukon, empties into

an unnamed bay a few miles north of the Manakinak. Kashunuk a

native settlement of 89 peoples in 1939 is in this vicinity.

        Because so little is known about this stretch of the Yukon

Delta, the coast northward from the Kashunuk is represented by a

dotted line. Most of the information concerning this part of Alaska

was obtained by Nelson in 1878 , and very little surveying has been

done in this area since that time.

        The entrance to Hooper Bay, about 22 miles up the coast

froms the Kashunuk River, is a narrow channel formed by two small

spits of land. Nelson named this bay after Captain Calvin Leighton

Hooper. Some maps show the Askinuk River flowing into Hooper Bay.

002      |      Vol_XII-0440                                                                                                                  
HAZEN BAY AREA

        Hooper Bay on the north shore of this bay is the largest town in this area. It had a reported population

of 299, in 1939, which was estimated to have increased to 325 by 1947.

Hooper Bay has a post office, and an Alaska Native Service school contained

in the new community house which has, [ ?] in addition to class–

rooms, a shop, clinic, laundry, showers, and teachers' quarters.

Mail service runs regularly from Mountain Village on the Yukon

except during the months of May and October.

        Askinuk which is the only other settlement on Hooper Bay,

The promentory between Hooper and Igiak Bays is known as Point Dall.

        Igiak Bay, a few miles north of Hooper Bay, is approximately

triangular in shape with its broadest side facing the sea. Two narrow

spits of land reach toward each other from the north and south to

leave a very narrow entrance into Igiak Bay. Dall Point is on the move southerly of these spits. The Kakechik River

flows into the bay from the mainland. The tiny native settlement of

Igiak on the south shore of the bay was reported both by Petrof and

by Nelson.

        Cape Romanzof, the most westerly point on the Yukon Delta,

is also the most northerly point of the land mass north of Igiak Bay.

By a strange coincidence, three men, Shishmaref, Kromchenko, and

Etolin, working independently named this Cape Romanzof in 1821. The name

has been variously written as Romantsof, [ ?] Roumiantsoff, etc.

This cape is made up of sheer, perpendicular shafts of rock rising

1,200 to 1,500 feet above the water. The Askinuk Mountains

end at Cape Romanzof, the highest peak of the chain, which attains 2,363 feet,

being about 5 miles in from the point of the cape. The land trends

eastward for about 15 miles from Cape Romanzof in continuous ledges,

nowhere lower than 1,230 feet, to the mouth of the Kun River which

enters the head of Scammon Bay.

003      |      Vol_XII-0441                                                                                                                  
HAZEN BAY AREA

        Scammon Bay is shoal and marked with sand bars laid bare

at low tide. The only settlements are Kutmiut, at the mouth of the

Kun, and Scammon Bay (population 88, in 1939) on the north side of the

bay. Scammon Bay is connected by trail with Kwikluak and Kotik at the mouth

of the Yukon and with other points up the Yukon and along the shores

of Norton S t ound.

        South Sand Island and North Sand Island lie outside the

entrance to Scammon Bay. Several small native settlements and their

associated streams lie on the shores of Bering Sea between the mouth

of the Kun and Black River, about 36 miles up the coast: Melatolik, a

village on a creek with the same name; Bimiut, an Eskimo camp and village

a few miles farther north; and Kwikak, an Eskimo village about 7 miles

south of the mouth of the Black River.

        Black River is shown on some maps as following an extremely

torturous, generally southwesterly 45-mile course, from one of the many small lakes

which sprinkle the mainland in this vicinity, for about 45 miles past the

village of Ulakakarvik, through Lake Nunawakanuk, to the village of

Black (population 15 in 1939), at its mouth. This may be the same

village which as appears on some maps as Kipniak.

        The entire stretch of coastline north of Scammon Bay is shoal

and for several miles offshore. The mainland for hundreds of miles

inland is a mass of marshes and lakes, most of which are connected by

streams and creeks of varying size. This enormous expanse of tundra is

the most important breeding ground for the waterfowl not only for

Alaska but also for all of western Canada and the United States.

Hundreds of thousands of ducks and geese come to this area every year to

lay their eggs and raise their young. The existing wildlife conserva–

tions laws are not yet enforced with sufficient strictness to stop the

004      |      Vol_XII-0442                                                                                                                  
HAZEN BAY AREA

natives from gathering these eggs by the boatloads every spring

nor from clearing whole areas of nesting and half-grown birds by

driving them into net corrals in July. Added to this human threat

is the arrival, within the last few years, of the first coyotes to this

region. Annabel points out in his recent book that unless something is

done very soon to protect these birds from both these hazards they

will be in danger of ultimate extinction.

        Sources:

        VSGB; USCP; Baker; Colby; Annabel. Hunting and Fishing in Alaska ; N.Y.

Knopf, 1948

001      |      Vol_XII-0443                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

21 April 48 HOMER, ALASKA

        450 wds

        HOMER, ALASKA (59° 37′ N.Lat.; 151° 27′ W.Long.), a town and

post office on Coal Point, Kachemak Bay, Cook Inlet, 75 miles from Seward,

was established in November, 1895. It lies at the end of Homer Spit, a

narrow neck of land reaching southeastward into the bay. The increase in

population from 35 in 1930, to 325 in 1939, is one proof of the wealth of

resources in the vicinity and the progressive attitude of the people.

        Not only is the region rich in gold, copper and coal, but an

estimated 35,000 acres of relatively treeless "Homer Country" is easily

cultivated, deep, fertile soil. By 1937, 150 farmers, mostly from the

Middle West, had arrived in Homer. In 1938 the Alaska Cooperative Association

was incorporated to establish a 200-family settlement program. This, the

first cooperative movement ever started in Alaska, was the work of residents

of Cordova, a large town on the mainland 210 miles to the south. Neither the

climate nor the promise of the soil disappointed the settlers. The mildness

of the climate is well shown by the January, 1936, official weather report

which recorded five inches of rain and temperatures above 40° for eleven

days in succession. The region has 35 inches of rainfall a year and a

relatively long growing season. Wheat, oats, barley, and all the hardy

vegetables mature successfully. Cattle and sheep stay on pasture at least

six months of the year. In about 1945 demands from military establishments

on Kodiak Island caused a shift of emphasis from the raising of cattle to

truck crops suitable for immediate consumption. Most farmers are specializing

on potatoes, although lettuce, celery, cabbage, and berries are also in demand.

002      |      Vol_XII-0444                                                                                                                  
HOMER, ALASKA

cabbage, and berries are also in demand . All available homesteading

land for five miles beyond the town is now taken; although more land is still

available in the outlying areas. In contrast with Matanuska Valley (q.v.) the

development of the Homer area has gone forward entirely without

government aid.

        Homer has a dock able to accom m odate large ships , and a road leads

from the dock to the town. Boats run regularly to Seattle, Anchorage,

and Seldovia. There is a fine CAA airport for land planes. A 1 1/2–

mile artificial lake beside the municipal airport for landing amphibian

and pontoon planes was nearing completion in October, 1947. There is

a radiotelephone station connected with Anchorage. An extension of the

Anchorage-Seward road is being built to Homer. This road will solve the

accute distribution problems of the Homer farmer , for Wwater transportation

is difficult, sometimes impossible , along the westernshore of Kenai

Peninsula. The new Anchorage-Seward-Homer road supplies the final

basic need for the development of Homer into a thriving community.

Homesteading land is still available along this road. The Cooperative

bought the cannery buildings at Kasilof, a town sixty miles to the north,

and moved them to Homer. The town has three schools (including a High

School), four churches, three restaurants, one theater, two mimeographed

weekly newspapers, two general stores, two cold storage plants, a

bakery, salmon packer, gift shop, insurance agent, and machine shop.

The newest school, completed in 1940, and the newest of the two hotels,

completed in 1947, the Alaska Cement Corporation announced plans

to build a $1,125,000 cement plant at Homer Spit capable of producing

600 barrels of cement a day. The plant will use native clay, gypsum,

limestone and coal. It is expected that proposed military construction

003      |      Vol_XII-0445                                                                                                                  
HOMER, ALASKA

will use the entire output of this company for two years.

        Fishing, canning and fur-farming are other successful

projects in the region. Homer was once one of the most important

trapping areas in all Alaska. A decade of intensive settlement,

however, has greatly reduced the number of mink, beaver, otter, and foxes.

The mart ien has been exterminated. In place of the hunter and trapper,

therefore, has come the fur-farmer.

        Coal mining has always been important in the Homer area.

Early gold seekers around Cook Inlet found coal lying loose on the

beach. In 1890, five years before the town was established, a coal

mine operated in McNeill's Canyon, about ten miles up Kachemak Bay.

It is expected that present coal developments will soon be able to

supply all the towns on Cook Inlet.

001      |      Vol_XII-0446                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 POINT HOPE, ALASKA

        780 wds

        [ ?] HOPE, POINT (68° 21′ N.Lat., 166° 36′ W.Long.),

one of the important promontories on the arctic coast of Alaska, is the

extreme westerly tip of a low, narrow finger of land projecting some sixteen

miles into the Polar Sea. Point Hope is about thirty miles south of Cape

Lisburne.

        Beechey named this point in August, 1826, in honor of Sir

William Johnstone Hope. It has been called Hoffnung (Hope) by German

cartographers and Golovnin , or Golofnin , by Russian voyagers, and the

Eskimo name, variously recorded as Tikira Tikira , Tikera Tikera , etc., is said to mean

"forefinger." The name Golovnin, or Golofnin, is now generally used to identify

the bay and sound on the north side of Norton Sound, Bering Sea.

        The surface of the land mass terminating in the Point is

broken by a number of lagoons, and its shores fall away in a steep shingle

beach. Most of these lagoons are not named on recent maps, but the largest,

known as Marryatt Inlet, has its entrance on the north side of the promon–

tory several miles northeastward from the Point itself. Vessels with a

draft up to ten feet can enter Marryatt Inlet, and some schooners have,

for several years, been using it as a wintering place. Pilots unfamiliar

with this anchorage should sound out the channel before entering. It should

also be remembered that during the first part of the season, when the ice

is breaking up in the inlet, there is a strong out-going current which carries

the ice along at a dangerous velocity. Point Hope proper is marked by a

fixed white light maintained from August 1 to November 1 each year.

        Very few climatological observations have been taken in this

area, but one set recorded by the U.S. Geological Survey between August, 1894,

and July, 1896, reads as follows:

002      |      Vol_XII-0447                                                                                                                  
POINT HOPE, ALASKA

	Maximum	Minimum
January	+ 23	-34
February	+ 6	-41
March	+ 38	-39
April	+ 35	-32
May	+ 55	-12
June	+ 58	+ 21
July	+ 56	+ 26
August	+ 62	+ 36
September	+ 60	+ 29
October	+ 39	-1
November	+ 34	-21
December	+ 28	-36

        Mean total precipitation for the same period was 7.57″,

with some fall recorded for 64 days out of the entire year. Precipitation

was greatest during the summer months, relatively light from November through

March, with a sharp increase in April. The maximum number of rainy days

occurred in September.

        The first frost occurred on September 13 of 1894, and the first

killing frost on October 16. The bay opened on July 17 and August 1, in 1895

and 1896 respectively, and closed on November 19, in 1894.

002a      |      Vol_XII-0448                                                                                                                  
POINT HOPE, ALASKA

        Writing in 1898, Lieut. E.P. Bertholf gave a good description

of summer at Point Hope. "In July it was difficult to imagine I was 125

miles north of the arctic circle, for the open sea showed nota sign of

ever having had ice on its surface, the land was covered with many varieties

of short-stemmed and brilliantly colored flowers, and the temperature, which

had been as low as -45 during the winter, was such that one could wander about

in shirt sleeves and not feel uncomfortable. And yet in spite of the fact

that we could walk around lightly clad and gather quantities of flowers,

with no ice or snow to be seen, if one were to dig below the surface of the

ground in the neighborhood of Point Hope from above the Kookpuk River to

about half way to Cape Thompson, solid glacial ice would be found at a depth

varying from 2, to 7 or 8 feet. How far down this ice extends is not known,

but under Mr. Nelson's storehouse an ice house has been chopped out to a

depth of 15 feet, and the ice is still clear and solid."

002b      |      Vol_XII-0449                                                                                                                  
POINT HOPE, ALASKA

        The settlement at Point Hope had a 1939 population of 257, a

Federal school, and U.S. commissioner, and Episcopal mission, a post office,

and a store. Planes equipped either with wheels or floats may land at Point

Hope, and the settlement lies on the winter trail which runs southward to

Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula, and northward to Point Barrow.

        Point Hope is advantageously situated for trading purposes.

It is near the important sealing, whaling, and fishing grounds, while its

proximity to the mouth of the Kukpuk River (q.v.) offers an easy route into

the interior. Great numbers of Point Hope Eskimos travel the 150 or more

miles down the coast to Kotzebue in order to trade with other natives from

Cape Prince of Wales and from the far-distant interior regions of the Kobuk

and Noatak Rivers.

003      |      Vol_XII-0450                                                                                                                  

        POINT HOPE, ALASKA

        Tigara (q.v.) is a small Eskimo village a little eastward from the

Point on the sand spit which forms the north side of Marryatt Inlet.

        References:

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

        Brooks, A.H. Geography and Geology of Alaska Geography and Geology of Alaska . Washington, 1906. (U.S.

Geological Survey. Professional Paper Professional Paper No.45)

        VSGB

        USCP

        Bertholf, E.P. Report of Second Lieut. E.P. Bertholf, R.C.S. Report of Second Lieut. E.P. Bertholf, R.C.S. July 15, 1898.

(U.S. Treasury Department. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue

Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the

Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, from November 27, 1897, to September Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, from November 27, 1897, to September

13, 1898 13, 1898 . Washington, 1899. pp.18-27)

001      |      Vol_XII-0451                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

April, 1949 HOTHAM INLET, ALASKA

        Text-600 words

        Bibl-50 words

        HOTHAM INLET, east of Kotzebue Sound, an arm of the Polar Sea,

separates the upper half of Baldwin Peninsula (q.v.) from the mainland

of northwestern Alaska. This inlet was named by Capt. F.W. Beechey, in

1826, "in compliment to the Hon. Sir Henry Hotham, K.C.B., one of the lords

of the Admiralty."

        Capt. C.L. Hooper in his report of the second cruise of the

Corwin Corwin , which took place in 1881, gives a good description of this Inlet.

"Hotham Inlet...is between 30 and 40 miles in length and from 5 to 10

miles in width; and although connected directly with the salt water is

entirely fresh on account of the number of rivers which discharge int o it.

To the southeast of Hotham Inlet and connected by a narrow channel is

Selawik Lake, about 15 miles in width and 20 long, but very shallow. The

entrance to the inlet was sounded out by one of the Corwin's boats last

year, in the hope of finding a ship channel, but not more than one fathom

was found at the entrance, although much deeper inside. The land near the

inlet is low, but it is surrounded by a range of hills from 1,000 to 3,000

feet high, from 10 to 30 miles distant. Those to the northward were called

by Cook, Mulgrave Hills. To the eastward, in very clear weather, may be

seen two conical hills called Deviation Peaks."

        The general trend of this inlet is southeast. The entrance is

not only shoal but is also obstructed by wide mud flats and innumerable

sand bars some of which are bare at low water. The channel within the

Inlet is of considerably greater depth, having been reported as early as 1884

as v arying from 18 to 43 feet for a distance of 20 or more miles. Because

of the width of the mud flats which fringe both the mainland and the

peninsula, no landing can be made at most places o n the Inlet.

        Stoney describes the condition of the entrance and the channels

002      |      Vol_XII-0452                                                                                                                  
HOTHAM INLET, ALASKA

during his visit in 1884: "Sounding out and temporarily buoying a channel

over the bar, a mud and sand-bank about one thousand yards wide with eight

feet depth on it at low water, we crossed over. At high water, and when the

wind is from the southward and westward, two fathoms can be carried over.

Winds from northward and eastward give the least depth. After crossing, a

depth of three fathoms was carried in the channel for twenty miles, increas–

ing in places to seven fathoms."

        Most of the mainland coastline of the Inlet is formed by the

many-channelled delta of the Kobuk River (q.v.). Recent maps show no per–

manent settlements on [ ?] this side of the Inlet, although there is a

c abin at the mouth of Riley Channel, one of the more northerly mouths of

the Kobuk.

        By way of Selawik Lake, Hotham Inlet receives the waters of

the Selawik River, from the east, while the Noatak River enters the north side

of the entrance at a point approximately opposite Kotzebue, on Baldwin

Peninsula.

        There are no named promontories on the mainland side, whereas

Pipe S p it, the northeastern tip of Baldwin Peninsula, Nimiuk Point,

several miles to the south, and Attiunik Point, the southern entrance point

to Selawik Lake, mark the peninsula side.

        The most important settlement in this entire region i s the large and

the thriving town of Kotzebue (q.v.), on the northwestern tip of Baldwin

Peninsula.

003      |      Vol_XII-0453                                                                                                                  
HOTHAM INLET, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Beechy, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's

Strait ... 1825, 26, 27, 28. Strait ... 1825, 26, 27, 28. London, 1831. 2v.

Hooper, Capt. C.L. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas

Corwin, in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 Corwin, in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 . Washington, 1884.

Stoney, Lieut. G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.

U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska United States Coast Pilot. Alaska .

Part II. Part II. 5th (1947) ed. Washington, 1947.

001      |      Vol_XII-0454                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins ✓HYDABURG, ALASKA

20 April 48

        300 wds

        HYDABURG, ALASKA (55° 13′ N. LAT.; 132° 50′ W. LONG.), a

native fishing village , had a population of 340 348 in 1939 1940 making it one of

the largest Indian villages of south [ ?] eastern Alaska. It is located

one-half mile inland on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island just

across the Sukkwan narrows from the northernmost tip of Sukkwan Island. The

town itself is on the low coastal strip which runs around most of

Prince of Wales Island, but is backed by elevations of from 2,000 to

3,000 feet. Insert (see Below)

Hydaburg was founded on November 11, 1911 by a group of Haida Indians,

from the little Indian village of Klinquan, lead by Mr. and Mrs. Charles

W. Hawkesworth and several government representatives. The town was

intended as, and has always remained, a strictly native settlement run

on a cooperative basis. No white man is allowed to set up any business

in Hydaburg. The site was chosen because of its fine harbor, nearness

to the fishing grounds, and prospects of excellent hunting and trapping

in the interior. From its outset Hydaburg, so named by Mrs. Hawkesworth,

has been a prosperous community. In 1939 the Hydaburg Cooperative

Association received

a loan of $145,000 under the Indian Reorganization Act. Using an all–

native crew, the Association built, equipped , and began the operation

of a modern cannery. From April 1 to September 30 there is a weekly

mail boat. There is a point to point r e adiotelephone and radio–

telegraph station connecting with Ketchikan.

        In 1947 the Department of the Interior expanded the land

reserves of Hydaburg by 101,000 acres. It also set up facilities for

clearing land titles in all southeastern Alaska. All income from

these land reserves will be credited to native villages, such as

Hydaburg, for their free use. This grant of land to Hydaburg clears removes

all native claims to the Tongass national Forest, (q.v.)

since the natives of Hydaburg

agreed to exchange it for the new land reserves.

        Hydaburg was founded on November 11, 1911 by a group of Haida Indians,

from the little Indian village of Klinquan, lead by Mr. and Mrs. Charles

W. Hawkesworth and several government representatives. The town was

intended as, and has always remained, a strictly native settlement run

on a cooperative basis. No white man is allowed to set up any business

in Hydaburg. The site was chosen because of its fine harbor, nearness

to the fishing grounds, and prospects of excellent hunting and trapping

in the interior. From its outset Hydaburg, so named by Mrs. Hawkesworth,

has been a prosperous community.

001      |      Vol_XII-0455                                                                                                                  
Lee Collins ✓HYDER, ALASKA

20 April 48

        300 wds

        HYDER, ALASKA, is a town and post office at the head

of Portland Canal, about 150 miles northeast of Ketchikan, just

across the international boundary line from Stewart, British

Columbia. It was named in 1910 in honor of a Canadian scientist,

and is the American center of the Portland Canal mining district.

The population, mostly Indian, was 254 in 1938.

        There is a 400-foot wharf which bends inshore somewhat

for the last 215 feet. Depths off the wharf run from 22 to 30 feet.

There is no fresh water on the wharf and strong current eddies make

landing difficult. At the northern end of the wharf is a seaplane

float. There is communication by small craft to Ketchikan. In

1947 the Stewart telephone system was being rehabilitated to include

a line to Hyder. The Hyder Radio & Telephone Co. operates station KDF

A-1 emission, 425 kc.(705m.), 500 kc. (600 m.). Airplane transport

of winter fuel oil was being planned in October, 1946. A road along

the shore of Portland Canal connects Hyder with Stewart.

        Deposits of the natural gold-silver alloy electrum,

valued at $14,000 to the ton, have been discovered by tunnel l ing

under the glaciers which lie northwest of Hyder. These glaciers

and their surrounding mountains are extremely beautiful and little

explored. Tungsten has also been found in the vicinity. The

Riverside Tungsten mine northwest of Hyder operates a mill in the

town. The Premiere Mine, largest in the vicinity, renewed operations

in June, 1947, after an eight-month shutdown. The Salmon Gold Mine,

Portland Canal m ining area, reported in 1946 what appeared to be a

large new vein of electrum assayed at 0.61 ounces of gold and 5

ounces of silver per ton.

001      |      Vol_XII-0456                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins ILIAMNA LAKE, ALASKA

20 April 48

        850 wds

        ILIAMNA LAKE, Iliamna District, Alaska, just north of the Alaska

Peninsula, is the largest lake in Alaska. Lying about midway between 59° and

60° N.Lat., the lake extends northeast-southwest between 154° and 156° W.Long.

It is about 70 miles long by 15 to 25 miles wide and is famous for the size and

number of its rainbow trout. In recent years trout measuring up to 3 4 ″ have

been caught here, but these giants do not approach in size the mythical blackfish,

Iliamna, said to haunt the lake and to bite holes in the canoes of bad natives.

In 1802, the Russians named this Lake Shelekhov, but it is now universally

known as Iliamna Lake.

        For about one-half their length the north and south shores of the

western end of the lake are fairly even, but the eastern half is indented by

several small bays. Kakhonak Bay, with its five finger-like extensions, reaches

into the south shore of the lake like a great hand which, in general outline,

it resembles. The bay is about 7 miles long and about 5 miles wide at the

greatest points. It is formed by a narrow-necked peninsula which stretches

westward into the lake, partially cutting Kakhonak Bay off from the lake

proper. The waters north of this peninsula are dotted with small islands.

Kakhonak is a small settlement and post office on the shore just south of this

bay. There is a reindeer station on the tip of one of the finger-like extensions

at the head of Kakhonak Bay.

        Pile Bay, an extension of the eastern end of Iliamna Lake, is

about 9 miles long by 2 to 3 miles wide. It is almost cut off from the main

body of the lake by the largest of the many islands which are scattered here.

        Iliamna Lake is the source of the Kvichak River (q.v.) which drains

from its southwestern end. The lake receives the Pile and Iliamna Rivers

which rise in the glacier-covered mountains to the northeast, and many unnamed

tributaries from the highlands which surround the lake on all sides except

002      |      Vol_XII-0457                                                                                                                  
ILIAMNA LAKE, ALASKA

the southwest. These mountains are all part [ ?] of the Aleutian Range and rise

from heights of 2000 feet close by the lake to giant peaks, such as Iliamna

Volcano, 10, 085 feet high, which lies only a little over 30 miles northeastward

from the head of Pile Bay. The Newhalen River drains from Lake Clark (q.v.)

and enters Lake Iliamna midway along the north shore. Kakhonak River enters

at the head of Kakhonak Bay. On all sides except the northeast the territory

around the lake is dotted with lakes. Gibralter, Kakhonak, Moose, and Meadow

Lakes lie southeast of the lake, while to the west and [ ?] outhwest, where the

land is low and marshy, intricate systems of tiny, unnamed lakes send tributaries

into Iliamna Lake.

        Depths of many hundred feet are reported in the east end of Iliamna

Lake. The lake is usually frozen over from late December to late May. In

this vicinity some snow falls in September, but the ground at low altitudes

is usually not completely covered for a few months thereafter. Most of the snow

leaves the low ground during April, but it remains until June in the pass between

Old Iliamna and Iliamna Bay, Cook Inlet.

        Old Iliamna, the largest settlement in the area, lies a few miles

above the mouth of Iliamna River which enters the eastern tip of Pile Bay.

It has a United States commissioner, three stores, a Government school, and

a U.S. w eather Bureau Station with one observer, which was established in 1939. All parts

of Iliamna Lake and the Kvichak River may be reached in gasoline launches available

at Old Iliamna. The population of the village was estimated as 100, in 1939,

In addition to gas and furs, the busy trading post in the settlement handles

about 400 tons of goods a year.

        Old Iliamna is only 10 miles from Iliamna Bay, Cook Inlet, on the

northeastern coast of the Alaska Peninsula, with which it is connected by a good

trail. This trail crosses a 900-foot summit a few miles west of Iliamna Bay.

At Old Iliamna the trail continues in two directions, southward to cabins in the

mountains southeast of the lake, and westward to Ped ro Bay, a small settlement

003      |      Vol_XII-0458                                                                                                                  
ILIAMNA LAKE, ALASKA

a few miles from Old Iliam [ ?] , and to cabins along the north shore of the lake.

There is a second trail leading westward from the head of Cottonwood Bay,

just south of Iliamna Bay, which crosses three summits of 1700, 1500, and 1975

feet, to join the trail previously described connecting cabins southeast of the

lake with Old Iliamna. Horses and wagons can be used on these trails from

June to November and dogs and sleds for the remaining months of the year. old

Iliamna may also be reached by portage from the head of Kamishak Bay, at a point

south of Cottonwood Bay, to Kakhonak Bay, but this route is seldom used except

by natives because of the difficulty of landing supplies on the shores of this

part of Kamishak Bay.

        Seversens is a small settlement on the north shore of Iliamnan Lkake

which is connected by a winter trail to a village at the south end of Lake

Clark, about 13 miles north, and to the village of Iliamna. Iliamna is a post

office and native settlement on the north shore of Iliamna Lake only a few

miles from Seversens. Newhalen, a few miles farther east, at the mouth of the

Newhalen River, had a population of 55 in 1940. Recent maps show no towns

on the remainder of the northwestern shore of Iliamna Lake. Igiugig, a village

and post office on the lake at the head of the Kvichak River, had an estimated

population of 100 in 1938. From mid-May to late September small boats and

launches can navigate the Kvichak up to Igiugig, and, of course, beyond to

other points along Iliamna Lake. Flights to all these points are conducted

by planes equipped with floats.

001      |      Vol_XII-0459                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins I MURUK BASIN, ALASKA

November, 1948

        470 wds

        IMURUK BASIN (Imaourouk, Imurook, Imagazuk), western Seward Pen–

insula, Alaska, is a shallow body of water connected by Tuksuk Channel

with Grantley Harbor, which in turn leads westward into Port Clarence,

and so to Bering Sea. Beechey reported the Eskimo name as Imau-rook , in

1827, but it has also been called Cowvinik and Salt Lake.

        Several small streams flow into the south side of the Basin,

the longest and most westerly of these being Canyo w n Creek, followed by

White, Fall, Pond, Glacier, Snow, and Cobblestone Creeks. Several of

these streams enter Windy Cove r , which indents the southern shore of

the Basin.

        ¶ Cobblestone Creek enters the Basin only a few miles below

the mouth of the Kaviruk, a wide stream which enters the head of Imuruk

Basin from the north. About the middle of the nineteenth century a

Franklin Search party recorded this stream as the Cov-vee-arak. Cov-vee-arak. The

name has also appeared as Covearak Covearak , Kaurveren Kaurveren , Ka-oovern Ka-oovern , and Kvuveren Kvuveren .

Some sources identify this river as with Mary's River Mary's River , but most modern

maps have dropped this name entirely.

        Having bent northward for about five miles to meet the Kaviruk,

the head of Imuruk Basin then veers southeastward, and, after about

five more miles, splits up into several channels which finally develop into

two well-defined forks.

        The southern fork, called the Kruzgamepa (q.v.), rises in the

vicinity of Mount Osborn, well within the Kigluaik Mountains to the

south. It flows southward until it leaves the Kigluaiks, then takes a

northeasterly course around the east end of the range, after which it

twists westward to its junction with the Kaviruk and Imuruk Bay.

        The northern fork, the Kuzitrin ( Koosetrien Koosetrien ) (q.v.), has its

source in a broad, flat drainage basin northeast of Imuruk Basin. It

002      |      Vol_XII-0460                                                                                                                  
IMURUK BASIN, ALASKA

flows in a generally southwesterly direction for about sixty miles and de–

bounches very near to the mouth of the Kruzgamepa.

        A fairly large unnamed stream flows into the northeast side of

Imuruk Basin, but the main northern tributary, the Agiapuk River (q.v.),

enters about midway of that side.

        Imuruk Basin is navigable to light-draft vessels. It early in this century , formed one

link in the chain of water s ways , starting with Port Clarence and Grantley

Harbor, and continuing up the Kuzitrin, by which supplies were brought

into the Kougarok District early in this century. With the completion of

the Seward Peninsula Railroad, now called The Pupmobile, down the

Kruzgamepa and northward to Shelton, on the Kuzitrin, most freight ship–

ments were brought to the mining camps of the interior by rail from

Nome, rather than by water. However, a few supply ships still visit

Imuruk Basin.

        Except for two sections, the northwestern and south-central,

the Basin is surrounded by low, marshy grassland, usually called 'tundra.'

This marshland is particularly extensive around [ ?] and

eastward from the eastern end of the Basin, so that the streams entering

this end follow a [ ?] sluggish, meandering course for their

final few miles. In the main, however, the rivers of this area keep

to a remarkably straight course, except for the Kruzpamepa and the

Agiapuk, both of which are fed from several different watersheds with

axes running in different directions. For this reason, these two rivers

undergo major changes in direction.

        The lowlands and hills of this part of Alaska are timberless,

although small willow and alder grow along the banks of the streams.

        Although Imuruk Basin was once the center of the gold mining

excitement along the Bluestone River, a tributary to Tuksuk Channel,

003      |      Vol_XII-0461                                                                                                                  
IMURUK BASIN, ALASKA

because of its extreme shallowness, there was never a settlement on

its shores. Supplies could be landed only with difficulty anywhere

in the Basin, and, since no remarkable gold strikes have ever been

made on the streams entering it, no settlement has grown up there.

        Sources:

        USCP. Alaska. Pt.II.1947

        VSGB

        U.S. C. & G.S. Chart No.9380

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsu- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsu-

la, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence, la, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence,

and Goodhope Precintcts and Goodhope Precintcts . Washington, D.C., 1908. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin, Bulletin, No.328)

        Dall, William H. Alaska and Its Resourc Alaska and Its Resourc es. Boston, 1870.

001      |      Vol_XII-0462                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins IMURUK LAKE, ALASKA

March, 1949

        Text-420 wds

Bibl-25 wds

        IMURUK LAKE, northern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is about 75

miles northeast of Imuruk Basin, near 65° 33′ N.Lat., 163° 10′ W.Long.

The Eskimo name, which has also appeared as Emuruk and Imourok was first

reported by Mendenhall, in 1901.

        This lake, whic h has an area of about 31 square miles and which drains

a basin of about 102 square miles, is the largest body of fresh water in

Seward Peninsula. It occupies a lava plateau with an elevation of 960 feet.

        Imuruk Lake supplies water to the Noxapaga (q.v.), an important

stream in the Kougaro k system, and to the Kugruk, on e of the main streams

in the Fairhaven mining district. Forty-mile Fairhaven Ditch, one of the

early efforts to bring a reliable water supply to the Inmachuk system, ran

from Imuruk Lake to the upper Pinnell River and from there to Arizona Creek.

This was one of the upper Pinnell River and from there to Arizona Creek.

This was one of the most extensive ditch-building enterprizes in all of

Seward Peninsula.

        The thin coat of lava over the plain gravels o f this region has

interested geologists since the area was first officially surveyed by Collier,

Mendenhall, and Moffit during the first decade of this century. The Imuruk

Lake region shows the effects of an older lava flow than is represented

in the upper Kuzitrin valley to the south and southwest. Geologists estimate

that the volcanic activity around Kotzebue Sound extended over a considerable

portion of the Pleistocene Age, ending only in comparatively recent geologic

times. The Pleistocene Age, ending only in comparatively recent geologic

times. The extruded lava occupied depressions and flowed down the river

valleys in broad streams of molten rock. "At times," Moffit writes, "the

cooling of the advancing front wall dammed back the flow and forced it over

the low, rounded divides between the watercourses in the next valley beyond,

or formed a lake which finally overflowed the obstr u ction and resumed its

original course, only to repeat the process a little farther on. In this

002      |      Vol_XII-0463                                                                                                                  
IMURUK LAKE, ALASKA

way islands of bare ground were left between the great finger-likepro–

trusions along the edge of the sheet. At the same time a shifting of the

watercourses was br ou ght about, for when not of sufficient volume to fill it

the lava occupied the lowest part of the valley and the waters sought a new

channel parallel to the old one, along the edge of the hardened flow. A

number of lakes and ponds also owe their existence to the d amming of streams

by lava, among which may be mentioned Lake Imuruk, the largest body of fresh

water on the peninsula."

003      |      Vol_XII-0464                                                                                                                  
IMURUK LAKE, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[ ?]

Baker, Marchs. Geo[g?]raphic Dictionary of Alaska Geo[g?]raphic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Brooks, A.H. Mineral Resources of Alaska, 1907. Mineral Resources of Alaska, 1907. Washington, 1908.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 345)

Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,

1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)

001      |      Vol_XII-0465                                                                                                                  
Text- [ ?] 1,380

Bibl-50 wds

Ruby Collins

March, 1949 INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA

        INMACHUK RIVER, northern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises on the

western side of the divide separating it from Trail Creek, a tributary to

the Goodhope River immediately to the west. It then flows generally north [ ?]

eastward for about 30 miles to Kotzebue Sound, at Deering.

        Hannum Creek, from the northwest, and Pinnell River, from the

south, chief tributaries to the Inmachuk, each drain larger areas than does

the main river above these junctions. Below the Pinnell, several smaller

tributaries, Arizona, Fink, Washington, West, Cue, and Mystic Creeks,

enter the Inmachuk.

        The Hannum valley is deep and narrow. Its principal tributaries

are Cunningham, Milroy, and Collins Creeks. The Pinnell rises in a broad

swamp formed by the lava flow, but about seven or eight miles below its head,

the river has cut a deep narrow. Canyon through the laval-covered gravels,

and drops about 300 feet in half a mile. Mag n et, June, Perry, Old Glory

Creek, and Snow Gulch are the chief affluents to the Pinnell. These streams

rise in the vicinity of the 1800-foot peak called Asses Ears, so named by

Kotzebue in August, 1816, because of the appearance of its double summit.

        The Inmachuk Valley is characterized by a lava rim which follows

the left side of the Pinnell for several miles and then crosses to the right

side and continues down the Inmachuk to the coastal plain. Below the

Pinnell canyon this rim is generally 300 to 400 feet above the level of the

stream.

        The Inmachuk, below the Pinnell, and the basins of Hannum and

Old Glory Creeks contain gold placers which were first discd. worked in 1900. [ ?] Describ-

ing the mineralization of Hannum Creek region, Moffit writes: "Besides the

gold, the heavy concentrates from the sluice boxes show a large number of

001a      |      Vol_XII-0466                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

March, 1949 INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA

        Writing in 1904 Moffit says: "The first prospecting in the Kotzebue

gold field was done in the latter part of the season of 1900 by William T. Fee

("Missouri Bill"), who discovered gold on Old Glory Creek in the fall of that

year. Mr. Fee seems to have prospected all the streams heading up toward the

east side of the Asses Ears, but did no staking, owing to the failure of his

supplies and the consequent necessity of returning to Nome as quickly as possi–

ble. Old Glory was staked on September 21 of the same year by William H. Davis

and Jessie Pinnell. Three days later, on September 24, gold was discovered

on Hannum Creek, a tributary of Inmachuk River, by Z.E. Foster and Fred Sand–

strum, who staked the creek on that day.

        "No work done on the gravels in the fall of 1900, owing to the

shortness of provisions and the lateness of the season. Snow was already

falling, and the prospectors returned to Nome, the nearest recording place to

this then unknown region, to register their claims and prepare for active work

during the following season. Their reports on the region caused considerable

excitement among the miners wintering in Nome, and some time in the early months

of 1901 M.V. Perry crossed the country on the snow with a dog team and staked

the creek now known by his name, Perry Creek.

        " With the opening of spring a considerable rush of prospectors to the

new field took place, and a large number of claims were staked on nearly all

the neighboring creeks, both to the west and to the east. The first locations

on the Inmachuk proper were made by Messrs. Applegate and Perry on Discovery,

at 'Hot Springs'... 2 1/2 miles above the mouth of the Hannum. Very little

work aside from the location of claims was done in the Inmachuk Valley during

1901, for in the latter part of the season the news of very rich finds on

Candle Creek drew many men away and notably retarded the development of the

[ ?] properties. This condition continued during the season of 1902,

001b      |      Vol_XII-0467                                                                                                                  
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA

but the summer of 1903 witnessed a revival of interest in the Inmachuk and

its tributaries, and a still further increase in the development in 1904 is certain.

        "C andle Creek was staked about July 23, 1901, by Messrs. Enos Thomas,

Alexander Patterson, Robert Schneider, and Blankenship, and up to the present

time has produced a much greater amount of gold than any of the other streams

of this field. Although Mr. Blankenship was probably the first miner to

drive stakes on Candle Creek, Messrs. Thomas, Patterson, and Schneider were the

first to enter the region and made the original discovery of gold on Jump Creek,

a small tributary which comes in from the west and joins Candle Creek about

1 1/2 miles above Kiwalik River. These four men staked claims on the most

promising portions of the main stream and one claim each on the lower ends of

the t ributaries, thus acquiring right to a consider a ble amount of ground, part

of which has proved to be of much value.

        "News of the strike spread quicly and was followed by a stampede

of miners in the late fall, so that the entire creek was soon taken up and

scores of men with rockers busied themselves in cleaning out the richer and

more readily worked portions of the gravels. As high as an ounce of gold per

day was paid to shovelers on some claims...

        "The total production of the Kotzebue gold field for the three years

during which mining operations have been carried on is probably not far from

$415,000. Of this amount Candle Creek alone has turned out over three-fourths."

        Describing the mineraliza t ion of Hannum Creek region, Moffit writes:

"Besides the gold, the heavy concentrates from the sluice boxes show a large

number of

002      |      Vol_XII-0468                                                                                                                  
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA

rounded and polished pebbles of hematite or ' iron stones, ' some pyrite, and

a small quantity of galena, which is probably derived from the limestone area

west of Cunningham Creek, and will be referred to again. B lack sand is not

found with the gold, since magnetite occurs in very small quantity; the magnet

discovers only occasionally small pieces in the tailings from the sluice boxes.

' Gray sand ' or finely ground pyrite appears constantly in the pan. and larger

pieces up to 2 or more inches in diamet i er are not infrequent. The best gold

values are taken from the bed rock, which is usually a blue clay resulting

from the decomposition of the underlying schists. The gold is heavy and black

and is said to assay about $18 to the ounce when cleaned. Nuggets worth $2.50

are not uncommon, but no very large ones have yet been found."

        One of the major hindrances to the mining development of this dis–

trict has been the inadequacy of the water supply during the summer dry season,

which is the only time of the year when placers can be worked in this section.

Several ditches were constructed, the longest of which, Fairhaven Ditch,

brought water from Lake Imuruk into the Inmachuk basin, a total distance of 35

or 40 miles.

        By 1908 there was conside r able activity along the Inmachuk, some

of it fruitful, and some of it fruitless. As Henshaw explains: "In the fall

of 1908 water ri g hts were staked by two different parties at the springs

of the upper Inmachuk. The first locator posted his notice late in September,

and by an error in wording claimed 2,000 'cubic inches per second,' the water

to be used on claims on the Inmachuk above and below Hannum Creek. Before

an amended notice could be posted the water had been staked by others, who proposed to divert it around to tributaries of Old Glory Creek. Both parties

took steps to start construction work, but the first actual diversion of

water was made by the second locator. During 1909 work was being prosecuted

on two ditches, located less than 10 feet apart in elevation, so close that

the lower bank of the upper ditch was sloughing into the lower ditch. In

003      |      Vol_XII-0469                                                                                                                  
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA

September steps were being taken by the owners of the lower ditch to procure

an injunction against the continuation of work by their rivals. This is a

rather unusual instance of the contro v ersies arising over conflicting claims

to water rights in the present unsatisfactory status of the law governing

the appropriation of water for mining purposes."

        Gold mining has continued in this region ever since this time,

and the placers give no indication of failing. However, since World War II,

gold mining in Alaska has been an unprofitable activity. For an explanation

of this conditions see article on Nome, Alaska.

004      |      Vol_XII-0470                                                                                                                  
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Henshaw, F.F. Mining in Seward Peninsula. Mining in Seward Peninsula. (Brooks, A. H. Mineral Resources

of Alaska, 1909. Mineral Resources

of Alaska, 1909. Washington, 1910. U.S. Geological Survey.

Bulletin Bulletin 442)

Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,

1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Pape Water Supply Pape r 314.'

Moffit, F.H. F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,

1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)

VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska

001      |      Vol_XII-0471                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 IPNOT, ALASKA

        90 wds

        IPNOT, a small Eskimo v illage near Cape Thompson, on the

shores of the Polar Sea, northwestern Alaska, had a population of 40 in

Petrof's report of 1880. Since this settlement does not appear on the 1939

Census, it may be assumed that it has decreased in size since that time,

although it continues to appear on recent maps of the [ ?] region. The long

winter trail [ ?] which runs southward to Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula

continues northward from Ipnot on its way to Point Barrow.

001      |      Vol_XII-0472                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

July, 1948 JACKSMITH BAY, ALASKA

458 wds

        JACKSMITH BAY, ALASKA, is a large, open indentation

of the mainland on the eastern side of Kuskokwim Bay, about 14 miles

north of Carter Bay (q.v.). The section of shoreline between these

two bays is marked by two spits each forming a tiny bay. Into the

more northerly of these two bays flows Cripple Creek which rises in

Twin Mountain, c urves southward and westward around Cone Mountain

and thereafter follows a meandering northwesterly course to the bay.

A few miles north of the spit which forms this small, unnamed bay

is a third and larger spit forming the southern entrance point to

Jacksmith Bay. This bay is shoal throughout and is entirely bare at

low tide. Jacksmith Creek enters the bay from the south. Several

creeks rising in Figure Four Mountain and in other heights of this section

of the Ahklun Range join just north of Twin Mountain to form Jacksmith

Creek which then follows a generally northwesterly course to the bay.

The prominent heights in this part of the range are only a few miles

inland, being considerably closer to the water than are the mountains

associated with Carter Bay. From south to north, the named peaks

grouped near Jacksmith Bay are Cone Mountain, Twin Mountain,

Figure Four Mountain, Yoke Mountain, and Yukon Hill. These range from

800 to 2600 feet in [ ?] height, These peaks and form a north-south

chain which is cut from east to west only by Jacksmith Creek. The

inland side of this chain is the western watershed for the headwaters

of the Arolic River (q.v.), the first major stream north of Jacksmith

Bay. Separated from this mountain chain by a valley from 4 to 8 miles

wide lies Island Mountain, a [ ?] cluster of peaks about 7 miles long and

002      |      Vol_XII-0473                                                                                                                  
JACKSMITH BAY, ALASKA

2 miles wide, which form the eastern watershed for another group of

tributaries to the Arolic River. The valley between these peaks is

cut by numberless creeks and streams flowing northeastward from the

chain and northwestward from Island Mountain into an unnamed stream

which trends northward along the valley floor to join the Arolic

about 5 miles southeast of Yukon Hill.

        A branch of the long winter trail which connects point son

Kuskokwim Bay with others on Bristol Bay (q.v.) and Iliamna Lake (q.v.)

leads from the north side of Goodnews Bay (q.v.) northward along this

same valley to a placer gold mine a few miles east of the junction of

this early tributary to the Arolic.

        The territory between the mountains and the shores of Jack–

smith Bay is low, treeless tundra which, in the summertime, is

covered with moss and a variety of wild flowers.

        --------

Sources: VSGB; USCP & Suppl.

° in Baker; Colby

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0474                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

July, 1948 KANEKTOK RIVER, ALASKA

        216 wds

        KANEKTOK RIVER, southwestern Alaska, enters Kuskokwim Bay

about midway of its eastern side. The river drains from glacier-fed

Lake Kagati in the Ahklun Mountains, follows a generally northwesterly

course for a few miles and then turns west to run through a low , narrow

valley bordered with peaks 2400 to 4100 feet high. For the duration

of its 65 - 75-mile course the Kanektok carves a rapid and occasionally

branched course through treeless, tundra country to Kuskokwim Bay.

        The only settlement on the river is the Eskimo village of

Kwinhagak (sometimes spelled Quinhagak or Kwinak) at the mouth of the

river which had a population of 224 in 1947. Because of the wide

mud flat bordering the shore in this vicnity the smallest craft some–

times fail to reach the village at low tide and launches can enter

only on the highest tides. Supplies are landed with great difficulty,

although they may be obtained in limited quantities in the town which

has, besides a native store, a Moravian Mission, [ ?] a Government

school, and a fourth class post office. Fresh, clear mountain water

is available at all stages of the tide. Kwinhagak is on the long winter

trail which runs from points on Bristol Bay and Iliamna Lake to Bethel and

other Kuskokwim Bay villages.

        --------

Sources: VSGB; USCP & Suppl; Colby; Tewkesbury

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0475                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins KASAAN, ALASKA

21 April 48

        KASAAN, ALASKA (55° 33′ N.LAT.; 132° 24′ W.LONG.) is an Indian

village and post office on the south shore of Kasaan Peninsula which pro–

jects into Clarence Strait from the west coast of Prince of Wales Island.

Since its establishment in December, 1899, it has grown to a population

of 110, as reported in 1939.

        The cannery and radio station in Kasaan are usually operated by

the Pacific Alaska Fisheries, but are sometimes leased to other companies.

There is fresh water on the wharf and fishing supplies are available [ ?] from

the general stores in the town. The cannery maintains a machine shop and

its own supplies of oil and gasoline. The main wharf is 125 feet long with

a low water depth of 32 feet.

        Motor launches connect Kasaan with Ketchikan and Wrangel. In 1939,

under the Indian Reorganization A r ct, the town was granted $12,000 for

village improvements.

        Kasaan is sometimes designated as New Kasaan to distinguish it

from the original native village, Old Kasaan (q.v.) on another arm of the

peninsula.

        At the close of the short cannery season each summer, the natives

of the village live by fishing and trapping in the mountainous interior.

They have adopted a constitution and by-laws which were ratified on October

15, 1938.

       

* * * * * * * * * * * * *

Sources Baker, Marcus. Geographic dictionary of Alaska Geographic dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Prepared by James

McCormick. Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Bulletin No.299. Series F, Geography 52)

U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Pt.I. Dixon Entrance to Makutat Bay Alaska. Pt.I. Dixon Entrance to Makutat Bay . [ ?] 9th (1943) ed.

Washington, D.C., G.P.O. 1943.

Colby, Merle. A guide to Alaska A guide to Alaska . N.Y., Macmillan, 1942.

Sundborg, [ ?] George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., Macmillan, 1945.

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. Guide book for Arctic and sub-Arctic Alaska. Guide book for Arctic and sub-Arctic Alaska. Oct., 1940.

Tewkesbury, David. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index.

Vol. 1947 I. Juneau, Alaska, Tewkesbury publishers, c1947.

001      |      Vol_XII-0476                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

November, 1948 KAVIRUK RIVER, ALASKA

        390 wds - Text

25 wds - Bibl.

        KAVIRUK RIVER (Covearak, Ka-ooveren, Kvuveren) central

Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises south of Kougarok Mountain and [ ?]

follows a generally southwesterly course for about twenty miles to

enter the head of Imuruk Basin near 65° 15′ N. Lat., 165° 20′ W.Long.

        This stream, which lies between the Kuzitrin-Kougarok

system and the Agiapuk River, was formerly called Mary's River by the

Kougarok miners, but the orginal Eskimo name has since been reinstated.

Variants of this name have been recorded by some of the Franklin search

parties, l i n 1850, by Billings, in 1790, and by the Russians, in 1802.

        The Kaviruk is joined early in its course by Johnston,

and Winter Creeks, and, just above the present site of Davidson, by

Hunter Creek.

        The upper K aviruk is a mountain torrent, but, a few

miles above Davidson, the river leaves the mountains and enters upon the

lake-strewn marshland which encloses the eastern end of Imuruk Basin.

Here the Kaviruk gradually widens out, until, [ ?] by the time it reaches

the Basin , it is almost two miles from shore to shore.

        Davidson, formerly Davidson's Landing, at the head of

light draft navigation on the Kaviruk, was established, in 1906, by

J.M. Davidson, and Andrew J. Stone, both large-scale Kouga r o k gold

mine operators, as a transshipping point for freight coming into the

Kougarok District vi a Teller, on Port Clarence. Hoping to solve for all time, the

harassing problem of [ ?] transportation to the Koug ra ar ok for all time,

they then built a road from Davidson , northward along the Kaviruk, over the

divide, and then down Lincoln Creek to the mouth of Taylor River, an

important tributary to the Kougarok. In this way, Davidson became a

busy trading post and supply base for the entire Kougarok mining district.

002      |      Vol_XII-0477                                                                                                                  
KAVIRUK RIVER, ALASKA

As long as the miners were prospering, so also did [ ?]

Davidson, but with the slump in Kougarok gold mining from about 1910

to 1930, the town dwindled. It was not reported in the U.S. Census

for 1939, but it still appears on recent maps of Seward Peninsula.

It is now connected [ ?] by sled road with Taylor and by

winter trail with Shelton, on the Kuzitrin River, and from there

with Kotzebue Sound, Port Clarence, and Norton Sound points.

        There are no other settlements on the Kaviruk.

        Sources:

        U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper. Water Supply Paper. Plate I.

        Baker, Marcus. Geographical Dictionary of Alaska Geographical Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington,

D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No.299)

        Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula. Nome and Seward Peninsula. Seattle, Wash., 1905.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0478                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KILIMAK, ALASKA

        50 wds

        KILIMAK (67° 17′ N.Lat., 163° 46′ W.Long.) is a small Eskimo

village on the coast of the Polar Sea, northwestern Alaska.

        The long winter trail which connects this part of Alaska with

Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula , to the south, and with other coastal towns ,

to the north, passes through Kilimak.

001      |      Vol_XII-0479                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 KING ISLAND, ALASKA

        Text - 145 wds.

        KING ISLAND, Bering Sea, Alaska, lies just south of the junction

of 65° N. Lat., and 168° W. Long.

        This small island was discovered by Cook on August 6, 1778, who

named it after Lieutenant James King, a member of the Cook expedition. The

native name, which Nelson gives as Ukiwuk , has appeared in a great many variations,

e.g. Okiben Okiben , Oo-ghe-book Oo-ghe-book , etc.

        King Island is about 700 feet high and two miles square. The

cliffs are nearly perpendicular and descend into deep water on all sides. The

bottom is generally rocky, but, offshore from Ukivok, a small native village

on the south side of the island, vessels will find anchor in about 90 feet,

with muddy bottom, and good protection from northwest winds. The houses making

up the village are built on the sides of the cliffs but well above high water.

In clear weather this island makes a very good landfall for vessels northbound

for Port Clarence (q.v.)

        Sources:

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

VSGB

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0480                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

23 April 48 KING SALMON RIVER (Egegik River)

        50 wds

        KING SALMON RIVER, in the northwestern part of the Alaska

Peninsula, rises in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (q.v.) in the

Alaska Range and takes a generally westward course across the

Alaska Peninsula to enter the mouth of the Egegik River (q.v.) from

the north. Over 50 miles long, the King Salmon River drains the

complex lake system of the coastal lowlands between Becharof and

Naknek Lakes (q.v.). It was named by Osgood in 1902.

Sources: Baker; [ ?] Aeronautical Chart No.136

° in VSGB; Sund o b b o rg; USCP & Suppl.

001      |      Vol_XII-0481                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KIVALINA, ALASKA

        340 wds.

        KIVALINA, [ ?] is a small village on the long sand spit

forming the west side of Corwin Lagoon, an [ ?] arm of the Polar Sea off the

coast of northwestern Alaska.

        Kivalina is the first town north of Kotzebue (q.v.) known to

be the home of any white people. According to a 1930 report, the Bureau of

Education had already established a school here, and the Eskimos operated a

cooperative store in connection with their reindeer business. In addition,

there was a branch of one of the Kotzebue stores, which also was in the charge

o a f a native. At that time, the schoolhouse and the homes of a few of the

native families were the only framed buildings in the town, all others being

constructed either of driftwood or sod.

        The old site of this settlement would seem to have been at the

north end of the lagoon about ten miles away. The present site offers no

particular natural advantages, although it is well-situated for getting back

into the country by way of the Kivalina River (q.v.). It is also almost

directly across country from Noatak (q.v.), on the river of the same name.

It is approximately midway of the reindeer range used by the local herd, and

fish are said to be particularly numerous near the mouth of the Kivalina

River. Except for the occasional driftwood and scrub by willows that grow for

about ten or twenty miles up the river, however, there is no fuel supply any–

where in the vicinity.

        In 1939, Kivalina had a population of 98 or more, a post

office, an Alaska Native Service school, one general store (the Kotzebue branch

002      |      Vol_XII-0482                                                                                                                  
KIVALINA, ALASKA

store apparently having gone out of business), a Friends' Mission, and a

1500-foot landing strip. The store is still run by the Eskimos in connection

with their reindeer business, so that fresh meat is almost always obtainable

in the town. The Coast Pilot remarks that the red-roofed school house is

visible five miles offshore, constituting a valuable landmark for pilots

in these waters.

        26

003      |      Vol_XII-0483                                                                                                                  
KIVALINA, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska.

Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)

Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, 1947. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, 1947. Juneau, Alaska, 1947.

U.S.C.P.

V.S.G.B.

001      |      Vol_XII-0484                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KIVALINA RIVER, ALASKA

        130 wds

        KIVALINA RIVER, northwestern Alaska, debouches about midway

between Cape Krusenstern and Point Hope (q.v.) into Corwin Lagoon, which is

separated only by a long narrow sand spit from the Polar Sea.

        The Kivalina rises in the vicinity of 1630-foot Mount Jarvis

and follows a generally southwesterly course for about twenty miles before

entering the lagoon.

        Scrub willows, the tallest less than ten feet high, fringe the

lowland sections of this stream but disappear from the early mountainous

regions. This growth of willow has been found sufficient for ordinary camp

needs, but not enough for many people or for long sojourns in one place.

        The nearest settlement is Kivalina (q.v.), at the south end

of the sand spit.

002      |      Vol_XII-0485                                                                                                                  
KIVALINA RIVER, ALASKA

        References

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

        Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska .

Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)

        U.S.C.P.

        V.S.G.B.

001      |      Vol_XII-0486                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

March, 1949 KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

        Text - 1,885 wds

Bibl - 100 wds

        KIWALIK RIVER, the largest river on the north side of Seward

Peninsula, Ala [ ?] ka, rises in a low ridge which separates it from the Koyuk

(q.v.) drainage basin, and flows almost directly northward for about 70

miles to empty into Spafarief Bay, a southeasterly arm of Kotzebue Sound.

        The first thirty miles of this river crosses a low, flat area which

is several miles wide, but this valley narrows considerably in the vicinity

of Candle, about four miles u f rom the mouth of the Ki w alik. Below Cand e l e

the river widens into a lagoon, perhaps ten square miles in area, and covering

a region of mud flats, most of which are exposed at low tide.

        The early western tributaries to the Kiwalik drain long narrow

basins, roughly parallel and separated by low ridges. The chief western

tributaries are Canoe, Gold Run, Glacier, Dome, Bonanza, Eldorado, Candle,

and Minnehaha Creeks. Kirk Creek enters the west side of the lagoon, a few

miles below Minnehaha Creek.

        Of these, Glacier Creek carries the most water. It rises in the

eastern sope of Monument Mountain, the highest point in this part of Seward

Peninsula, and flows to into the Kiwalik at a point about twenty-five miles from

its mouth. During periods of low water this stream is fed by limestone springs

and by the water from the melting " glacier " which forms below these [ ?] springs

during the winter months.

        Gold Run, a few miles above Glacier Creek, also derives some of

its water from springs, but it does not have as well-sustained a supply as

Glacier Creek. All the other western streams in the Kiwalik system are reduced

to mere trickles during the summer, while Candle Creek, which has a drainage

area of sixty square miles at the mouth, frequently reaches a stage of zero

flow.

002      |      Vol_XII-0487                                                                                                                  
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

        Candle Creek, economically the most important stream in this

system, receives a great many tributaries most of which flow in from the west.

Reading downstream these are: Ptarmigan, Potato, Thomas, Willow, Patterson,

and Jump Creeks. Gold placer operations began on Candle Creek in 1901 and have

yielded a large percentage of the total production of the Fairhaven mining dis–

trict ever since. The creek is about 18 miles long and is worked for the

greater part of its length. Up until 1910, the principal produci o ng ground

was between Patterson and Jump Creeks and extended to the third tier of benches

on the left side of the valley. Subsequently, gold was found on the right side

of the valley and farther upstream. Successful mining in this region has always

been handicapped by lack of water and is [ ?] sometimes for this reason stopped

altogether.

        The largest eastern tributaries to the Kiwalik are Quartz and

Hunter Creeks, both of which rise in a mountainous mass separating the Kiwalik

from the Buckland River (q.v.) system.

        Quartz Creek joins the main stream about 60 miles above Glacier

Creek and has a larger drainage area than any other tributary to the Kiwalik.

The Quartz Creek valley is generally hilly and even mountainous along its

eastern and southern borders. The slopes of the basin are steep and only

thinly covered with moss , so that water derived from rain runs off quickly. In

addition, the river bed is loose gravel which probably thaws considerably during

the summer, so that there may well be an appreciable underflow.

        Hunter Creek drains an area north of Quartz Creek and flows through

a narrow, tortuous valley to the Kiwalik about 8 miles above Quartz Creek. Its

basin resembles that of Quartz Creek but is not so mountainous. The water

supply in Hunter is less, but more reliable than that in Quartz Creek.

        Lava Creek, the only other named easter n tributary to the Kiwalik,

drains a flat lava area north of Hunter Creek. It has a very small run-off

003      |      Vol_XII-0488                                                                                                                  
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

except during the high water period in the spring and immediately after a rain

at any time of the year.

        As early as 1884 and 1885, Lieutenant C. Cantwell described the

Eskimos of this region in his account of the cruise of the Corwin. In the

spring, Eskimos come to the larger rivers in the vicnity to trade, hunt seals,

and catch salmon. At that time, dried salmon was the most important article

of food both in summer and in winter. Cantwell found several families at the

present site of Ki q w alik, on the lagoon, and several more at Candle . a few

miles upstream. Some of these natives had been employed by the white miners,

b y u t the arrangement did not seem to work out very well, and only a few Eskimos

returned the following summer for this kind of [ ?] activity. The Eskimo

preferred to remain dependent on the country for his food and clothing. In

addition to caribou meat and hides, these were supplied in many ways. In

winter, the Eskimo snared ptarmigan and arctic hare; in spring and summer he

killed seals and walrus, and in the early fall he caught and dried fish and

hunted geese and ducks.

        Very soon after the arrival of the white man, however, the Eskimo

learned new ways of living and new things to want. More and more he traded

skins, fish, and handmade skin clothing for flour and other kinds of imported

foods. In summer, the Eskimo began to wear the white man's clothing, although

he returned wholly or in part to his native dress during the winter. The

Eskimo also adopted the white man's tent as his summer home, but he continued

to desert the coast during the winter for some inland region where game,

especially ptarmigan, was plentiful.

        Such were the beginnings of the present settlements, Candle and

Kiwalik, which are described below in greater detail.

        Timber & Vegetation A narrow band of spruce timber lines the Kiwalik and the banks

of its larger tributaries, Hunter and Quartz Creeks. Early M m iners on

004      |      Vol_XII-0489                                                                                                                  
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

Candle Creek cut this timber in early the spring and floated it downstream during

the season of high water for use as [ ?] building material and fuel in

the Candle Creek camps. The exposure of large spruce logs in the muck and gravel

of the valleys of this region suggests that the [ ?] distribution of timber

was once much greater than it is at present. The spruce line extends farther

west on the south side of the Bendeleben Mountains than it does on the north

and farther generally in the interior than it does anywhere along the coast.

        Cottonwoods do not appear with any frequency in the Kiwalik River

valley, but small willows, averaging six to eight feet in height are almost

everywhere found close to the streams. These offer the only fuel supply for a

great part of Seward Peninsula. During the summertime, surfaces everywhere,

except in the tops of the higher hills and mountains, are covered with moss and

grass, so that there is no difficulty in finding feed for horses. However, [ ?]

these grasses do not have time to mature because of the shortness of the season,

so that they afford very little nourishment after being cured. In order to

keep pack animals alive during the winter, it is therefore necessary to import

feed for them. The marsh berry and salmon berry, which are indigenous to these

regions, make an agreeable addition to the diet, but, to the Outsider, perhaps

the most surprising characteristic of the flora of this region is the great

variety and abundance of the flowers which flourish during the springtime.

This, if nothing else, gives the lie to all preconceptions concerning the

so-called "snow-swept, cold, barren wastes" of the Arctic.

        Mining Placer gold was discovered on Jump Creek in July, 1901.

By the following year the easily worked gravels had been exhausted

so that the miners turned their attention elsewhere. Gold was ultimately discovered

on practically every creek claim for over ten miles up Candle Creek, and, by

1908, a total of $2,245,400 had been removed from the region. This was a

005      |      Vol_XII-0490                                                                                                                  
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

remarkable sum considering that the water supply to this entire region is

notably unreliable and that for several of three years in question the summer season had been

unusually dry. By 1930, one company had six camps and fifty men at work on

Candle Creek, and mining was also going forward on Quartz and Gold Run Creeks.

By 1940, both dredges and hydraulics were being used on Candle Creek by the

Arctic Circle Exploration, Inc., which owned extensive tracts not only along the

stream itself but also along the bench gravel high on the slopes of the valley.

Work was still much handicapped because of the shortage of water, but the Candle

district was still the chief producer of the Fairhaven [ ?] precinct.

With the inception of World War II and the subsequent labor shortage, plus the

removal of gold from the essential metals list, gold mining became an unprofitable

business, and mining declined to the vanishing point not only an Candle Creek

but also throughout the Territory of Alaska. (For a more detailed explanation

of this condition see article on Nome, Alaska.)

        Settlements & Communication Aside from several roadhouses and shelter cabins, the only

settlements along the Kiwalik are Candle, at the mouth

of that stream, and Kiwalik, on the sandbar which extends eastward across the

entrance to the lagoon, at the mouth of the Ki q w alik River.

        Candle (65° 55′ N.Lat., 161° 55′ W.Long.) is the recording office

for the Fairhaven mining precinct and had a reported 1939 population of 119.

This sum is increased during the summer by the arrival of Eskimo and white

temporary inhabitants. The town has a territorial school and a third class

post office. In addition, there are two general stores, a hotel, a roadhouse,

and a restaurant. A U.S. Commissioner , and the manager of a reindeer unit

live in the town. Winter trails connect Candle with Nome, Solomon, Council,

and Norton Bay points to the south, with Deering, to the west, and with all

parts of Kotzebue Sound and the mainland coast to the north. There is a

1400-foot landing field, and mail comes in [ ?] by boat twice a

006      |      Vol_XII-0491                                                                                                                  
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

month from June to October, and is delivered once a week by dog-sled for the

duration of each year.

        Kiwalik is smaller than Candle, but it has a 1600-foot emergency

landing field and is con n ected with other points on the Peninsula by the same

trails which run through Candle.

        A 1947 report mentions that George Hellerich, as successor to

James S. Robins, has taken over the management of Arctic Circle Exploration,

Inc. properties in the Candle area. He expects to use two dredges and one

hundred men in the district starting in 1948. Along with the gold properties,

he also acquired several barges for freight, lighterage, and transportation on

the Kiwalik, jade and asbestos properties at Shungnak, on the Kobuk River,

and the Arctic Air Service, which operates six planes. He does not intend to

work the jade or asbestos properties, and may sell the barges and airplanes,

since his principal interest is in the gold mining possibilities of the district.

        From this forward-looking report, it may probably be assumed

that the Candle, Creek placers may resume their place as the foremost

gold producers of the Fairhaven district.

007      |      Vol_XII-0492                                                                                                                  
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bain, H.F. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis ofor Industry. Was h ington, 1946.

& (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular 7379)

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Jessens Weekly. Jessens Weekly. 11 April 47

Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Sewar [ ?] Peninsula, Alaska. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Sewar [ ?] Peninsula, Alaska.

Washington, 1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)

Smith, P.S. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska...in 1930. Mineral Resources of Alaska...in 1930. Washington,

1933. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bul l etin Bul l etin 836)

S m ith, P.S. Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940. Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940. Washington, 1942.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 933-A ) Bulletin 933-A )

VS Guide Book for Alaska VS Guide Book for Alaska

001      |      Vol_XII-0493                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

        Read June, 1949 by O.R.W. & H.B.

Corrected by RC 15 Je 49

Text - 6,030 words

Bibl. - 150 words

        THE KOBUK RIVER, which gives its name to a large an extensive area in

northwestern Alaska, is one of the largest waterways in this part of the

Territory. The Kobuk District lies west of the Koyukuk and Alatna Districts, in

the Yukon River system, north of the Selawik District, and south of the

Noatak District.

        This great river, whose course which is over 400 miles long, rises

in in the vicinity of Walker and Nutuvukti Lakes in the vicinity of near 67° N.Lat., 154° 30′ W.Long.,

and flows in a generally westerly direction to enter the east side of Hotham Inlet.

        Lieutenants George M. Stoney and J.C. Cantwell, both of the

U.S. Navy, ascended the Kobuk du ring the 1880's. Much of the following

account is taken from their reports and findings, since the exhausting

trip of up the Kobuk has not having been attempted in its entirety by very many only a few white

men since their time. The airplane has opened all of the Kobuk to the

Outside, [ ?] obviating the necessity of

travel l ing up from its mouth in order to reach the headwaters.

        In such quotations as shall be given, it may be noticed

that Stoney refers to the Kobuk as the "Putnam," the name which he assigned

to it, while Cantwell calls it the "Kowak." It will be understood that

they are both referring to the Kobuk, the name by which this major waterway

is now generally known.

        Walker Lake, which Stoney also calls Kal-lu-look-to-ark or

Big Fish, from which one of the headwaters of the Kobuk drains, is a long ,

tapering , horn-shaped lake about fourteen miles long , lying northwest-southeast, but only about two

miles wide at the greatest. It lies in a valley in the southeastern

section of the Schwatka Mountains, and, except for its southern end, is

completely surrounded by peaks ranging from 3,000 to 3,600 feet in height. 24

002      |      Vol_XII-0494                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

The hills immediately bordering the lake are about 300 feet high. Cantwell

found no shallow places anywhere in this lake anywhere except in at the mouth of the

outlet at its southern end. Elsewhere he did not find bottom with a 40-fathom

line.

        Eskimo tales of the immense fish to be found in Walker Lake

inspired one of Cantwell's party to bait bate the antlers of a reindeer with a

goose in a semi-serious attempt to catch one of these mythical monsters.

Although that attempt failed, more no rmal fishing methods produced trout over

three feet in length. The natives assured Cantwell, however, that these

were tiny in comparison with the boat-devouring creatures living fish that lived in the depths

of the lake.

        A short stream connects the southern end of Walker Lake with

the Kobuk. A few miles above this junction, near the mountain - ringed headwaters source of the Kobuk,

the Kichaiak enters from the east. This section of the Kobuk passes through

a gorge. The river here is white with rapids, the bed bristling with boulders

and drift-wood. Navigation of this part of the Kobuk is possible only with very

small boats and a s t out tracking line, but and then only with the greatest diffi–

culty and danger. [ ?] This upper section of the Kobuk is not more than only about 20 or

25 miles west of the Alatna, in the Yukon River system, and there is a

portage over the intervening mountains to that stream. It was by way of this

portage from the Alatna (which he called the Allen), that Mendenhall reached

the Kobuk i h n August of 1901.

        Mendenhall found that the Kobuk was about 125 feet wide and

6 to 8 feet deep at the mouth of the Kichaiak and that it occupied a level

valley about three miles wide.

        For more than twenty miles below Walker Lake, the river bends

veers to the southwest, thereafter keeping to maintaining its generally westerly direction.

Its course is tortu r ous, passing through two more deep gorges. At a point

between

        24

003      |      Vol_XII-0495                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

between these gorges the Kobuk receives a tributary from Nutuvukti

Lake

        N utuvukti Lake is a little less than one-half as extensive as

Walker Lake. It is roughly crescent-shaped and lies along a northwest-southeast

axis. Its sides are formed by relatively high hills, but the valley in which

it is situated extends far beyond the ends of the lake.

        Norutak Lake, south of the Kobuk, between the lower gorge

and the headwaters of the Hogatza River (q.v.), is visible from the hills

bordering this part of the Kobuk. It is approximately oval in shape and drains

southward into the Hogatza.

        Below the lower gorge, the Kobuk valley is from ten to twenty

miles wide. This width is maintained for over a hundred s of miles until just above

the mouth of Squirrel River where a spur [ ?] from the Baird Mountains on the north

and a small group of scattered hills on the south suddenly contract the valley

to a width of only a few miles. Below this point the valley gradually broadens

again to the head of the delta, where it enters a great flat extending from

near the mouth of the N o atak to south of Selawik Lake.

        Tributaries All along its middle course the Kobuk receives many tributaries,

the most importa n t of which flow out of the Schwatka and

Baird Mountains north of the stream.

        Travel l ing downstream from the point at which we have noted

that the Kobuk turns westward, these tributaries are: Reed, Beaver, [ ?]

Sulukpowik, Mauneluk, Kogoluktuk, Dahl, Wesley, Cosmos, Shungnak, Ambler,

Jade, Hunt, Kaliguricheark, Tutuksuk, Salmon, Kallarichuk, Trinity, and

Squirrel (q.v.).

        At the head of Reed River are the hot springs explored by

Ensign Reed of the Stoney expedition, from which the upper Noatak may easily

be reached in winter. Lake Selby, the source of the Sulukpowik, is about [ ?]

004      |      Vol_XII-0496                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

six or eight miles long , and lies only about five or six miles north of the Kobuk.

High mountains fo r m the valley wall at the north end of the lake, and a

short portage from its head leads to Avaterat Lake, the source of the

Mauneluk. The Kogoluktuk enters the Kobuk a few miles east of 157° W.Long.

The pass leading from the head of this river to the Noatak is one of the

shortest and easiest routes to that river from the Kobuk.

        The Ambler, one of the most important affluents of to the Kobuk,

flows out of the Schwatka Mountains and diagonally a cross the broad east-west

valley bordering the last twenty-five miles of its course to enter The Ambler enters

the Kobuk near 158° W. Long. Its principal tributary, the Redstone, was so

named by Stoney because of the color of the rock debris which it carries.

        "The country on both sides [ of this section of the river Kobuk ] ,"

Cantwell wrote on July 25, 1884, "was, as usual, spongy tundra backed by

rolling country to the mountains, sixteen to twenty miles distant. The banks

of the river are moderately high, and composed of a dark-colored soil of

a clayey nature, above which lies a thick layer of black earth in which the

fiber of decayed vegetable matter can be seen in great quantities. The

banks seem to be undergoing a continual change of form, as we frequently

saw portions twenty-five to fifty feet square become detached and fall into

the water. Sand-bars and shoals abound in many places, and the current re–

mained about as usual...We chased a flock of geese into a small lake which

has an outlet into the Kowak this afternoon and killed half a dozen, and as

we had had no fresh meat of any kind for some time they proved a welcome addi–

tion to our larder...Temperature, 90°."

        On July 30, having decided determined to return to his supply [ ?]

launch before proceeding farther upstream, Cantwell repassed the mouth of

the tributary flowing down from Jade Mountain, some twelve miles to the

north. Since his boat was in need of a day's repair, Cantwell decided to

        27

005      |      Vol_XII-0497                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

walk to the moun t ain. The native shamans believed it to be the home of

evil d a emons who destroyed all trespassers. Cantwell found trouble and d an ger

not in the mountain itself but in its approach. "Our walk across to the

mountains," he wrote, "was attended by excessive fatigue. Ou r way lay across

the soft, yielding tundra through lagoons, around lakes and dense thickets of

tangled willows and cottonwood, and long stretches of pine woods, where

fallen trees caused us constantly to turn aside and travel by a circuitous

route. At one moment exposed to the burning heat of the summer sun, and the

next floundering, plunging, and struggling waist-deep in dark pools of stag–

nant water where the light of day never penetrates, we reached at last the

banks of a high rugged peak of the same range roaring torrent wh [ ?] ch sweeps

around the base of the Jade Mountain and separates it from a high rugged peak

of the same range.

        "The bed of the stream was filled with stones, and huge heaps

of them had been piled up with human-like intention by the ice. André and

I began at once our search for the green stone, but the heart of Natorak failed

him here and he could not be induced to go any nearer to the supposed

residence of his satanic majesty...Large quantities of green stone were found

in the bed of the stream and scattered along its banks. The whole mountain

seems to be composed of it, and the sides of the cliffs are like polished glass,

so smooth have they been made by pressure or friction. Following the course

of the str e am we collected a number of specimens of stone aggregating in

[ ?] weight about seventy-five or one hundred pounds and returned to the camp...

Average temperature, 90°."

        The next day, at 3:30 a.m., the small party started on the

return journey. The cold early morning air invigorated them, and they fairly

ran down the side of the mountain, despite their heavy loads of stone and camp

equipment. After about five miles of easy walking, however, they came upon

        26

006      |      Vol_XII-0498                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

a dense pine forest. "Here," Cantwell wrote, "we were beset by myriads of

mosquitoes and sand-flies, which attacked us with a persistence and violence

utterly beyond description. Sometimes in crossing a morass I would be com–

pelled to steady myself by holding on to the limbs of a fallen tree. At such

times the horrible pests would attack my face, neck, and head with venomous

force which no pen can describe. After about two hours of this kind of work

we emerged upon the open tundra, and a fresh breeze springing up we threw

ourselves down and buried our heads in the yielding moss and grass until the

wind had blown the mosquitoes away. I can not tell how much I suffered dur–

ing this day. I only know that when we reached the river at 5 p.m. I was

almost insensible from pain and exhaustion."

        From this account it will readily be understood that , in the opinion of the first white men in this region, whatever

were the difficulties of summer river travel in this country , they were as

nothing when compared with the horrors of summer overland travel. which, At that time of

because of year, the nature of the terrain , the complete lack of trails, and the then had at that time to be slowly and

laboriously on foot. existing ignorance of the equipment and technique necessary for

such tips, combined to discourage even the hardiest explorer.

Mendenhall reports that serpentines

        The Squirrel River system is complicated and of sufficient

economic importance to be written up separately. There are, of course, other

unnamed northerly tributaries to of the Kobuk.

        The southern tributaries to the Kobuk are much f ewer in

number. Just south of the Sulkpowik River, which drains from Lake Selby,

T he Lockwood Hills and a spur r from the Zane Hills approach the south side

of the upper Kobuk. Between these two groups of hills [ ?] the Pah River flows north–

ward into the Kobuk, entering it a few miles below the mouth of the Sulukpowik.

No P A few miles below Wesley Creek, the Kuikcherk and Pick Rivers

flow in from the south, while and Black River enters a few miles below the

Shungnak.

        25

007      |      Vol_XII-0499                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

        Cantwell's party ascended Black River, which Cantwell called

the Umakalookta, on July 27, 1884. Its course they found to be tortu r ous

and its banks covered with a "dense and impenetrable thicket of Arctic willow

and rank grass." The lower section of the stream was between fifty and seventy–

five yards wide, but, after a little over five hours of travel l ing upstream,

it had turned into "a roaring mountain torrent of some twenty-five feet in

width." With the help of some local natives, many of whom had never before

seen a white man, Cantwell carried his boats and equipment over the portage

leading northeastward from the head of Black River to the Kobuk, at a point

about thirty-five miles above the mouth of the Black. This portage took the

party directly across the marshlands, across two small lakes, and then

across more marshland. "Over stumps and through mud and water sometimes

knee deep we floundered," Cantwell w rote. It was with considerable joy and

relief that the party finally achieved the Kobuk, "whose broad, unobstructed

surface seemed to welcome us back," Cantwell adds, ascribing to the river

his own feelings at seeing it again.

        Between Ambler and Hunt River, Tunutuk Creek comes in from

the south, and Kavet and Nigeruk Creeks enter a few miles farther downstream.

        The Nigeruk is the last named southern tributary to the Kobuk,

although, as with the streams coming in from the north, there are many more

whose names have not yet found their way on to maps of the region.

        Reed River, known to the Eskimos as the An-ne-lag-ag-ge-rack,

was named by Stoney after a member of his expedition, Ensign M.L. Reed, who

explored it in 1886.

        Omit

        Beaver Creek was so named by Stoney in 1885 apparently from

the translation of the Eskimo name. Sulukpowik is an Anglicized version of

the Eskimo name for a small fish. Both Stoney and Cantwell visited the

Kogoluktuk during the summer of 1885. Cantwell recorded a variant of

        26

008      |      Vol_XII-0500                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

this name and reported that it was also known as Rocky River. Mendenhall

named Cosmos Creek after Stoney's winter camp of 1885/86, Fort Cosmos,

which was located at the mouth of this stream. Stoney also gave the name

Sh ungnak to a stream known to the natives as Shingnek. Since Shungnak Creek

enters the Kobuk many miles below the site of the town of S h ungnak, Stoney would

seem to have confused the names. This mistake, however, has never been cor–

rected. The present site of Shungnak would seem to be where Stoney located

the village of Sulukpowik. Menden ha ll identified this stream as the Shingnek,

but more recent maps have reinstated Stoney's possible error.

        Omit

        Stoney substituted Ambler for the native name of that

river in mem o ry of Dr. James M. Ambler, U.S.N., surgeon on the ill- fated De Long

arctic expedition (q.v.). Hunt River he named after one of his 1885 party.

The Tutusuk he recorded as the Too-look-sook, or Labret River. Mendenhall

changed this to Tootooksook, claiming that the name means "river of caribou

pelts," from tutu or tootoo , "caribou."

        Kallarichuk and Trinity Rivers appear as dotted, unsurve y ed

streams on a U.S. Geological Survey reconnaissance map dated 1930. Stoney,

Cantwell, and Mendenhall all agree on the name Squirrel for that northerly

tributary to the Kobuk although they disagree with each other and with them–

selves as to the Spelling of its Eskimo name.

        Delta Below Squirrel River the Kobuk separates into a number of

channels, making a maze of sloughs of the lower section of its broad delta.

Local pilots have favorites among the reported twenty-seven or twenty-eight

channels and will use one or the other of these depending on the direction

of the wind at the time of their approach from Hotham Inlet. Riley Channel,

which appears on so many recent maps, was named after the S.S. John Riley ,

which used this particular approach to the Kobuk early in the twentieth century.

This channel is still in use but would not seem to be any more popular than

certain others.

009      |      Vol_XII-0501                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

        Relief The most noticeable feature of the relief of the Kobuk dis–

trict is the considerable height and almost unbroken contin–

uity of the mountains north of the river and the relatively low and spotty

character of the hills to the south of it.

        The Endicott Mountains, which merge without a break into the

Schwatka Mountains, enclose the headwaters of the Kobuk. They retreat from

the river quickly enough, however, to leave the southern ends of Walker and

Nutuvukti Lakes pretending projecting into the Kobuk valley, which here

measures only a few miles in width. An 8,800-foot peak, the highest point

in the Schwatka Mountains, lies rises only about eighteen miles northwestward from

the upper end of Walker Lake.

        For about one hundred eighty-five miles (airline) below the point at

which the Kobuk turns westward, that is, from a few miles above Reed River

to the mouth of the Ambler, a series of isolated groups of hills, known as the

Cosmos Hills, separates the Kobuk from the Schwatka Mountains. These hills,

hilly clumps , most of which rise to well over 2,000 feet, are completely sur–

rounded by lowlands except in the two instances in which they are connected

on the north with the Schwatka Mountains. The Reed, Beaver, Sulukpowik, Mauneluk,

Kogoluktuk, Dahl, Wesley, Cosmos, and Shungnak Rivers work their way out

of the Schwatka Mountains, and through the valleys segmenting the Cosmos Hills

and so to the Kobuk. Lake Selby lies between two of the most easterly of

this group of hills, and Avatarat Lake is only a few miles northwest of Lake

Selby, between the hills and the Schwatka Mountains.

        Just west of Ambler River, at about 158° W.Long., the

Schwatka Mountains merge into with the lower chain known as the Baird Mountains.

This system continues along an east-west axis in line with the general

direction of the Kobuk but from ten to twenty miles distant from it, until

just above the mouth of the Squirrel, where they send a ragged point of hills

        27

010      |      Vol_XII-0502                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

southwest southward to within a few miles of the river.

        Westward from this point, however, the Baird Mountains veer

northwestward away not only from the Kobuk but also from the Squirrel.

        The only high land south of the Squirrel and north of the

Kobuk is a narrow chain of hills containing among which rises 2,675-foot Deviation Peak.

This small group runs along a southeast-northwest axis parallel to the

Squirrel but several miles away from it, and T he lower Southern end of the group does

not approaches to within nearer than two or three miles of the Kobuk.

        The relief of the southern half of the Kobuk valley presents

a much different aspect from that to the north.

        The hills separating the extreme upper course of the Kobuk

from the Alatna are generally 1,000 feet or less in height and are marked only

occasionally by isolated higher peaks. It is across this low sprawling range

that Mendenhall reached the Kobuk from the Alatna early in this century,

using the ancient and much trave l led portage discovered by the natives.

        Southeast Southwest of this group of there hills lies Norutak Lake,

which, as we have seen, drains southward into the Hogatza.

        Westward of Norutak Lake scattered clumps of hills , usually not

more than 2,000 feet high, but sometimes containing isolated peaks between

3,000 and 4,000 feet in height, continue to skirt the Kobuk along with, but at an ever-increasing

distance from it the Kobuk. . As we have seen, Pah River finds an easy course

between two of these groups, known as the Lockwood and Zane Hills. West of

158° W.Long., the terrain south of the Kobuk sinks into a stretch of lake-

strewn marsh land stretching almost without interruption to the delta. The

only break in this expanse is a straggling chain of isolated groups of

hills known as the Waring Mountains. The easterly members of this chain lie

ten or more miles from the Kobuk, but, opposite the spurr sent hills jutting down from the

Baird Mountains north of the river, they approach to within a few miles of

        27

011      |      Vol_XII-0503                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

it, completing the constriction of the Kobuk valley . mentioned above. At

a point approximately due south of the mouth of the Squirrel, the Waring

Mountains give way to the conditions surrounding the delta, which reinstate

the typical arctic marshy grassland, described by some writers as "tundra,"

except that in the case of the Kobuk a growth of spr u ce extends to the very

shores of Hotham Inlet.

        Climate Stoney describes the month of July on the Kobuk as "one of

incessant rain," sometimes combined with a heavy fall of

hailstones and violent thunder and lightning. During the day temperatures

taken in the sun rose to between 80° and 100° F., with one record-breaking

reading of 110°. At the same time it was between 60° and 70° in the shade.

August, on the other hand, Stoney reports as being perfectly dry, so that the

level of the water in the Kobuk and all its tributaries fe l l several feet,

exposing bars and sand - banks where none had been before. During August and

September temperatures fell markedly at night so that frost formed and a

thin skin of ice covered small, still pools of water.

        At Fort Cosmos, several hundred miles up the Kobuk, the river

was clogged with ice on October 1. By November 1 this ice was everywhere at

least sixteen inches thick. The lowest recorded temperature for the entire

winter, ࢤ70° F., occurred during January, 1886. From then on, both extreme

and mean temperatures gradually increased. Highest readings for April and

m M ay were 49° and 65° respectively, the lowest ࢤ22° and 14° respectively.

        On April 26, geese flew over Fort Cosmos and snow-buntings

appeared. By April 30, the first signs of buds were noticed on the trees

and bushes. On May 19, the river ice cracked along the edges, and a few

days later the midstream masses began to break up and float down-river.

        25

012      |      Vol_XII-0504                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

By May 30, the entire body of ice was moving, and on that day an ice-jam

somewhere below the Fort raised the water in the river five inches in fifteen

minutes. The first mosquitoes, scourge of the arctic summer, appeared about

this time, and the grass began to show green. By June 3, the river was

practically clear of ice, and on June 8, Stoney started downstream in the

Explorer , reaching the delta without mishap.

        Fish and Game Throughout the late summer and fall great numbers of salmon

throng the Kobuk. It is the women's work at this time of

year to dry and store the fish for the winter. White fish, gr e a yling, and pike

are also caught during the summer months.

        Waterfowl breed in the numberless lakes and ponds dotting

the marsh land on both sides of the river. Mendenhall found that these ducks

and geese, although wary and difficult for any but the professional hunter

to [ ?] capture, existed in sufficient numbers to supply an agreeable

variety to the bill of fare several times a week.

        Just before their winter migration young fat ducks are much

easier to catch. Other birds in this section are the widgeon, green wing

teal, pintail, butterballs, and harlequins. The willow ptarmigan, most generally

distributed of all the food birds, is abundant on the marshy grasslands,

but somewhat less frequent in the mountainous sections. A smaller and less

num erous , smaller ptarmigan inhabits the rocky heights and tops of the mounts, and a

few Canada grouse live in the spruce forests bordering the middle and upper

sections of the Kobuk.

        At the time when Mendenhall visited this section the

caribou were gradually working farther eastward and northward, away from the

Kobuk, so that it was often necessary for the natives to cross over to the

Noatak and Wild Rivers in order to get caribou skins for clothing.

More recent reports seem to indicate that the caribou have increased since

        26

013      |      Vol_XII-0505                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

Mendenhall's time. Moose are scarce everywhere. A few white mountain sheep

are to be found in the uplands surrounding the head of the Kobuk, and there

are some black and brown bear in the region of the delta. Muskrat, which the

Eskimos use as food, are very numerous in the delta. Their skins are also

used for clothing when caribou hides are scarce. Some red and white foxes,

marten, beaver, and mink are known to live in the district, but the Eskimos

[ ?] use these skins for trading rather than for their more immediate needs.

        Vegetation As will be seen from comparing the Kobuk district with most

of Seward Peninsula and the coastal regions to the north,

it is extraordinary in having a growth of spruce all along its course, and for

a good distance down the delta. This growth is ample for the building of

cabins all along the river. anywhere in the district. The spruce These spruce trees average one foot

in diameter, but Stoney found one tree with a base eighty inches in circum–

ference, and a trunk measuring sixty-eight inches around in circumference six feet above the ground. base.

This tree was about eighty feet tall, an unusual growth for the spruce of

the Kobuk district. Birch trees also grow along the river but never reach

the size sufficient for use in building. These spruce and birch trees will are

be found only in the valleys. Because of the high northern latitude of the

region, they do not extend very far up the sides of the mountains. However,

since the Kobuk valley is from fifteen to twenty miles wide throughout most

of its extent, timber is available in good supply to residents, miners,

and prospectors.

        Poplars, including balm of Gilead and the aspen, appear

on gravel knolls and ridges in the lower regions. Scrub willows, varying in

size from small trees to shrubs only two or three inches high, line the

waterways, the larger varieties forming the typical willow thicket along the

banks. Alders occur not only on the lower levels but also on the mountain

slopes well above the timber line.

        26

014      |      Vol_XII-0506                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

        A wide variety and great abundance of grasses cover the

lowland marshes. These grasses may be used as fodder for pack animals, but,

because they seldom have time to mature during the short growing season,

they furnish very little sustenance after being dried.

        Myriads of several kinds of berries, including the salmon

berry and bilberry grow everywhere in the lowlands. Mountain and high bush

cranberries as well as the red currant will be are also found, but less frequently.

        Mosses, particularly the white or cream-colored reindeer

moss , combine with the dark green, red, and black of other varieties to

form an unbroken , irregularly patterned covering over the lowlands, while the

more hardy varieties of mosses and lichens continue up the slopes and to the

very tops of the mountains, completing the blanket of vegetation which

masks the entire region. Small, and often showy , and brightly-colored flowers

bloom persist throughout the short summer, adding a gay note to an otherwise rather

somber landscape.

        Transportation As will be easily understood after reading Cantwell and

Stoney, transportation on the Kobuk was difficult and

primitive in the 1880's. Except for the portages mentioned above, trails

were nonexistent and to step away from the river was to project oneself

into the pathless marshes and forests bordering the river. Communities along

the Kobuk developed slowly , so that for the first few years of this century

travel summer travel kept to the waterways and winter travel was exclusively

by dog tre team. By 1910, however, the demand for ready, year-round communica–

tion between the several mining camps in the Shungnak area emphasized the

need for a system of summer trails. Under the direction of the U.S.

c C ommissioner for the district , a trail one trail was built from Shungnak to

the placers on the upper Dahl Creek, another up Wesley Creek, and a third

from Dahl to Wesley Creeks, along the southern slopes of the Cosmos h H ills.

27

015      |      Vol_XII-0507                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

        These three trails improved the local conditions around Shungnak but

hardly constituted a system for the entire Kobuk district. Despite this

lack, the members of the Geological Survey expedition of 1910 found that

it was possible for anyone familiar with the terrain and its conditions to

take a group of men and pack animals practically at will wherever the work

required them to go.

        One cannot help but compare the assurance implicit in this

statement with Cantwell's reports concerning his summer overland trips . in the

Kobuk district. During the quarter of a century succeeding Cantwell's

pioneer ventures, the white man's knowledge and understanding of actual conditions in

this part of the Arctic had achieved a certain complacency. The emphasis,

however, was clearly placed on conformity with these conditions rather than

on stubborn, however brave, attempts to ignore them.

        The introduction of air travel into Alaska has shifted

attention somewhat away from the problems of overland transportation. As

will be noticed below, even the smallest villages now have a landing strip

or some area which may be used as one. Scheduled flights are or supplemented

by the work of the expert and ingenious bush pilots, who more often than not

succee d at assignments which official airlines might class as impossible.

        Settlements Aside from the many shelter cabins and temporary native

villages on the Kobuk, the chief settlements are Kalla and

Kobuk, respectively a few miles east and west of the Kogoluktuk; Shungnak,

at the mouth of Wesley Creek; Kiana, at the mouth of the Squirrel; and

Noorvik, on what is known as Nazuruk Channel, one of the more southerly

entrances to the Kobuk.

        Kala does not appear on the 1939 census, but the other four

villages are good-sized towns when one considers their distance from main

transportation lines.

        25

016      |      Vol_XII-0508                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

        Kobuk , the smallest of the group, has a population of only

about 31, but there are two general stores and a 1,300-foot landing strip in the town.

        During the 1898 gold rush to the Kobuk there were several

hundred persons in the Shungnak area, but, by 1910, only a dozen or so still

lived there, although the village had a United States commissioner and a

recorder for the Shungnak mining district, as well as a post office during

the six winter months of each year. No regularly scheduled boats came this far up the Kobuk, and S s ummer overland transportation was still

so [ ?] difficult that mail could not reach the district during that season.

There were also a Friend's Mission, a government school teacher, and a

reindeer herd superintendent in the settlement. The small store had some

supplies, but these were usually exhausted by or before the [ ?] end of the

winter.

        ¶ A group of native camps had grown up within a short distance of

the white men's cabins, and these hundred or so natives remained in the

vicinity except for their annual migration downstream during the summer

fishing season. For the next twenty years Shungnak gradually developed

into a permanent village, appearing on the 1939 census with a population of

19 3 . By this time the town also had an Alaska Native Service school, a

unit of the Alaska Radio Communication System, and a 1,500-foot landing strip.

Shungnak is about 250 miles from the mouth of the Kobuk which is navigable

throughout this distance for boats drawing up to three feet. Boats of

much greater draft could be carried this distance except for the bars at

the mouth of the river and the occasional shallowness of the channel. Kobuk and

Shungnak are usually considered the head of navigation on the Kobuk, although

small boats may be carried as far upstream as the first gorge.

        Kiana has two general stores and an Alaska Native Service

school for a population of 167. The main landing strip is 1,200 feet long,

but there is another landing area in what is known as South Kiana. This town

is the supply and transfer point for mining camps farther up the Kobuk and

        29

017      |      Vol_XII-0509                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

particularly for the mines on Klery Creek, a tributary to the Squirrel.

        Noorvik, the largest of these towns, had a 1939 population

of 211, an Alaska Native Service school, a cooperative general store, and a

1,500-foot landing strip. Noorvik also has a government hospital for natives.

It is the home of Twok, the Eskimo artist, who turned a crippling accident

of his youth into an opportunity to develop his talent for line drawings.

He is probably the only professional artist in Alaska. He uses reindeer

skins for canvas, incorporating such imperfections and discolorations as

they may contain into the design of his pictures. One of his large drawings

hangs in the lobby of the Hotel Anchorage and many others will be found in

curio shops throughout the t T erritory.

        Except for the few miners, teachers, missionaries, and white traders

living in these villages, they are exclusively native settlements. During

July and August, the majority of these natives travel down the Kobuk to a

spot on Baldwin Peninsula between Kotzebue (q.v.) and Cape Blossom where

they trade with other natives from as far north as Point Hope, on the arctic

coast of Alaska, and as far west as Cape Prince of Wales and the Diomede

Islands. These annual trading trips to this particular spot and from these

same areas were already a long-established custom when the first white men

visited Kotzebue Sound. They may date back to extremely ancient times.

        [ ?]

[ ?]

        Mining A sample of ore which a native gave to Captain B. Cogan

caused the 1898 stampede to the Kobuk. Captain Cogan took

the sample Outside where it was assayed at the enormous valuation of $4,700 to the ton. The native

had told him that there was "a mountain" of this ore. Cogan died after

several years of unsuccessful searching for this golden mountain, and, but,

24

018      |      Vol_XII-0510                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

by the summer of 1898, about 1,200 other miners had stampeded to the Kobuk

to join in the search. Only about 800 remained there over the winter of

1898/99, and the following summer most of these abandoned the district for

the new fields at Nome and along the Koyukuk (q.v.).

        The few who remained in the Kobuk District took out enough

gold to support themselves year by year, so that, by 1910, between $50,000

and $75,000 had been removed from the area. Although most of this early

mining took place in the Shungnak area, the most recent activity has been

on the Squirrel and its tributaries, particularly Klery Creek.

        An addition to gold, Gold is not the only valuable deposit to be found in this region, g G alena, vein quartz, magnetite,

and some dolomite [ ?] have been found discovered along the Kobuk. Certain non-metallic

deposits, notably coal, asbestos, serpentine, and green quartzite are also

known to exist. No jade of gem quality has ever been discovered there,

although nephrite, a jade of poor quality, has recently been found on Jade

Mountain and the Kobuk asbestos fields, where it may well become a by - product

of the mining there. This nephrite occurs in the form of surface boulders

and h as been found in the gravels of the streams flowing into the Kobuk as

far east as Dahl Creek. It is now being recovered by the Arctic Circle

Exploration Co. in connection with the mining of asbestos. Bain suggested,

in 1946, that these deposits might develop into a native jade-cutting

industry, but , since this is largely a matter of building up a demand where

style is important, the value of these nephrite deposits has yet to be de–

termined.

        By 1946, there were five small-scale gold mining operations

in the Shungnak area. At this same time one company constructed a dredge

on Klery Creek where a hydraulic and a shovel-in operation equipment were also in

operation at work.

        25

019      |      Vol_XII-0511                                                                                                                  
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alaska. Dept. of Mines. Report of the Commissioner of Mines for the Report of the Commissioner of Mines for the

Biennium ended December 31, 1940, 1946 Biennium ended December 31, 1940, 1946 . Juneau, Alaska,

1941-47.

Alaska. Governor. Annual report...to the Secretary of the Interior. Fiscal Annual report...to the Secretary of the Interior. Fiscal

year ended June 30, 1947 year ended June 30, 1947 . Washington, 1948.

Alaska Life. Alaska Life. May, 1945.

Bain, H.F. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry . Washington, 1946.

(U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circulation Information Circulation No.7379)

Brooks, A.H. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 . Washington,

1911. (U.S. Geological survey. Bulletin Bulletin 480)

Cantwell, J.C. A Narrative Account of the Exploration of the Kowak River, A Narrative Account of the Exploration of the Kowak River,

Alaska, under the direction of Capt. Michael Healy Alaska, under the direction of Capt. Michael Healy .

Washington, 1889. (H. Mis. 602)

Colby, Merle. Guide to Alaska, last American Frontier Guide to Alaska, last American Frontier . N.Y., 1942.

Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.

Mendenhall, W.C. Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound,

Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.10)

Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska .

Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 815)

Stoney, G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska Naval Explorations in Alaska . Annapolis, Md., 1900.

Sundborg, George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., 1946.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0512                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

21 April 48 KOGGIUNG, ALASKA

        150 wds

        KOGGIUNG, ALASKA, is a village and post office on the south bank

of the mouth of the Kvichak River (q.v.), Kvichak Bay, a northeastern

arm of Bristol Bay. It was reported in 1940 that a new airline, to be

called Naknek Airways, had been organized, which would base at Koggiung

and serve Bristol Bay points. Such a project would require not only a

landing field, but a commercial airways radio station in the town, since

all passenger planes in Alaska are required to have two-way communication.

The Alaska Packers Association and Libby, McNeill & Libby maintain

canneries and company radio stations in Koggiung.

        Two extensive winter trails meet near Koggiung. The more southerly

of these trails leads from Portage Bay, Shelikof Strait, on the north–

eastern side of the Alaska Peninsula, northwestward to Egegig (q.v.)

and then northward to Naknek and Koggiung. Near Koggiung this trail

crosses the head of Kvichak Bay to join the other more northerly trail

which runs from Iliamna Lake down the Kvichak River and westward to

Dillingham, Owens, Goodnews and other Bristol Bay points.

Sources: Baker; Colby; USCP & Suppl.; VS GB

[ ?] in Sundborg; T [ ?] wkesbury

001      |      Vol_XII-0513                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

April, 1949 KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

        Text - 1,615 words

Bibl - 75 words

        KOTZEBUE (66° 53′ N.Lat., 162° 37′ W.Long.) on the northwestern

tip of Baldwin Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, lies on or very near to the

site of one of the oldest native summer trading points on the northwestern

coast of Alaska. Because of its position near the mouths of the Selawik,

Kobuk, and Noatak Rivers, and its availability by water from the northern

sections of Seward Peninsula, and the Diomede Islands, this town still

retains its importance as a trading center.

        In the report of his 1884 exploration of the Kobuk River, Cantwell

gives the following description of the activities in this region on August

21 of that year: "From the middle of July to the latter part of August the

natives of the Nöitoc [ Noatak ] , Kowak [ Kobuk ] , and Selawick Rivers meet

those from Cape Prince of Wales, Diomedes, and Point Hope for the purpose

of trade. The beginning of the season is celebrated by dancing, feasting,

and story-telling, which occupy one day, and after that is accomplished the

real business of the occasion is prosecuted with surprising tact and ability.

In this community of uncivilized beings the same methods of business are

adopted whereby prices and values are made to vary in proportion to the

demand as are used by their more enlightened brothers in the civilized world.

Rifles are always in demand, and next to whisky obtain the readiest sale.

The chief of the Prince of Wales Eskimos is probably the most powerful

magnate of this region, owing no doubt to the fact that his settlement is

a convenient stopping place for vessels having these articles of contraband

trade on board. His method of becoming rich is simple and effective. Upon

the opening of business he offers the Indians whisky in exchange for rifles,

and will not trade for anything else, and is generally successful in

obtaining a 'corner' in rifles in this way. I was informed that it was not an

unusual thing for an Indian to sell and buy his rifle twice or three times

002      |      Vol_XII-0514                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

in this way during one season, or as long as the whisky lasted. It is

gratifying to learn that whisky as an article of commerce is becoming scarcer

every year. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain any reliable information

as regards the number or amount of anything. Generally speaking, the native

system of notation is limited to the fingers and toes, and any very large

number is expressed by a handful of sand. The village consists of a straggl–

ing line of tents along the beach. Some were composed of a number of poles

arranged in a conical fashion and covered with deer-skins; others of blue,

white, or red drilling were seen, and one more gaudy than the rest was

covered with the remanants of a cheap bed-quilt ... on which was printed in

glaring colors the picture of a man sitting up in bed with a [ ?] candle

in one hand and a fifteen puzzle in the other. The tents of the 'omaliks'

are generally more imposing affairs, made in the United States and brought

here by the traders."

        Cantwell returned to the village the next day, adding: "I visited

the village after dinner, and found the whole place in an uproar of

excitement. Tents were being pitched, boats hauled out and converted into

houses, skins and trade goods thrown together in large piles, and above

all the noise and bus tl e the howling of three or four hundred dogs tended

to increase the Babel-like confusion. When I arrived there was a momentary

lull in the proceedings. Many of the natives had seen me on the Corwin

and recognized me now. They crowded around me, and were evidently anxious

to know the c ua au se of my presence. Upon being assured that I did not come

with any malign intentions they welcomed me with every evidence of joy,

and kept me hemmed in until one or two drunken Eskimos had been hustled

out of sight, and then resumed their preparations for trade, allowing me to go

wherever I pleased. I was followed by a mob of boys, who showed the same

propensity for mischief as the small white boy does on similar occasions.

003      |      Vol_XII-0515                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

After taking a rapid census of the population, which I estimate [ ?]

at about fourteen hundred, I returned to our camp."

        Kotzebue acquired a post office in 1903, at which time it was also

a headquarters for a reindeer station and for a Friends' Mission. These

three attributes of the town have have never been lost, and it is good to

report that the Friends have succeeded in their fight against the sale

of hard liquor to the natives. In this, as well as other respects,

Kotzebue is now one of the model settlements in all of northwestern Alaska.

        By 1910, Kotzebue had become the major supply post for the mining

then going forward on the Kobuk River. P.S. Smith visited this section

in August of that year. He gives the following description of the town:

"Kotzebue is the seaport of the entire Kobuk region and is nor [ ?] ally the

home of a missionary and family, three white traders, a few boatmen and

mechanics, and a small settlement of natives. After the break up in the

spring, however, missionaries, school-teachers, and prospectors,

together with a great number of natives from all the neighboring rivers, con–

gregate for the trading and fishing in preparation for the coming winter, so

that during July and August there are 600 to 700 people living in the town,

which then stretches for more than 3 miles along the coast. A ma i l-boat

servi c e from Nome to this place is maintained every 10 days during the summer.

The boats, however, are only 30 to 50 ton schooners with auxiliary gasoline

power, and the passenger accommodations are cramped and inad e quate, although

the food is good. The trip from Nome by one of these boats [ ?] takes

about three days, as stops are made at many way points, and the charges in

1910 were $25 apiece for passengers and about $20 a ton for freight. It is

not possible to use boats drawing more than 5 to 6 feet of water, as the

channel up to Kotzebue is narrow, crooked, and shallow. Some larger boats

from Seattle enter Kotzebue Sound, but they can not approach nearer than

004      |      Vol_XII-0516                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

Cape Blossom, which is 10 to 12 miles south of the town of Kotzebue. In

the winter a mail service by dog sledge once a month is main t ained from

Nome overland to Candle and Kiwalik and thence along the coast and on the

sea ice to Kotzebue."

        By 1945, Kotzebue was not only one of the oldest established

settlements on the northwestern coast of Alaska, but it had become the

largest as well. Its centralized position, so early recognized by the

Eskimos, had raised its permanent population to an estimated 400. The

Friends' Church and Mission, the Catholic Church, the Alaska Native Service

School, and the ten-bed U.S. Government Hospital for natives were all housed

in handsome substantial frame buildings.

        By 1945 this time the post office had been advanced to second class rank;

the U.S. Army maintained a telegraph and radiotelegraph station of the

Alaska Communication System in the town; a Deputy Marshal and a U.S.

Commissioner resided there; and the Territorial Weather Bureau maintained

an office there. In addition to all this Kotzebue has several business

establishments including a lighterage company, two river transportation

companies, two restaurants, and a theater.

        Most of the permanent Eskimo population themselves came from the interior or

are descendants of the i n land natives along the Kobuk, Noatak, and

Selawik Rivers, but Kotzebue is still the summer meeting place for natives

from sections hundred of miles distant in and from all directions.

        Despite its centralized position, the value and convenience of

Kotzebue as a distribution point for the Kobuk mining district and for

others points on the north side of Seward Peninsula and the mainland

co a st to the north is qualified by the fact that seagoing vessels cannot

approach close to the town. Freight must be transferred to lighterage

vessels of six-foot draft or less. These boats can reach the town if

005      |      Vol_XII-0517                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

their pilots know the channels. Channels into the Hotham Inlet are

continuously changing and, although buoys are planted during the season

of navigation , they are hard to pick up in the fall, and therefore cannot

be relied upon. Pilots are available at Kotzebue.

        There is a small wharf at the town and [ ?] launches will

find shelter nearby. Provisions of all kinds, as well as gasoline and

oil are available at Kotzebue.

        The general anchorage for ocean-going vessels is off Cape

Blossom. Here five fathoms will be found with protection from northerly

and easterly winds. This anchorage lies about fifteen miles from Kotzebue

and the trip to that town is endangered by the possibility of sudden blows

which are said to incr e ase within a few minutes to 25 or 30 miles an hour

raising a choppy seas in the Sound. The trip is further endangered by

the many sandbars and shoals which make off from the northwestern point of

Baldwin Peninsula. These bars are constantly shifting, so that local

help should be obtained before attempting a passage.

        Because of the large great number of reindeer in this vicinity,

large quantities of this meat are available in Kotzebue. In this particular

section of Alaska, not lack of supply but transportation difficulties

to the United States have hindered a full-scale development of the

reindeer meat industry.

        The accompanying chart for 1947 will give

some idea of the weather at Kotzebue. The

extremes of ࢤ48° F. in February and 79° F. in July

would seem to represent a wide range until they are

compared with readings for interior Alaska in the

same latitude. On the upper Kobuk, for instance,

winter temperatures sometimes fall to the -70°.s

and the summer temperatures rise to the upper.

005a      |      Vol_XII-0518                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

        90's. The relatively low amount of precipitation

is amply balanced by the high humidity, so that

the over-all impression is one of considerable

dampness

005b      |      Vol_XII-0519                                                                                                                  

        Kotzebue Weather Report – 1947

       

	Temp. of the Air	Mean Relative Humidity	Total Precipitation in Inches	Wind	Clear Days	Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days	Snow fall Total in Inches
Maximum Velocity	Average Hourly Velocity MPH	Prevailing Direction
Max.	Date	Min.	Date	MPH	Direction
Jan.	30°	4th	-43°	25th	62	0.51	-	-	-	NW	13	18	5.0
Feb.	35°	26	-48°	5	76	0.37	-	-	-	E	8	20	2.9
Mar.	27°	19	-37°	12	69	0.24	-	-	-	E	14	17	2.6
Apr.	35°	24	-15°	10	82	0.04	31	SE	11.4	NE	13	17	0.4
May	74°	29	5°	3	80	0.25	31	W	12.0	E	3	28	0.7
June	69°	20	35°	1	82	0.38	34	W	13.6	W	8	22	0.0
July	79°	22	46°	28	79	1.89	28	SE	11.4	SE	2	29	0.0
Aug.	67°	25	39°	16	83	1.98	36	SE	13.2	NW	1	30	0.0
Sept.	54°	7	22°	30	81	1.27	34	W	12.0	NW	6	24	0.2
Oct.	40°	7	1°	22	80	0.21	45	SE	12.0	NE	8	23	1.8
Nov.	35°	22	-13°	15	84	0.80	38	E	13.0	SE	7	23	7.6
Dec.	30°	6	-31°	26	82	0.40	38	E	31.1	NE	2	24	4.0

        Kotzebue

5B

006      |      Vol_XII-0520                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alaska Life Alaska Life . May, 1945.

Brooks, A.H. Mineral Resources of Alaska ... 1910. Mineral Resources of Alaska ... 1910. Washington, 1911.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.480)

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Diction a ry of Alaska. 2d ed. Geographic Diction a ry of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Cantwell, John C. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer

Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. Washington, 1889.

Tewkesbury, David. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business

Index Index . 1947 ed. Juneau, Alaska, 1947.

U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II.

5th (1947) ed. Washington, 1947.

001      |      Vol_XII-0521                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

        1,790 words

        KOTZEBUE SOUND, an arm of the Polar Sea, indents the northwestern

coast of Alaska between 66° and 67° N.Lat., and 162° and 164° W. Long.

        This Sound is bordered on the south by Seward Peninsula, on

the east by Baldwin Peninsula, and on the north by the mainland of Alaska.

The entrance is in the northwestern part of the Sound and lies between Cape

Espen b erg, on Seward Peninsula, and Cape Krusenstern, on the mainland. The

intervening distance between these two points is about forty-two miles.

The Sound extends about forty-nine miles in a southeasterly direction and is

continued in this direction by Spafarief Bay (q.v.), and Eschscholtz Bay (q.v.).

Passing across the northern part of the Sound and through a two-mile entrance

between Baldwin Peninsula and the mainland one passes into Hotham Inlet.

By way of Hotham Inlet small boats may sail into Selawik Lake and Inland

Lake (q.v.), or up the three major streams tributary to the Inlet: the Noatak,

the Kobuk, or the Selawik (q.v.).

        A shoal carrying from one to two and one-half fathom obstructs the

entrance to Hotham Inlet and continues down the Sound side of the Peninsula as

far as Cape Blossom. This shoal extends for several miles offshore at this point.

Equally shallow water borders the west side of the Sound, south of Cape

Espenberg to the mouth of the Goodhope River and then eastward for a few

miles toward Cape Deceit. Elsewhere in Kotzebue Sound the soundings are

uniform, varying from seven to nine fathoms.

        A point just off Cape Blossom is the anchorage for ocean-going

vessels with freight for the trading and supply center of Kotzebue, on the

northwestern tip of Baldwin Peninsula. The anchorage with the finest pro–

tection in all of this part of Alaska water lies between Chamisso Island

and Choris Peninsula, in the entrance to Eschscholtz Bay. The best anchorage

in this harbor is between Chamisso Island and Puffin Islet, just to the west.

Here there is protection from all winds and easy access to land either on

002      |      Vol_XII-0522                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

the Peninsula or on Chamisso Island. The water shoals close to shore very

very rapidly close to shore along the south side of the Sound east of Cape Deceit,

and it is recommended that vessels make constant use of the hand lead in all

parts of the Sound so that as to avoid standing in too close to shore.

        The major tributaries to Kotzebue Sound are the Nugnugaluktuk,

Lane, Pish, Goodhope, and Cripple Rivers into G oodhope Bay in the southwestern

part of the Sound; the Inmachuk, and the Kugruk, into the southeastern part,

between Cape Deceit and Spafarief Bay; and the Kiwalik into Spafarief Bay

itself.

        Starting around the Sound from Cape Espenberg the chief

settlements on or very near its shores are: Deering, at the mouth of the

Kugruk; Candle, and Kiwalik, near the mouth of the Kiwalik; Kotzebue (q.v.),

on Baldwin Peninsula; and Shesualek and Talikoff (q.v.), both mainland towns

on the north side of the Sound, just below Cape Krusenstern. Of these,

Kotzebue, which is the trading center and distribution point for much of the

northern part of Seward Peninsula as well as for the interior of this part of

Alaska, is by far the most important. Candle and Deering are the chief towns

in the Fairhaven mining district, while Kotzebue is the supply center for the

Kobuk district.

        The winter trail which connects Deering with Nome mee t s,

at Candle, the trails connecting that town with Council, Golovnin, and Koyuk

in the southeastern part of Sewar d Peninsula. From Candle, this winter trail

continues northward to Kotzebue, whence branches continue for hundreds of

miles up the Kobuk and along the arctic coast of Alaska to Point Barrow.

        Like other partially enclosed bays in this region, Kotzebue

Sound is blocked by ice later than the open shoreline to the north. Its clearing

depends upon the prevailing winds. Heavy drift ice maybe expected coming

out of the Sound may be expected until the middle of July. The current between

003      |      Vol_XII-0523                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

Cape Blossom and Point Hope is rapid and carries this ice along at a rate of

about two or three knots. The Sound is closed to navigation by ordinary vessels

about the middle of September.

        Reports on the weather in this region are as yet incomplete.

From October through April, northerly and northwesterly winds prevail at Candle.

Between May and September there they are variable, although southeasterly winds are

frequent. At Kotzebue, westerly winds prevail in May and June, and easterly

winds prevail for the duration of the year. July temperatures above 80° are

sometimes experienced throughout this region and extremes of 85° and 87° have

been recorded in Kotzebue. The average daily maximum temperature at Candle

is about 50° for June and July, while the mean monthly maximum exceeds at

Kotzebue exceeds 50° during June, July, and August.

        There is considerable fogginess over the area, with a maximum

of dense fog with about 8% of all mid-summer observations and a minimum of

about 2 % of the observations in the fall at Kotzebue.

        Currents From Bering Strait to Point Barrow the current sets northward

along the shore, being stronger inshore, and, when not stopped

by the ice or affected by winds, has a velocity of one knot or more. The

current in the Strait turns northeastward along the north shore of Seward

Peninsula and is joined, north [ ?] of Cape Krusenstern, by the current from

Kotzebue Sound. On the eastern side of the Sound a northerly current from

Eschscholtz Bay sets along shore. This current has a velocity of from one-half

to one knot at Cape Blossom. The It continues past Cape Krusenstern, where,

increased by the flow from Hotham Inlet, it reaches a velocity of one to two

knots. Northward of the Cape it joins the current from Bering Strait,

where in late July and in August its velocity is from one and one-half to

two knots.

        Otto von Kotzebue discovered this Sound on August 1, 1816.

004      |      Vol_XII-0524                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

From his position off Cape Espenberg, he noticed that the land fell away

to the e astward. Concerning his feelings at this discovery, Kotzebue wrote:

"We perceived to-day, that the coast took a direction very much to the E.;

the land continuing low. At eleven o'clock, we were at the entrance of a broad

inlet: the coast vanished in the E., and high mountains showed themselves to

the N. Here the wind suddenly abated, and we were obliged to cast anchor on

a clayey bottom, in seven fathoms' water: the nearest land lay to the S.E., four

miles distant from us, the current running strong into the entrance.

        "I cannot describe the strange sensation which I now experienced,

at the idea that I perhaps stood at the entrance of the so long sought N.E. passage

and th [ ?] t fate had chosen me to be the discoverer. I felt my heart oppressed;

and, at the same time, an impatience, which would not let me rest, and was

still increased by the perfect calm."

        For the next two weeks, Kotzebue explored the various arms

of the Sound, discovering Chamisso Anchorage and ascertaining that the tributaries

to the Sound were much too shallow to give promise of the hoped-for northeast

passage. He named many of the promontories in this area, including: Cape

Espenberg, Cape Deceit, and Cape Krusenstern. He also named Goodhope, Spafarief,

and Eschscholtz Bays, as well as Chamisso Island. Finally, just before

leaving the Sound, he named that body of water after himself, but only after

being requested to do so by his crew. His disappointment at having failed to

discover the northeast passage was strong, but he mentions, in the following

passage, his hope that Chamisso Anchorage will prove of help to future naviga–

tors of these waters: "In compliance with the general wish of my companions, I

called this newly-discovered sound by my own name, Kotzebue's Sound. Incon–

siderable as the discovery of this sound may be, it is an acquisition to geography,

and may serve the world as a proof of my zeal; for, in truth, even Cook has

treated this coast rather negligently. I certainly hope that this sound may

lead to important discoveries next year, and though a north-east passage, may

005      |      Vol_XII-0525                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

not with certainty be depended upon, yet I believe I shall be able to

penetrate much further to the east, as the land has very deep indentures.

This sound must in time afford essential advantage to the trade in furs, as they

are in abundance; we ou r selves should have returned home with a rich cargo,

if trade had been part of our plan. In my opinion, our government might es–

tablish several settlements on the coast of Beering's Straits to the north,

like the English Hudson's Bay Company, which extends its trade far to the west of

Hudson's Bay. It possesses colonies in the interior of the country, at a very

little distance from the new-discovered sound, and will, wi thout doubt, take the

advantage of trading there. The navigation of Beering's Straits has hitherto

been dangerous, because ships, in case of a storm, or other accidents, knew

of no port where they could find protection. This difficulty is now removed,

and ships which in future intend to visit Beering's Straits, will find the

essential benefit of this d i scovery. The inhabitants of this country, who have

all a very healthy appearance, seem to subsist entirely on the flesh of marine

animals, which they, for the most part, eat raw. We saw no fish on all the

American coasts; we often threw out our lines, but all in vain; I believe,

therefore, either that there are no fish here at all, or that they do not resort

here at this time of year. These people are exceedingly fond of tobacco: they

chew, snuff, smoke, and even swallow the smoke."

        Ten years later, in 1826, Captain F.W. Beechey completed his

mapping of this Sound. He named Puffin Islet and Cape Blossom on Baldwin Peninsula

He also discovered and named the Buckland River, which enters the head of

Eschscholtz Bay. Kotzebue had suspected the existence of this vier river,

because of the freshness of the water in the bay and the strength and speed

of the current at its entrance, but he had not been able to achieve its dis–

covery.

        Kotzebue was also the first white man to report the existence

006      |      Vol_XII-0526                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

of high bluffs on Elephant Point, in Eschscholtz Bay. Although his

explanation of the nature of these cliffs was later challenged by Beechey,

they have continued to the present time to be a source of speculation and

interest to geologists Kotzebue's trust that Chamisso Anchorage might prove

of value to ships sailing these waters was well-founded. This anchorage is

the only true harbor on the arctic coast of Alaska.

007      |      Vol_XII-0527                                                                                                                  
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's

Strait....1825,26,27,28. Strait....1825,26,27,28. London, 1831. 2v.

Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's

Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Straits...in the years 1815-1818. London, 1821. 3v.

U.S.C.P.

001      |      Vol_XII-0528                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

November, 1948 KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

        2,940 wds. - Text

200 wds - Bibl

        KOUGAROK RIVER, (Koogrock, Kougrok, Kugrock, Kugruk, Coogrock),

central Seward Peninsula, Alaska, the principle stream in the Kougarok

Mining District, drains a large area between Imuruk Basin (q.v.) and

Kotzebue Sound (q.v.), and empties into the Kuzitrin River (q.v.), about

eight miles above Lands Landing, and about seventeen miles above Igloo,

the head of steamboat navigation on the Kuzitrin. The Kougarok is about

sixty airline miles long.

        The Kougarok rises in the southeastern watershed of Kougarok

Mountain and flows eastward for about ten miles to the mouth of Macklin

Creek, where it makes a right-angle bend to the south, after which it

flows in follows a southeasterly course to its mouth. For T t he first

fifty miles of its extent, the Kougarok Valley is incised in the upland

plateau, which here has an elevation of 1,000 to 1,500 feet above sea

level. In its lower For its final ten miles, the Kougarok meanders

across the Kuzitrin Flats.

        The main tributaries are Taylor Creek , and North Fork from the

east, and Henry, Coarse Gold, and Windy Creeks from the west.

        Taylor Creek rises in the divide between the Kougarok system

and that of the Goodhope River, a tributary to Kotzebue Sound to the

north, and follows a fairly straight twenty-mile course to its mouth.

North Fork rises in the divide between the Kougarok and the Noxapaga

River (q.v.) at the junction of Alder and French Creeks, and is joined

by Harris Creek about midway of its approximately eight-mile course.

        The most complex of the western tributaries is Henry Creek, which

rises receives the waters of Grant , and Lincoln Creeks from the south ,

about midway of its seven- or eight-mile course.

        Travelling downstream, the less er important tributaries to the

002      |      Vol_XII-0529                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

Kougarok are Washington, Columbia, Macklin, Homestake, Goose,

California, Arctic, Arizona, Louisa, Galvin, and Dan Creeks, and

Left Fork.

        Quartz Creek, with its tributaries Coffee, Dahl, Checkers,

Carrie, and Independence Creeks, which enters the Kougarok from the

west less than five miles from its mouth, were, up to 1909, the most

important gold producers of the entire Kougarok District.

        General Description In his report "The Kougarok Region", Brooks gives

a good description of the Kougarok. "Though the

general trend of the different parts of the valley is in one direction,

its course in detail is tortuous. Within the valley walls the river

flows in a very irregular channel, and many of the meanders are separ–

ated by well-defined benches whose flat surfaces mark former stages of

water level. This is especially evident above Taylor Creek, where the

river flows through a continuous series of oxbow curves, which are sep–

arated by sloping benches.

        "At the point where the Kougarok enters the Kuzitrin lowland both

valley walls show well-marked benches. Two levels are here noticeable —

one 50 feet and one 25 feet above the stream. These can be traced for

several miles above Windy Creek; the walls then become steeper and the

river occupies a canyon-like valley up to Left Fork. From this point

to Washington Creek, 20 miles above, some evidence of benching can be

observed in most places, though the benches are not continuous. The

individual levels have not been traced, but in the part of the

valley below Taylor Creek there are at least two high-level gravels and

possibly three.

        "Kougarok River is a swiftly flowing stream that carries at its

003      |      Vol_XII-0530                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

mouth probably 5,000 to 8,000 miner's inches of water, and has an

average gradient of about 20 feet to the mile. Most of the material trans–

ported is coarse, ranging from fine gravel to coarse cobblestone.

        "The most extensive deposits of auriferous alluvium yet discovered in

the district are on the main Kougarok both in the present stream bed and in

the benches. Gold has been found in the gravels of this stream for about

40 miles of its length. It is not known how much of this stretch carries

commercial values, but it is probably not more than 50 per cent."

        Mining Although prospectors may have visited the Kougarok District

as early as 1899, the first locations were not made there

until the winter of 1899-1900. There was a rush f rom Nome to Harris

Creek in March of 1900, and another to Quartz Creek in July of the same

year, and, by the end of that season considerabl e gold had been taken out

of the shallow placers on these two streams. Gold was also found on the

Kougarok itself during the summer of 1900, but no claims were opened up.

Because of the shallowness of the deposits and the difficulty of getting

supplies and machinery into the district, the 1901 season was a poor

one. Although there were no bonanzas to give them impetus, small

mining operations continued for several years, chiefly on Dahl Creek.

        However At this time , mining along the Kougarok was possible only during periods

of low water. The many mountain torrents entering the main stream were

unreliable and extremely sensitive to precipitation anywhere along their

course. A seemingly minor rainfall turned such tiny streams as Windy,

Dahl, and Coffee Creeks into surging floods which destroyed equipment

and carried it away. This condition discouraged large operators from

developing the district.

        The success of the Nome ditch system renewed interest in such out–

lying districts as the Kougarok, where similar control methods were

004      |      Vol_XII-0531                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

needed, and, in 1903, T.T. Lane, who had constructed some of the first

ditches on Seward Peninsula, moved up to the Kougarok and built a ditch

from the head of Coffee Creek to a bench at the mouth of Dahl Creek.

Many more miners follows his example, so that, by 1906, upward of

one hundred miles of ditch was planned, and about half of which was com–

pleted.

        Some of the most famous of these ditches were North Star Ditch,

from Arctic Creek to the mouth of Taylor Creek, and up that stream about

ten miles for a total length of 15.2 miles; Cascade Ditch, from about six

miles up Taylor Creek to the mouth of that stream; and Homestake Ditch,

from the Kougarok about three or four miles above Macklin Creek to the

mouth of Homestake Creek.

        The s e and many other ditches were constructed by T.T. Lane, by

the Kougarok Mining and Ditch Company, the Irving Mining Company, and

the Northwestern Mining Company.

        The amount expended on ditches and the purchase of claims during

1905 and 1906 alone exceeded $1,000,000, whereas the total gold output

for the entire region up to 1905 was estimated at about $600,000. The

magnitude of this gamble can be equated only with the faith in the future

of gold mining in Alaska on the Kougarok on the part of such men as J.M. Davidson,

Albert Garvey, Joseph Turner, Nels Leding, E. Anderson, R. Anderson, and

Andrew J. Stone, whose money it was that went into the improvements in

the Kougarok District.

        By 1906 the problem of transportation also seemed on the way to a

solution. As Brooks explains: "The Kougarok district up to 1906 could

be reached from Nome only by an overland journey of about 100 miles or by

a very circuitous water route via Teller, Imuruk Basin, and Kuzitrin

River. From Lanes Landing, [the present Shelton] at the head of scow navigation on the Kuzitrin,

005      |      Vol_XII-0532                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

freighting by wagon to the creeks costs 6 to 15 cents a [ ?] pound in

summer, but the winter rates are much lower. J.M. Davidson and Andrew

J. Stone, who are among the largest operators in the district, have es–

tablished a transshipping point on Kaviruk (Marys) River called Davidson

Landing and have built a road from that point to the upper Kougarok region,

a distance of 40 miles. Small lighters can be towed directly from the

ship's side at Port Clarence to Davidson Landing, so that at least one

handling of freight is avoided.

        "In 1906 the Seward Peninsula Railway was extended northward to

the head of Nome River, and thence down the Kruzgamepa to Lanes Landing.

Surveys have been made looking to an extension of this line farther up

Kougarok Valley. This railway will bring the district into close com–

munication with Nome and will do much to accelerate its development.

Two telephone lines connect many of the camps with Nome. The recording

office is at Lanes Landing."

        Drift mining was successfully and profitably developed during

1909. The problem of a reasonably-priced coal supply for drifting was

solved by laying down a shipment at Davidson's Landing, to which place

freight charges were the same as to Nome, and then bringing this coal over–

land to the Kougarok during the winter. Transported in this manner, coal

sold for $60.00 per ton, whereas , brought extra freight charges had

previously inflated the price to $80.00 and to $100.00 per ton.

        The ditches previously described added little to the production

of the region during the 1909 season, for, although the snowfall in the

upper Kougarok was not excessive, the drifts were so deep that the ditches

were not cleaned out and ready for a use until about June 20, and

Homestake Ditch was clogged until July 9. By July 15 all the ditches

were short of water and were very little use d after that date.

006      |      Vol_XII-0533                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

        The Kougarok is not mentioned in the 1911 U.S. Bureau of Mines

report, and, in 1913, is described as at a near standstill because of

the exceptionally dry summer and the early freeze-up. In all, about

75 men worked the area, and the total gold produced was negligible.

        1914 was a much better season. A total of thirty-four plants

operated during the summer, employing about 130 men, and the total value

of the gold produced was about $150,000. Hydraulicing had now been

introduced, while drifting, sluicing, and dredging continued.

        During 1917, two dredges were at work on the Kougarok, and the total

output was estimated at about $55,000, as compared with $2,600,000

for all of Seward Peninsula. The big producers were still, of course,

the Nome, Council, and Solomon Districts.

        In the report for 1919, the problem of transportation to the

Kougarok reappears. The thirty-six-inch guage Seward Peninsula Railroad

had not been repaired for several years. Neither had the it been extended

northward into the heart of the Kougarok and on to Kotzebue Sound.

Indeed, it was no longer truly a railroad, but now carried flange-wheeled

flat cars drawn by teams of dogs, because of which it became known as

the "dogmobile." In later years, the line was even [ ?] further

demoted and became known as the "Pupmobile." (See Kuzitrin article.)

Equally serious was the fact that the wagon road, which had formerly run

northward from Shelton to Coffee Creek, Dahl, and Baldy Mountain, was

now imp o assible. Only a few years later, the "Pupmobile" was purchased

by the Territorial government and repaired by the Alaska Road Commission.

Today it is still being used to transport machinery and supplies into

the interior of the Peninsula. It operates not under railroad rulings,

but rather as a highway. Although several companies have obtained

permission from the Territory to transport freight over the line,

007      |      Vol_XII-0534                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

individuals may also use it if they have the proper equipment , and

if they comply with regulations as to size and weight of load, speed of

travel, etc.

        The 1920 placer gold production along the Kougarok and its tribu–

taries was again $55,00 $55,000, and, in addition, two dredges, one

on Taylor Creek operated by the Bering Dredging Co., and another on

the Kougarok owned by the Kelliher Dredging Co., and one deep placer

mine were in operation. Tom Ward worked three men for part of the

summer on his copper property near Kougarok Mountain.

        Transportation charges, particularly overland out of Nome, were

again mentioned by the Bureau of Mines as being exhorbitant — $2.50 to

$5.00 per mile per ton — to which the companies had to add the freight

rates from Seattle to Nome or Teller, which came to between $19.00 and $23.50,

and the lighterage charges at either place, amounting to between $7.50

and $10.00, for each ton of equipment or supplies received. One writer

estimates that 29% of the value of the total gold produced on the

Seward Peninsula in 1920 was eaten up by freight charge s in 1920 . This is, of

course, [ ?] an overall figure. The percentage would be higher

for the Kougarok operators than for the miners at Nome.

        During the 1920's, mining in the Kougarok District was at a low

ebb. In 1927 there were two small camps of one man each on Dahl Creek,

and only about ten other men were at work elsewhere in the area. No

one outfit earned more than $1,000 during the entire season. Hydraulic

and open-cut methods were the only techniques in use until about 1936

when two dredges, one under the management of C.B. White, of the Fox

Bar Dredging Co., and the other under Carl Halberg, of the Kougarok

Consolidated Placers, Inc., were in use. Halberg broke call records

in the area with T t he speed with which he Halberg transported the two 68-horsepower

008      |      Vol_XII-0535                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

Diesel engines and other equipment required for his dredges from

Davidson Landing to the mouth of Henry Creek, assembled his plant and put

it to work broke all previous records.

        By 1940 the Kougarok District was producing more gold than any

other district except Nome. Smith adds: "Mining in the district has

s hown a great increase and does not yet appear to have reached the expan–

sion of which it is capable." Although the two dredges were responsible

for some of this improvement, they by no means tell the whole story.

Mining in the Kougarok District still ranged from camps with elaborate

equipment, yielding thousands of dollars worth of gold, to one-man camps outfits

employing only crude hand methods. The success of the Kougarok mining

district must be attributed not to revolutionary methods, but entirely

to the continuing faith, the experienced judgment, and the endless hard

work of the miners themselves.

        This upsurge in activity was brought to a sudden stop when, on

October 8, 1942, gold mining throughout the United States and its

territories was declared nonessential. Both men and materials were

needed for wartime purposes, and much of the equipment and almost all

of the personnel of Alaskan gold mines went to war. (See Bluff and

Nome articles.) As of this writing (1948), gold mining has not recovered

from this blow. Some men and much of the equipment has been released,

of course, but the high cost of labor, taxes, and new equipment has

discouraged the reopening of most Alaskan gold mines. The best that can

now be said for gold mining in the Territory is that it is temporarily in

abeyance [ ?] awaiting the turn of national and international events.

        Settlements Two early towns in this district, Checkers, at the

mouth of that tributary, and Kougarok, or, as Gerdine

recorded it in 1901, Kugruk City, which had a post office in 1905, have

disappeared, although there may are now be mining camps on their former

009      |      Vol_XII-0536                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

sites.

        The only true settlements on the Kougarok at present are Taylor,

at the mouth of Taylor Creek, and Dahl, at the junction of that

stream with the Kougarok.

        Taylor, with a reported summer population of 29 and a winter

population of 4, is a mining camp and the headquarters for the Kougarok

placer mining district. It has a post office, a roadhouse, a store,

and a 1,800-foot landing strip. Dahl, [ ?] although it

was not reported in the 1939 Census, has a 1,500-foot landing strip.

        There are, in addition, several mining camp landing fields

throughout the Kougarok District. These are: Macklin Creek, 800 feet;

Keenans, 1,500 feet; Harris Creek, 900 feet; Neva Creek, 800 feet;

Kougarok, 1,200 feet; Fox Bar, 1,400 feet; Coffee Creek, 1,300 feet;

and Quartz Creek, 800 feet.

        Since the development of Alaska aviation, the circuitous, slow,

and expensive water route into the Kougarok District by way of Port

Clarence, Imuruk Basin, and the Kuzitrin River, has been little used.

However, all parts of the area are connected by winter trail with Nome,

and other Norton Sound points to the south, with Teller, to the west,

and with the Kotzebue District to the north.

        Climate & Vegetation The Kougarok District is only about seventy miles

south of the Arctic Circle. Although the midnight

sun is not visible, of course, the winters are long and dark and the

summers short but light for twenty or so hours a day.

        This area is also beyond the timber line, although small willow

and alder will be found growing along the sides of the streams, par–

ticularly in the more southerly section of the Kougarok Basin. This

same section could be spoken of as 'tundra', but is more exactly des-

010      |      Vol_XII-0537                                                                                                                  
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

cribed as grassland, since it is completely overgrown with grasses,

mosses, and a variety of low shrubs and bushes. Lying entirely within

the permafrost zone, the ground in the Kougarok District remains frozen

completely or partially frozen the year around. Thawing never takes

place along the upper Kougarok, but in the lowlands to the south, the

ground thaws during the summer months for a distance of one or two feet

below the surface. The resultant thick mat of muddy slush over

everything makes summer overland travel across these grasslands next to

impossible. The fact that the northern sections of the Kougarok District

never thaw simplifies the travel and transportation problem, but adds to

the mining difficulties in these areas.

011      |      Vol_XII-0538                                                                                                                  
[ ?] KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA

        SOURCES

        Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska . Juneau, Alaska, 1947.

        Baker, Marucs. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington,

D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.229)

        Brooks, A.H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton

Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula ,

Alask a, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence Alask a, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence ,

and Goodhope Precincts and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin Bulletin , No.328)

        Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula ,

Alaska Alaska . Washington, D.C., 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 314)

        [ ?]

        Bain, H. Foster. Alaska' Minerals as a Basis for Industry Alaska' Minerals as a Basis for Industry . Washington,

D.C., 1946. (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular

7379. December, 1946)

        U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, Minerals Yearbook, 1945 1945 . Washington, D.C., 1947.

        U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Resources of Alaska, 1909, 1911, 1913, Minerals Resources of Alaska, 1909, 1911, 1913,

1914, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1924, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1936, 1914, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1924, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1936,

1940 1940 . Washington, D.C., 1910-1942.

        Alaska Life Alaska Life , May, 1945.

        Guide Book to Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska Guide Book to Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska .

001      |      Vol_XII-0539                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 CAPE KRUSENSTERN, ALASKA

        130 wds

        KRUSENSTERN, CAPE (67° 08′ N.Lat., 163° 40′ W.Long.) a low

promontory on the northwest ern coast of Alaska, projects westward into the

Polar Sea forming the northern entrance point to Kotzebue Sound (q.v.).

        Kotzebue named this point in August, 1816, after Admiral Adam

Johann von Krusenstern of the Russian navy.

        The arch of land terminating in this point encloses a small,

unnamed lake behind which runs a branch of the long winter trail connecting

this part of Alaska with Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula, to the south, and with

other coastal settlements to the north.

        The Mulgrave Hills back of the Cape fall away in a series of

cliffs terminating in a line of shingly beaches characteristic of this part

of the arctic coast of Alaska.

001      |      Vol_XII-0540                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

November, 1948 KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

        1,870 -Text

60 - Bibl

        KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska,

formerly called Pilgrim River, rises in the Kigluaik Mountains south–

east of Imuruk Basin, and, after sweeping around the eastern limit of

the range , reaches the head of Imuruk Basin by a northwesterly course.

        In general outline the course of the Kruzgamepa forms a U

with its opening westward and its closed end facing the east. I t

drains from Salmon Lake (64° 54′ N.Lat., 165° W. Long.), which lies

in a broad valley at the southern base of the Kigluaik Mountains,

and flows northeastward for about one-half of its forty-five mile course,

crossing 65° N. Lat. After leaving the mountains at about 65° N. Lat.,

the Kruzgamepa enters upon a broad basin, which also contains, farther

to the east, the headwaters of the Niukluk River (q.v.). After turning

westward, the Kruzgamepa crosses the low flat at the head of Imuruk

Basin.

        Along the mountain section of its course, the Kruzag Kruzga–

mepa receives Crater, Grouse, Big, and Homestake Creeks from the north,

and Rock, and Slate Creeks from the south, as well as several unnamed

streams. Just as it passes 65° N. Lat., the Kruzgamepa is joined by

Iron Creek, which has for tributaries the famous gold streams, Eldorado,

Discovery, and Canyon Creeks. The confusion as to the name and extent

of Iron Creek was cleared up by Philip S. Smith, in 1907, when he wrote:

"Although really continuous, Iron Creek bears three names in different

parts of its valley; thus from its mouth to Left Fork, a distance of 7

miles, the stream is called Iron Creek; above Left Fork as far as

Eldorado Creek to the divide it is called Telegram Creek. This confusion

of names id

002      |      Vol_XII-0541                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

Eldorado Creek, a distance of 1 mile, it is called Dome Creek, and from

Eldorado Creek to the divide it is called Telegram Creek. This confusion

of names is due to the interpretation of the mining laws which permits

the staking of additional claims on different creeks — i.e., creeks

having different names."

        Above Iron Creek, the Kruzgamepa receives Sherrette

(also known as Killkuhn), and Goldengate Creeks. As the river flows

westward , north of the Kigluaik Mountains, the Kruzgamepa is joined by

Pass, Smith, Grand Union, and Osborn Creeks, all of which flow down

from the northern flanks of the mountains and so to the main river.

        Geology & Mining The streams which rise in the mountains and enter

the headwaters of the Kruzgamepa from the south and

west flow through glacial valleys with steep roc k walls. Below Iron

Creek the river flows through a rock canyon about 100 feet deep, and then

enters the broad valley.

        The tributaries from the north side of the Kigluaik

Mountains all leave the range through narrow mountain valleys as mountain

to o rrents and then meander sluggishly across the broad valley to the main

river.

        The be a d-rock geology of this region is massive granite, associ–

ated with crystaline limestone and schists. These rocks have been called

the Kigluaik Series. The so-called Kuzitrin Series of quartz-schists,

graywacke, and clay slates is above the limestone. Above this Kuzitrin

Series lies the Nome series, which here consists of flaggy limetones,

and some calcareous schists.

        In 1900, the year that gold was first discovered in this region,

Brooks reported: "Of the gold resources of this region no very definite

statements can be made, for there has been almost no attempt at develop-

003      |      Vol_XII-0542                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

ment. The rocks are the same as those that in other areas produce

placer gold and in many localities show evidence of mineralization.

Large quartz veins seem to be more abundant than elsewhere, and some

have been shown to contain gold, though none have been found which carry

commercial values. Up to the time of our examination of this region no

workable placers had been discovered, and, in fact, no real prospecting

of the creeks had been attempted." Perhaps on a the basis of Brooks'

words, considerable prospecting and mining was done in this district

within the next few years. In 1905, a nugget valued at $650.00 was

found near Iron Creek, and a system of four ditches was under contr

construction.

        Collier's report of 1908 was specific and qualifiedly optimistic: "Large

quartz veins are abundant, and some of them carry gold, though probably

none have been proved to contain commercial values. Two specimens

taken from large veins near the east end of the Kigluaik Mountains were

found on assay to contain traces of gold and silver, but a specimen

from a la r ge mass of quartz near the mouth of Slat e Creek contained neither.

A large ledge said to outcrop near the mouth of Iron Creek is heavily

mineralized with iron and copper pyrites and specimens are reported to

assay well in gold and silver." Later in the same report, the follow–

ing statement appears: "Mining on Iron Creek has been much retarded by

the inaccessibility of the region, but this obstacle is now disappearing

with the building of railroads and wagon roads. Freight from Nome can

no w be delivered by the Seward Peninsula Railways at the mouth of Iron

Creek...It has already been noted that in winter supplies can be brought

in by team at a cost of 2 cents a ponnd. The cost of summer hauling by

team to Iron Creek is now, owing to the fair condition of the road to Nome,

but little higher than the winter rate."

004      |      Vol_XII-0543                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

        By 1909, the ditches built earlier in the decade had been

allowed to fall into disrepair, but, as Brooks had hinted would ulti–

mately be necessary, a systematic surveying of the entire area was

underway. By 1913 the region was once again the site of considerable

activity, with about 70 or 80 men at work sluicing and prospecting,

but, by 1919, with the Seward Peninsula Railroad in a hazardous con–

dition and already demoted to a "dogmobile", and with the former wagon

road almost impassible, gold mining on Iron Creek declined. During

the next year, however, copper deposits were found in this region, and,

although they were not of commercial value, they aroused considerable

interest. The [ ?] production of gold continued although the deposits

were not rich.

        From 1920 to about 1930 there was very little activity on Iron

Creek, or on any of the tributaries to the Kruzgamepa. This is not

surprising, since mining throughout the Territory suffered a general

decline during these particular years. Gold mining picked up everywhere

with the reduction in the gold content of the doll a r, in 1933, which had

the effect of increasing the value of gold on the market. Because

of the ne w dredge erected by Tolbert Scott in 1939, the 1940 season on

Iron Creek was a good one. However, with the coming of World War II, and

the declaring of gold non-essential, gold mining along the Kruzgamepa

and a n ll other auriferous Alaska streams received a low from which it has

never recovered. The mining activity along Iron Creek today is

negligible and mostly of a maintenance nature. (See Nome and Bluff

articles.)

        Settlements Except for several roadhouses alo [ ?] ng its course

the only settlements on the Kruzgamepa are Iron Creek

and Pilgrim Springs.

005      |      Vol_XII-0544                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

        Iron Creek, at the mouth of the stream of the same name, and at

the junction of several winter trails from Nome, Solomon, and Golovnin

to the south, and Teller to the northwest, is a small mining settlement

with an 800-foot landing strip.

        Pilgrim Springs, also known as Pilgrim Hot Springs and, more briefly,

as Hot Springs, is located near the site of natural , saline , hydrogen sul–

phide springs. Gerald A. Waring, of the U.S. Geological Survey, was one

of the first scientists to give an official description of these springs.

In 1917, he wrote: "Kruzgamepa Hot Springs ... are 70 miles north of Nome,

in the wide flat valley of Kruzgamepa River, one-third of a mile south of

the stream. The property ... was homesteaded a number of years ago and

has produced considerable amounts of potatoes, cabbages, turnips, and other

vegetables, which have found ready sale in Nome, where they have been sent

by the trains of the Seward Peninsula Railway, which passes within 8 miles

of the springs, and, since the discontinuation of train service, by light

cars pulled by dogs ...

        ¶ " Several years ago the property was kept up as a

resort, and was often visited by parties from Nome and other mining [ ?]

centers of the region; but the roadhouse and saloon building was burned in

1908 and since that date the bath h ouse has not been kept in repair...An

area perhaps 100 yards wide and half a mile long, bordering a small creek

that is at times a flood-water channel of Kruzgamepa River, appears to be

permanently thawed by the hot water, and as this ground is loose and sandy,

not dense and peaty, as are the moss-covered hillsides of the region, it has

been especially adapted to growing vegetables.

        "Hot water is visible only in small quantities, as it tends to seep

off below the surface through the loose alluvial valley materials. In

the fall of 1915 the total visible discharge of hot water at the springs was

only about 8 gallons a minute. The hottest spring, which has a temperature

006      |      Vol_XII-0545                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

of 156° F., issues in a small curbed pit in a greenhouse near the bathhouse.

The water was carried in a box flume through a sweat chamber to two bathing

pools in a bathhouse, one pool for men and the other for women. A stand box in

the flume afforded a place to dip out water for drinking and was known as the

'medicine chest.'

        "The water is clear, has only a slight odor of hydrogen sulphide, and

tastes distinctly salty. It deposits small amounts of rust-colored iron

oxide. A slight deposit of alum was seen at the principal spring. An analysis

of the water ... shows that its content of solids is high. It is a sodium

chloride water that is practically a weak brine. Although the springs are

not very far above tide limit, the ratio of sulphate to chlor di id e in the spring

water is so low that the high salinity seems not to be due to an admixture

with sea water...The two bathing pools have been escavated in the alluvium

beside the small creek, and some hot water probably rises in them. The

temperature in these pools was only 110° F., however, a comfortable temperature

for bathing."

        In 1918, the Roman Catholic Church bought these springs and established

a mission there to care for the children orphaned by the great influenza

epidemic of that year. According to a 1938 report, as many as seventy

children [ as ?] are now being resident at the mission.

        By 1939, Pilgrim Springs had a population of about sixty, a post

office, and a 1,200-foot landing strip.

        Lester Brown, a Nome councilman and business man, leased the springs

from the Church in 1948. He hopes to develop the truck-garden possibilities

of the surrounding acres, which are considered the best garden and farming

lands in this part of Seward Peninsula. Just as was done in 1917, he will

sell his produce in Nome. Locally grown fresh vegetables would still find

an e n t h usiastic market there, not only because they had been grown "Inside,"

but also because they could be priced far below the exhorbitant air-freighted

007      |      Vol_XII-0546                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

produce from "Outside." Brown also plans to open the hot springs once

again to tourists.

008      |      Vol_XII-0547                                                                                                                  
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA

        SOURCES

        Guide Book for Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska. Guide Book for Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska.

        U.S.C.P. Alaska. Part II, 1947 Alaska. Part II, 1947

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome

and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C.,

1901.

        Collier, Arthur J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Washing Washing ton, 1908. (U.S. Geolo g ical Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.328.)

        Alaska Weekly Alaska Weekly . November 5, 1948

        Alaska Li v f e Alaska Li v f e May, 1945

        Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska .

        U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Resources of Alaska Mineral Resources of Alaska . 1905, 1909, 1913,

1917, 1919, 1920, 1930, 1936, 1940. Washington, D.C.,

1906-42.

        Waring, Gerald A. Mineral Springs of Alaska . Washington, D.C., 1917.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 418)

001      |      Vol_XII-0548                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

March, 1949 KUGRUK RIVER, ALASKA

        Text-290 words

        KUGRUK RIVER, northern Seward Peninsula, rises in Imuruk Lake

(q.v.) and flows in a northeasterly and northerly direction for about sixty

miles to Kotzebue Sound near Deering.

        The name Kugruk was first reported by Brooks, in 1900. It has been

written Koogroog and translated as Swan River .

        The entire area in which this river rises is covered with a thin

layer of lava. The river bed is comparatively flat for a few miles below the lake,

but thereafter the stream cuts a canyon about two miles long and from 300 to

1,000 feet deep. At the end of this canyon, the river i s 550 feet below the

river at the lake.

        Lava Creek, one of the principal tributaries to the Kugruk, enters

from the south in the canyon, while Holtz, Mina, Montana, Reindeer, and

Chicago Creeks enter from the east. From the west, Ruby, Gold Bug, and Wade

(or Burnt) Creeks join the Kugruk.

        Coal mines have been in operation on Chicago and Reindeer Creeks

for a great many years. Some gold has also been mined on Spruce, Mine, and

Chicago Cre e ks, but the total production has been small. There is some spruce

timber in the northern part of the Kugruk basin, but it is too far fr o m the

mining area to be of much value as building material or as fuel. However, the

coal in this region has served very well for as a cheap source of fuel.

        Chicago Greek, a small mining camp near the mouth of that stream,

is the only named settlement in the Kugruk basin, but this and other sections

of the valley are connected with Deering and Candle by a maze of winter trails. These latter are in

turn connected with most other parts of Seward Peninsula. Mail is brought from Deering to

this lower part of the Kugruk twice a month.

002      |      Vol_XII-0549                                                                                                                  
KUGRUK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,

1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.247)

Smith,

Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula ,

Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply

Paper Water-Supply

Paper 314)

001      |      Vol_XII-0550                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 Text - 275 wds KUGRUPAGA RIVER, ALASKA

        KUGRUPAGA RIVER, northwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, was

first reported by Gerdine in 1901 as the Kugruk, but is now generally known as

the Kugrupaga. Two other Alaska rivers have been called the Kugruk: one, an

important tributary to Kotzebue Sound, which retains this name to the present

time, and while the Kougarok, (q.v.) another important Seward Peninsula river, which was formerly

known as the Kugruk . at one time.

        The Kugrupaga rises only about twenty-five miles from the sea,

but it receives a great many affluents particularly from the east so that it

d rains a considerable area to the south and west of Ear Mountain.

        The only name d western tributaries are Maria and Deep Creeks,

but the eastern tributaries are much more numerous. Including the subsidiary

streams, these are: Idaho, Gulch, Wilkins, Mason, Deer, Willow, Dinsmore, Crosby,

Gay, Tuttle, and California Creeks. All but the last of these enter the

Kugrupaga about midway of its course, but California Creek debouches only a

few miles from the mouth of the Kugrupaga.

        The Kugrupaga empties into a shallow lagoon which, although it

is nameless on recent maps, appears on early ones as Arctic Lagoon. The mouth

of the Kugrupaga is about 45 miles northeast of Cape Prince of Wales.

        Like the other streams of this area, the Kugrupaga has cut a

canyon from 200 to 400 feet deep in the bed rock limestone of the first half

of its course. Collier reported, in 1901, that this river seemed promising for

placer gold and that many claims had been staked along it and its tributaries.

There was a minor gold rush to Tuttle Creek during the summer of 1901, colors

of gold and small nuggests having been found in the gravels there, but the

excitement was short-lived and the deposits soon depleted.

Sources: Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska Peninsula, Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

001      |      Vol_XII-0551                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KUGURUROK RIVER, ALASKA

        180 wds

        KUGURUROK RIVER, northwestern Alaska, enters the Noatak (q.v.)

from the north at about 68° N. Lat., 162° W.Long. [ ?] 68° N. Lat.,

        The Kugururok rises in a mountain divide amidst the De Long

Mountains and the Brooks Range. About forty miles above the Noatak it takes

a generally southwesterly direction to join that great waterway.

        The first half of this river's course finds its way through a

rugged mountainous section containing peaks up to 5,000 feet high. Misheguk

Mountain, 4,800 feet, looks down from a point about five miles east of the

mid-section of the stream.

        For the final half of its course the mountains recede from the

Kugururok leaving an ever-widening valley on both sides.

        Very little exact information i s obtainable on the Kugururok, but

it is known that a short pass leads over the divide to the headwaters of

the Utukok River (q.v.) whic h swings westward to empty into the Polar Sea about

twenty miles south of Icy Cape (q.v.).

002      |      Vol_XII-0552                                                                                                                  
KUGURUROK RIVER, ALASKA

        References

        Smith, P.S. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska. Washington, 1913. (U.S.

Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 536)

        Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska .

Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0553                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

23 April 48 KUKAKLEK, LAKE, ALASKA

        100 wds

        KUKAKLEK, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska

Peninsula, exten ds due east and west at about 59° 10′ N. Lat. between

Iliamna and Nanwhyenuk Lakes (q.v.). Its general shape is that of an

inverted sauce pan with the bowl extending northward to within nine

miles of Iliamna Lake and the handle extending eastward. The main body

of the lake is about 13 miles long and about 7 miles wide at the greatest

point. The handle adds a bout 5 miles in length but is only 1 to 2

miles wide. The lake is fed by streams rising in the mountains to

the east and itself is one of the sources for the Alagnak River (q.v.)

which drains from its southwestern tip. The native name was first

recorded by Tebenkof in 1849.

Sources: VS GB; Baker

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0554                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 KUKPUK RIVER, ALASKA

        195 wds

        KUKPUK RIVER, a tributary to Marryatt Inlet, Point Hope, in

northwestern Alaska, rises south of 2800-foot Mount Kelly in the DeLong Moun–

tains and follows a generally westerly course to the Inlet.

        For its first thirty miles, the Kukpuk works its way southward

out of the mountains and then across a low inland plain to the Lisburne Hills.

Just above these hills, the Kukpuk receives its only large tributary, the

Ipewik, which comes in from the north. The Kukpuk traverses the hills in a

deep canyon perhaps ten miles [ ?] long, escaping onto the coastal plain for a

final twenty miles of its course. This river is perhaps one hundred miles

long overall.

        The [ ?] Ipewik River is said to rise in one large lake or a

series of small lakes about sixty miles east of Cape Lisburne. Thereafter

it flows southwestward to the Lisburne Hills, where it meets the Kukpuk. In

addition to many smaller streams, recent maps show the Ipewik being joined

by one large tributary from the east, which would seem to rise in the vicinity

of Mount Kelly, thereafter flowing westward to the Ipewik.

        15

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0555                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

26 May 48 KULUKAK BAY, ALASKA

        KULUKAK BAY, ALASKA, a small northern extension of Bristol Bay,

lies on an indents an unsurveyed section of the southern coast of Alaska

between Cape Constantine and Cape Newenham. The bay, which is about 7

miles long by 6 miles wide at the greatest points, is reported to have

shoal water at its entrance and a depth of only 18 feet just inside the

entrance. Kulukak Point, on Nushagak Peninsula, is the eastern entrance

point to this b y a , and the small settlement of Kulukak lies on the western

side near its head Th k i village had a population of 55 in 1939 and is

the site of an Eskimo school maintained by the Office of Indian Affairs.

The bay receives several tributaries from the foothills of the Kilbuck

Mountains to the north, the largest of which rises in Ualik Lake. A

strem connects Ualik Lake with Amanka Lake, the source of the Igushik

River, one of the main tributaries to Nushagak Bay. Right Hand Point,

the western entrance point to Kulukak Bay, lies at the tip of an unnamed

p eninsula separating Kulukak from Togiak Bay which stretches into Bristol

Bay for about 10 miles southwestward from Kulukak. Tebenkof named this

point Pravoi, right hand , in 1849. Mountains from which several tribu–

taries flow into both bays dot the central porti n o n of th is peninsula

and push, in some cases, quite close to the western side. This side

is indented by several small bays and extends northwestward for about

22 miles (airline) to Togiak at the head of Togiak Bay. The shoreline

from Kulukak to Togiak is a continuous bluff of b l o ulders and solid rock

rising 10 to 100 feet above the water and topped with level tundra.

Owens, a small settlement about midway of this i s ide of the peninsula,

is on the long winter trail which connects points on Iliamna Lake (q.v.),

the Alaska Peninsula, and Nushagak Bay (q.v.) with Togiak, Goodnews,

and other settlements to the west.

001      |      Vol_XII-0556                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

July, 1948 KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA

        KUSKOKWIM BAY, southwestern Alaska, opens into Bering Sea.

Cape Newenham (q.v.), the southern entrance point to Kuskokwim Bay,

separates it from Bristol Bay, Cape Newenham and can be approached close-to

with deep water, although but heavy seas and rip tides sweep the point in

southerly weather. The latest complete survey of Kuskokwim Bay was

made in 1911 and 1915 followed by a partial examination of the channels

in 1924. This examination showed that the courses laid down on the

existing charts were good to the entrance to Eek Channel, at the head

of the bay, but that above this point changes in the channels and the mud

flats had been made by the sea, the currents, and the ice. Since 1924

it has been reported that the channels in the bay shift every year

with the movement of the sand bars and that the 40-mile approach up the

bay to the mouth of the Kuskokwim River must be made behind a small

pilot boat to feel out the channels and to take continual soundings.

Sometimes a whole day is lost when a channel ends abruptly requiring

both vessels to turn about, retrace the channel , and start up another.

Running aground is a constant threat, and, since no assistance of any

kind is available, all vessels procede at the very slowest speed and

with the greatest caution. Pilot boats must also be used from the

entrance to the river to Bethel, 65 miles upstream, although the

currents have carved fairly reliable channels in the river and a

little better speed is possible. With the discharge of cargoes at and

the list lightening of the ship, return journeys are safer, easier,

and faster.

        Security Cove, just east of Cape Newenham, offers a fair

haven for small boats in all except northwest winds. Chagvan and Good–

news Bays (q.v.), farther north, are obstructed by shoals and bars, and

002      |      Vol_XII-0557                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA

are themselves so shallow as to offer little protection in stormy weather.

Carter Bay (q.v.), above Goodnews Bay, provides anchorage for small

craft just inside the head of Carter Spit, but Jacksmith Bay (q.v.),

the next most northerly bay on the eastern side of Kuskokwim Bay, is

bare at low tide and too shallow at high tide to offer protection even

to launches. Small boats navigate the mouths of the Arolic and

Kanektok Rivers (q.v.) which open into Kuskokwim Bay north of Jacksmith

Bay, only with the greatest difficulty, and only at high tide. The

waters north of the Kanektok are shoal, and the coastal plain a morass

of tiny lakes and their connecting streams. Warehouse Bluff, about 12

miles above the mouth of the Kanektok, is an important landmark, since it

is the first land to be sighted on the east when ascending Eek Channel.

Warehouse Creek, a few miles above the bluff, is deep but the approach

is obstructed by mud flats, although small craft can reach shelter here

even at low tide. Warehouse Creek was the terminal port for early

trading vessels. Natives and traders assembled here from many miles

around to await the arrival of the schooners. No traces remain of

the warehouse which once stood here. Kuskokwak Creek enter s the east

side of Kuskokwim Bay ab l o ut 10 miles north of Warehouse Bluff. Once

again mud flats obstruct the entrance, but small craft can follow the

channel to a good shelter inside. Beacon Point, a few miles farther

north, is low and flat, hardly above storm water, and the beacon which

once marked it has disappeared. A line from Beacon Point to the former

large native village of Popokamute on the west side of the bay is con–

sidered to divide Kuskokwim Bay from Kuskokwim River. Popokamute,

however, has disappeared. Natives from the surrounding areas once

swarmed to this point to catch and dry their winter's supply of salmon.

Since the survey in 1915 the point has washed away somewhat, and natives

no longer gather here for any purpose.

002a      |      Vol_XII-0558                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA

        A few miles below the site of Popokamute is the small

Eskimo village of Kulvagavik. Nelson visited this village in January,

1879, after a stay in December, 1878, at Kongiganak, the next most

southerly village on the western side of the bay. Kongiganak had

a population of 175 in 1939. Kwigillingok, a few miles below

Kongiganak, lies across the bay and a little south of Kwinhagak

on the eastern side of the bay. West of Kwigillingok is Anogok,

where Nelson also visited in December, 1878, and which really

lies on the shore of Bering Sea beyond around the southwestern entrance

point to Kuskokwim Bay.

003      |      Vol_XII-0559                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA

        The western side of Kuskokwim Bay below the former site of Popokamute

is represented on some charts by a dotted line and very little is known

about it. The only settlement is the small native village of Kwigillinak.

This town lies across the bay, a distance of about 45 miles at this point,

and a little south of Kwinhagak, at the mouth of the Kanektok River.

        ¶ The eastern side of the bay has many more villages than the western, two of

which boast populations of more than 200, which, in this part of Alaska,

constitutes a substantial community. Kwinhagak , itself , has a population

of 224, attracted perhaps by the Moravian Mission and by the abundance

of clear mountain water in the Kanektok River. Arolic is a tiny village

at the mouth of the Arolic River, a few miles south of Kwinhagak, and

the settlement of Carter, on Carter Bay, south of Jacksmith Bay, is

merely a group of cabins currently reported to be abandoned. Around

Goodnews Bay, however, are several settlements: on the north side,

Goodnews and Goodnews Bay, with a population of 48, and, on the south

side, the thriving mining community of Platinum. Since the discovery

of platinum and its allied metals in this vicinity in 1926 this village

has grown from a few shelter cabins to a village of an estimated summer

population of 600. Most of the mining company personnel spends the

winters Outside after shutting down the placers in December, but their

presence for about half of every year makes Platinum the largest and

most active community on the shores of Kuskokwim Bay.

        It is generally agreed that the best weather comes to the

Kukokwim Bay area in March and April. Storms from the southwest lasting

2 to 5 days are frequent during the summer months but are usually

followed by a few days of fair weather. Northerly winds accompanied by

clear skies are frequent in the early fall, but after the middle of

September strong and prolonged gales may be expected.→

004      |      Vol_XII-0560                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA

From April to September the maximum temperatures recorded in the Platinum

area ran from a low of 45° in April to a high of 78° in June after which

came a gradual drop to 59° in September. Only a trace of snow fell

during this period.

        Neither trees nor bushes grow along any part of the shores of

Kuskokwim Bay although elders and willows appear on the banks of its

tributaries in ever-increasing numbers and size as one leaves the coast.

Thirty miles up the Goodnews River the willows are 10 to 15 feet high.

Farther from the bay poplars locally called " cottonwoods ," begin to appear. Wood for fuel is

particularly scarce along the Kanektok River because there are very few

trees in the mountainous regions bordering the early part of its course,

and because, even along the lower river, the growth of willow and

poplar is much more sparse than along the corresponding section of the

Goodnews River to the south.

        Back from the water of both the rivers and the bay the terrain

is swampy. Although game is scarce, fish is plentiful and several species

of ducks and geese breed along the streams and in the marshes.

        ................

Sources: VSGB; USCP; Tewkesbury

[ ?] Colby; Sundborg

001      |      Vol_XII-0561                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

July, 1948 KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        Revised 13 Oct 48 Text - 7,370 wds.

Bibl. - 50 wds.

        THE KUSKOKWIM RIVER, ALASKA, is about 550 miles long and second

only to the Yukon in length, volume, and navigability. The Eskimo name,

Kuskokwim, was apparently first obtained by Ustiugof in 1818, and it

appeared in Sarichef's atlas of 1826. The old Indian name for this river

is China-ana, and the Indians called the tributary to the Kuskokwim now

known as South Fork, the Echitna. It was this tributary to the main r iver

which Josiah E. Spurr and William S. Post considered the Kuskokwim proper

in their U.S. Geological Survey Report of 1899. The following description

is based, in part, upon this report.

        The Kuskokwim Valley, which lies north of the Iliamna Region,

north and west of the Nushagak-Togiak Region, and south of the Yukon

Valley, may be divided into three natural geographic provinces. These

are: an extensive interior basin southeast of the inland section of the

Kuskokwim Mountains and no r thwest of the Alaska Range, which contains

the branching headwaters and the upper course of the main river; a

deeply-cut central section about 150 miles long from east to west which

passes diagonally across the entire width of the Kuskokwim Mountains; and

a lowland section through which the river flows in a generally southwester–

ly direction from the northwestern flanks of the Kuskokwim Mountains

across 300 miles of swamp and granssland to the head of Kuskokwim Bay. The

100 miles of these lowlands farthest from the sea are true valleys of the

Kuskokwim Mountains and are bounded by sloping highland on either side.

The remaining 200 miles of lowland are coastal in nature and in this

part of its course the Kuskokwim is affected by the tides of Bering Sea.

For this last 200 miles the Kuskokwim runs approximately parallel to the

Kilbuck Mountains, lying to the southeast, and all the tributaries to

this section of the river drain from these mountains. The lowlands north

        26 [ls?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0562                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

of this stretch of the river merge with similar lowlands which border

the lower Yukon so that between the mouths of these two great rivers

extends an enormous, triangular coastal plain whose area is about 30,000

square miles.

        This coastal section of the Kuskokwim is tundra, or grasslands,

and remains treeless for about 150 miles, or as far as Aniak, at which point

the river swings into the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains where trees

of various kinds begin to appear. The most common tree in this region is

the spruce. Some poplar, commonly called "cottonwoods," grow along the

valley floor and the lower slopes, some birches and a few tamarack.

Willow and alder grow along the banks of the stre a ms and upland gulches

and, in great profusion, in the damp places near the timber line. Dwarf

black-birch brush is common above the timber line, and, in the Nixon

Fork District, about 250 miles above Aniak, spruce grow well above

altitudes of 2,000 feet. The stand of timber in this area is not heavy

and has been depleted, particularly in recent years, by use as fuel

and by great forest fires. During the summer of 1933 fires swept much

of the Nixon Fork area, so that since that ti m e the large r mining camps and

many p i r ivate individuals have had to depend on kerosene and gasoline

from Outside for fuel. Above Nixon Fork the Kuskokwim is reported to be

largely untimbered. Forage for stock is fairly plentiful in the valley

floors, but on the upland slopes grass is scarce.

        Caribou herds exist in the higher mountains which border part

of the river course, and some of these herds, as will be indicated later,

have been assembled and protected by private her d smen. Bear and moose

are not numerous, but smaller game such as rabbit, ptarmigan, and

        24 [lo?]

003      |      Vol_XII-0563                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

grouse are relatively plentiful. The enormous triangle of tundra between

the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon is one of the major breeding

grounds for game fowl not only for Alaska but also for all of western

Canada and the United States. Salmon run up the Kuskokwim. It is also

well supplied with whitefish and pike, and enormous numbers of grayling

are to be found in the smaller streams which feed this great river.

        The ice usually leaves the Kuskokwim open to navigation by June

1, although the breakup comes at different times each year. In 1924, the

river ice broke up on May 23, and went out at Eek Island on May 29,

although large pieces of ice were still partially obstructing the channel

past the island on June 5. However, this was the latest breakup in [ ?] fifteen

years. The mean range of the tide is about 9 1/2 feet at the mouth of

the river, but drops to about 2 feet 65 miles up the river at Bethel (q.v.)

        Generally speaking, Bering Sea tides extend up the Kuskokwim for

about 100 miles, and for approximately another 100 the river currents

increase and decrease wit h the ebb and flow of the tides. Currents in the

bay also have their effect on the river. Currents as strong as 3 1/2

knots have been observed in the vicinity of Apokak at the mouth, and the

flood current is felt about as far as Bethel. Ocean-going vessels can

ascend the river to Bethel where lighters and river steamboats transfer

cargo and passengers to McGrath (q.v.) , 500 miles upstream. In the

spring of 1948, the Santa Ana Steamship Company's Coastal Rider made

her last round trip between Seattle and Bethel, and in the fall of that

year the Alaska Steamship Company's Reef Knot took over this service.

Pilot boats meet these steamships at the mouth of Kuskokwim Bay (q.v.)

        25 [lo?]

004      |      Vol_XII-0564                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

and assist them up the intricate maze of bay and river channels to their

destination.

        As has been implied previously, the Kuskokwim makes several

changes in direction. Its eastern headwaters rise in the glacier-clad

Alaska Range, flow northwestward to the valley which separates this range

from the Kuskokwim Mountains, then northward across this wide valley to

about 63° N. Lat. Here the Kuskokwim turns due westward for about 30

miles (airline) to McGrath. At McGrath it veers abruptly west of south

and, with many large-scale bends, continues in this direction to its con–

fluence with the Holitna, an airline distance of over 120 miles. From

this point, although bending once to the north and once to the south, it

turns in a generally westerly direction for about 80 miles (airline) to

Aniak, at which point the Kuskokwim is a mere 25 or 30 miles from the

Yukon. The Kuskokwim then turns southwestward and follows a fairly

direct [ ?] course to Kuskokwim Bay.

        The headwaters of the Kuskokwim rise in two different mountain

chains, the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north and northwest, and the

Alaska Range to the south and southeast. The chief upper tributaries

for the Kuskokwim are North, East, South, Middle, and West Forks.

        North Fork is fed by streams rising in the Kuskokwim Mountains

north and northwest of Lake Minchumina and flows in a southwesterly

direction for about 100 miles (airline) to its junction with East Fork,

a few miles above Medfra, known also as Berry s Landing. North Fork re–

ceives several tributaries from the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north of

its course, but its main tributary, Swift River, enters from the south.

Swift River, a glacier-fed stream rising in the Alaska Range in the

vicinity of Mount Russell, flows in a no t r thwesterly direction for about

        25 [ls?]

005      |      Vol_XII-0565                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

65 miles 'airline) to enter North Fork about midway of its course.

Mount Russell is an 11,500-foot peak about 35 miles southwest of Mount

McKinley.

        East Fork is formed by several streams rising in the foothills

of the Alaska Range just south of Swift River and flows in a generally south–

westerly direction to join North Fork a few miles above Medfra. East Fork

receives the waters of Chedotlothna and Ekolina Rivers. The Kuskokwim

proper may be said to begin with the junction of these forks, or perhaps,

a few miles farther downstream at the confluence of South Fork.

        South Fork, the most important upper tributary, rises farther

south in the Alaska Range, and takes a northwesterly course to enter the

Kuskokwim near Medfra. South Fork receives the Tatina, Jones, Dillinger,

and Tonzona Rivers, as well as several unnamed tributaries. The Tonzona,

largest of these tributaries, is a glacier-fed stream rising in the

vicinity of Mount Dall, a 9,000-foot peak about 45 miles southwest of Mt.

Mckinley. The Tonzona flows in a generally northwesterly direction from

the foothills of the Range and across about 55 miles of the broad Kuskokwim

Valley before joining South Fork.

        About 10 miles below [ ?] the South Fork confluence, the Kus–

kokwim receives the waters of another southern tributary, one that is

formed a few miles above its mouth by the union of three streams . which follow almost parallel courses. On

some maps the final three or four miles of this tributary are identified

as Big River. Middle Fork, which, as its name indicates, is the middle

branch of this tributary, originates in the Alaska Range near 62° N. Lat.,

154° W. Long., in the midst of mountains rising to over 7,000 feet, works

its way northwestward for about 35 miles (airline) to the valley, and then

        24 [Co?]

006      |      Vol_XII-0566                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

crosses another 35 miles of lowland to its junction with Pitka, the most

northerly of these branches. West Fork, the southwestern branch, has its

source in glacier-fed streams rising in the Alaska Range, w s omewhat south

of the headwaters of Middle Fork, where the Range reaches heights of 9,000

feet. This stream trends northward for about 80 miles (airline) to join

the Middle Fork-Pitka branch a few miles below their confluence; thence

the combined waters flow westward three or four miles to enter the south–

ern side of the Kuskokwim.

        Medfra, at the confluence of South Fork and the Kuskokwim, is

the farthest upstream of the Kuskokwim settlements and is the supply point

for the Nixon Fork District. From this point the Kuskokwim trends south–

westward 8 or 10 miles to the junction with Big River, and thence follows

a tortuous course westward for 25 or 30 miles to its junction with Nixon

Fork, where McGrath settlement is located. Big River Roadhouse is located

2 or 3 miles downstream from the mouth of the river from which it takes its

name.

        Nixon Fork has its source 50 or 60 miles northeastward of

McGrath in stream s rising in the Von Frank Mountain area of the Kuskokwim

Mountains and follows a generally southwesterly course to enter the

Kuskokwim from the north. Nixon Fork is joined early in its course by

Cottonwood, Boulder, Jones, Submarine, Mystery, Ruby, and Hidden Creeks,

and by West Fork about midway of its course.

        Takotna River, the largest tributary to Nixon Fork, enters

Nixon from the west a few miles above its mouth. The Takotna, which has

a length of perhaps 50 miles, is formed by the confluence of Waldren and

Moore Creeks and takes a generally northward and then eastward course,

        25 [ls?]

007      |      Vol_XII-0567                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

being joined by Fourth of July, Big, Gold, Bun, and Galickson Creeks, to

its junction with Nixon Fork. This junction is called The Forks. The

village of Ta c k otna lies about 13 miles above The Forks.

        Tat la al ina River enters Nixon Fork from the west a little over

one mile s above its junction with the Kuskokwim. The Tat a lina rises in

the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains, which, in this vicinity, form a

divide between the Kuskokwim and the Tatalina, and flows northeastward to

Nixon Fork. It is joined from the south by Rex, Candle, and Cash Creeks.

        At its confluence with Nixon Fork, the Kuskokwim turns southward

and continues in this direction for about 100 miles (airline) to

Sleitmut where it [ ?] again turns westward. F or about 25 miles south

of McGrath the river follows a twisting course, and along this stretch

are, from north to south, the three villages, Candle Landing, Wilson's,

and Vinasale. About 10 miles below Vinasale the Kuskokwim passes between

an irregular group of highlands from 1,400 to 2,200 feet high. The

slopes to the west appear to belong to the Kuskokwim Mountains and those on

the east to the Alaska Range. Several tributaries enter this section of

the Kuskokwim, most of them from the east. These are: the Tatlawiksuk,

the Swift (on some maps called the Chagavenapuk), and the Stony. All

these rivers rise in the Alaska Range; the Tatlawiksuk flows in a

westerly direction, and the other two in a northwesterly direction across

the wide Kuskokwim Valley to the main river. Stony River, the longest

of these three tributaries, rises in the vicinity of Snow Cap Mountain,

flows southwestward through a narrow valley in the Alaska Range, and then,

west of Telquana Lake, from which it receives a tributary stream, turns

sharply northwestward to pass north of Carin Cairn Mountain and through

        26 [ ls ?]

008      |      Vol_XII-0568                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

the Lime Hills to the Kuskokwim. The mountains through which the upper

course of the Stony runs are perpetually snow-covered, and the river-bed

is strewn with huge boulders. Although rapids are frequent in th k i section,

the stream is reported to be easily ascended with poling boats. Stink

River enters the Stony about 25 miles (airline) from its mouth. On a tiny

island in the midst of the confluence of the Stony and the Kuskokwim is

the village and post office of Stony River.

        From th is e point the Kuskokwim more and more loses its connection

with the Alaska Range which continues southward into the Iliamna Region

whereas the river veers westward through the high southern fringes of the

Kuskokwim Mountains and so to the broad coastal section of the Kuskokwim

Basin.

        About 18 miles southwest of Stony River the

        About 18 miles below the mouth of Stony River, the Holitna, one

of the major tributaries to the Kuskokwim enters from the south. The dark-

colored Holitna, with its principal tributary the Hoholitna, drains the area north

of the headwaters of the Nushagak and Mulchatna Rivers (q.v.). Very little

is known about this section of Alaska, a A lmost the only source of informa–

tion being the manuscript map made by the prospector, W. R. Buckman, who

wintered in this vicinity in 1902-1903. The Holitna was one of the first

inland Alaskan streams known to the early Russian explorers in this region

and was descended by Ivan Simonson Lukeen in 1832. The Indians Natives call this

stream the Chulitna, but it is now generally known as the Holitna, a

transliteration of the Russian form of the Eskimo name. The Holitna has

its source in stream s rising northeast of Nishlik e Lake, the most northerly

of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.), and flows in a generally northeasterly direction

        23 [ ls ?]

009      |      Vol_XII-0569                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

to the Kuskokwim. The middle branch of these headwaters, the Kogrukluk,

joins the Holitna in the vicinity of Kashegelok, a small Eskimo village

about 150 miles from the mouth of the Holitna. The river then swings north–

west of the Taylor Mountains past the Eskimo village of Nogamut, across a

broad flood plain to its junction with Titnuk Creek near the village of

Itulilik. Titnuk Creek rises east of the Nushagak Hills and Finn Mountain,

which form part of the divide between the Nushagak and the Holitna systems,

and flows in a northerly direction east of the Taylor Mountains to join the

Holitna about 70 miles from its mouth. The Holitna receives many unnamed

tributaries from the Kiokluk and Chuilnuk Mountains which lie west of the

middle section of its course.

        The Hoholitna, as it is now generally called, in its upper reaches

receives the waters of a fan-shaped system of unnamed streams rising in the

vicinity of Halfway Mountain and Cairn Mountain, in the Alaska Range,

which here separates this section of the Holitna watershed from that of the

Mulchatna. The main headwater of the Hoholitna drains from Whitefish

Lake, a lake about 8 miles long by one to two miles wide, lying just south

of 61° N. Lat. and just east of 155° W. Long. in a broad lowland surrounded

by the discontinuous ridges and knobs of the foothills of the Alaska Range.

←From Whit e fish Lake the river follows a westerly course for about

35 miles, and throughout this stretch is joined from both north and south

by its numerous upper tributaries. The river then flows in a northwesterly

direction for about 50 or 60 miles 'airline) to i n ts confluence with the

Holitna at a point about 15 miles above its junction with the Kuskokwim.

Sleitmut (Sleetmute) lies on the north bank of the Kuskokwim just opposite

the mouth of the Holitna.

        From Moose village, about 15 (airline) miles upstream from

Sleitmut, the Kuskokwim follows a twisting but generally southwesterly

        26 [ls?]

010      |      Vol_XII-0570                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

course to within three or four [ ?] miles of the mouth of the Holitna, where

it turns sharply northwestward. Then the Kuskokwim continues in a generally

northwesterly direction for about 30 miles (airline) to its confluence

with George River. This river drains a dissected plateau, marked with

ridges and knobs about 2,000 feet high, which characterize this south–

western fringe of the Kuskokwim Mountains.

        George River flows in a generally southwesterly direction from

its northeasterly divide, which separates it from the Takotna system, past

the divides separating it from the [ ?] ditarod to the northwest and from the

Kuskokwim itself to the southeast. North For , k , its first named tributary,

flows down from the vicinity of Lookout Mountain in the Iditarod Divide

to enter the George from the west. East and South Forks, rising in the

highlands separating the George from the Kuskokwim, join and enter the

George from the east. The George drains an area about 50 miles from north–

east to southwest and about 35 miles from east to west. Although strong

currents sweep this river during flood seasons, at all other times, starting

at Georgetown at the mouth, it may easily be ascended in poling boats for

25 or 30 miles.

        At Georgetown, the Kuskokwim turns southwest, and, a few miles

below this point, is joined by Steamboat Creek from the north. The stream

rises in Twin Buttes in the divide between its waters and those of North

Fork.

        Below Steamboat Creek the Kuskokwim forms an S, veering first south,

then north, then south again. This second turn is called Great Bend, and

receives Crooked Creek from the north. Crooked Creek rises west of Lookout

Mountain and flows in a southerly direction to the Kuskokwim. Its main

tributaries are Donlin Creek, early in its course, and Bell Creek a few

miles above its mouth. At Crooked Creek the Kuskokwim twists southward and

        26 [ ?]

011      |      Vol_XII-0571                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

flows between Horn Mountain and an unnamed group of hills to the southeast,

for about 30 miles (airline) past the two abandoned villages, Canoe Village

and Oskawalit, past Horn Village and Little Mountain Village, to Napaimiut.

        At Napaimiut the Kuskokwim swings westward and continues in this

general direction for about 30 airline miles to Aniak, at the mouth of the

river of the same name. Below Napaimiut the river passes Chuckwak and the

abandoned village of Ko l makof, continues south of Russian Mountains and on to

the small native village of Russian Mission, about 8 miles east of Aniak.

        The Aniak River rises in the northern park of the Kilbuck Mountains,

north of the Tikchik Lakes, and flows in a generally northerly direction for

about 75 airline miles to the Kuskokwim. Salmon River is its main tribu–

tary, although it receives many unnamed streams from the vicinity of Fisher

Dome and Mount Plummer in the more northerly reaches of the Kilbuck Mountains.

        Below Aniak the Kuskokwim flows westward about 15 miles and then

takes a southwesterly, often multiple, course across the lake-studded swamp

and tundra of the coastal plain. The plain is bounded on the north by the

Yukon River and the Kuskokwim Mountains and on the south and easty by the

Kilbuck Mountains. At the point where the river turns southwest, only 20 or

25 miles of lake-studded grassland separate the Kuskokwim from a southerly bend of the

Yukon River. Crow Village and Oknagamut lie on this stretch of the

Kuskokwim, followed by Kalskag (Kaltshak), a settlement about 27 miles below

Aniak, at about the point where the river passes between Kukaklik and White–

fish Lakes. (The latter is not to be confused with the lake of the same name

previously mentioned as the headwaters of the Hoholitna River.)

        About 36 airline miles below Kalskag, the Tuluksak River enters

the Kuskokwim. This river rises to the east between Mount Hamilton and

Mount Plummer, flow s ing southward and then westward to join the Kukokwim. from

the east. The Kiselalik River rises in the Kilbuck Mountains across the

28 [ ls ?]

012      |      Vol_XII-0572                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

divide from the Salmon River, the main tributary to the Aniak, and takes

a generally northwesterly course to join the Kuskokwim just south of Akiak.

Just below Akiak, the Kuskokwim divides and follows two meandering courses

for about 10 airline miles, after which it joins again and flows on past

Bethel, the largest town on the Kuskokwim.

        For the remaining 65 miles of its course, the Kuskokwim gradually

broadens out until it is ten miles wide in the vicinity of [ ?] Eek Island.

Some maps show the Lomavik River and the [ ?] undra River entering the Kuskokwim

from the east and west respectively a few miles below Bethel, and Johnson

River, with a main tribu [ ?] ry, the Pimichtaluk, flowing in from the west in

the vicinity of the settlement of Kinak. On other maps the course of Johnson

River is identified as the Kinak. The main eastern tributary to the Kuskokwim

south of this point is Eek River which drains from Eek Lake in the foothills

of the Kilbuck Mountains and flows in a westerly direction past 2,000-foot

Tiokpit Mountain across 60 miles of tundra to enter the Kuskokwim just north

of Eek Island. Eek River, although muddy and full of silt, is navigable

for 15 or 20 miles from its mouth.

        Eek Island is a grass-covered mud flat in the mouth of the

Kuskokwim just south of the mouth of Eek River. The higher tides completely

cover this island. It is cut by deep sloughs and affords an ideal feeding

ground for the thousands of ducks and geese which breed in the swamps and

marshes between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon.

        Settlements

2 Trails

An intricate system of winter trails connects the settlements

and roadhouses along the Kuskokwim and its tributaries. From Medfra and

McGrath, the two most northerly Kuskokwim settlements, these trails run in

several directions; northeastward to Lake Minchumina and beyond, southeast–

ward across the Alaska Range to Cook Inlet, northwestward into the Innoko

District, and southwestward along the Kuskokwim itself to The Portage and on

27 [ ls ?]

013      |      Vol_XII-0573                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

to the mouth of the Kuskokwim.

        Me d fra, (63°07′ N.Lat., 154°43′ W.Long.) 35 miles upstream from McGrath, had a population of 24 in

1939. It has, as well, a post office, a general store, and a 2,000-foot

landing strip. The chief occupations are mink and marten farming. From

June 1 to O c tober 5 air mail service runs every two weeks from Fairbanks

and Anchorage. A $36,000 road connects Med f ra with Nixon Peak Mine

on Rub b y Creek, twelve miles to the north.

        On the Takotna River, west of McGrath (q.v.) and about 13 miles (airline)

above The Forks, is Takotna, a mining community with a post office and a

1939 population of 70. Takotna is the head of launch navigation on that

river, and is connected by an intricate maze of roads and trails with Flat,

Ophir, Holy Cross, and other Yukon points to the southwest, and with McGrath,

Candle Landing, Berry Medfra, and other villages to the northeast and the

southeast on the Kuskokwim. Takotna has a landing strip on a mountain-top

above the town , with a road leading to it. Although this strip is 1,700

feet long, it appears to be much shorter because each end drops a considerable

distance downhill. In 1942, a herd of 2,000 reindeer was reported by its

owners to be grazing on Beaver Mountain several miles west of Takotna.

        Candle Landing and Vinasale are the main Ku s kokwim settlements

immediately below McGrath. New Candle Landing, a few miles west of Candle,

is a gold mining community with an 1,800-foot landing strip. As the Kuskokwim

continues to work its way through the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains,

there are no settleme n ts along it for over 100 [ ?] airline miles.

        Stony River, at the mouth of the river by of the same name, has two

warehouses, and is a trading post and outfitting point for trappers and

prospectors, although the 1939 census gives the population as only seven.

Referring to the native population in this area in 1930 , Hrdlicčka writes: "People

        26 [ ls ?]

014      |      Vol_XII-0574                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

of Stony River, according to Sergei, speak a language of their own, called

'Nunamute.' Twenty-eight natives in all between Stony River and McGrath,

and of these twenty or twenty-one children and undergrown."

        Sleitmut, about 18 miles below Stony River, is a post office and

settlement which had a population of 86 in 1939. The village has a Territorial

School, a 2,000-foot landing strip, and air mail service from June 1 to

October 5 each year. Across the river from Sleitmut is Smeaton's Trading

Post. Parks, a settlement with a population of 11 in 1939, also lies on

the north side of the Kuskokwim a few miles below Sleitmut. The cinnibar

lode mine, mentioned above below , is in this vicinity and was being worked, as

Hrdlicka reports in 1930, by Parks himself. "Parks is an old man," Hrdlicka

writes, "over 70, visionary, alone, working mercury mine with the help of

three native boys of from about 10 to 15."

        Georgetown, a small native settlement, lies on the north side

of the Kuskokwim at the mouth of the George River about 19 miles below Parks.

A winter trail, known as the Iditarod and Georgetown Trail, connects

Georget o w o n with Flat, which itself is connected by trail with Holy Cross, on

the Yukon River, and with various points in the Iditarod and Innoko

Districts to the north.

        Crooked Creek, about 11 airline miles below Georgetown, is a

native settlement and post office at the mouth of the stream of the same

name, which had a 1939 population of 48. At low tide the natural river

bars near Crooked Creek afford summer landing fields, and planes equipped

with skis can land on the frozen river in winter. Crooked Creek is one

of the southern terminals of a network of winter trails converging at Flat.

        Napaimiut, about 30 airline miles below Crooked Creek, is a post

office and settlement with a 1939 population of about 75. This village

has a 2,000-foot landing area and receives air mail service from Fairbanks

and Anchorage.

        27 [ ls ?]

015      |      Vol_XII-0575                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        The village of Kolmakof, now abandoned, was first the site of

a fort built by the Russian trader Lukeen, who discovered gold in this

vicinity about 1832. He built a fort about 25 miles above the mouth

of the Aniak River, and called it Lukeen's Fort. In 1 8 41, after being

partly burned by the Indians, it was rebuilt by Alexander Kolmakof, who

gave it his name.

        Aniak, with a 1939 population of 122, is a settlement and post

office on the Kuskokwim near the mouth of the Aniak River. It has a U.S.

Commissioner in residence, and a 5,000-foot landing area. A reindeer herd

numbering 12,000 head is reported in this vicinity. Aniak has one of the

finest, most modern, and best-equipped roadhouses in all of interior Alaska.

        Kalska g,(Kaltshak), over 25 airline miles below Aniak, has summer air mail

service between June 1 and October 5 and was reported in 1939 to be one of

the winter air mail stops between Fairbanks and Bethel. k K alskag is the

Kuskokwim terminal of the two [ ?] trails which connect this part

of that river with the Yukon. The more northerly of these trails runs

from Kalska g to Paimiut, and the other, generally known as The Portage,

runs to Russian Mission (Ikagmut), 38 miles down the Yukon from Paimiut.

The Portage passes Kulik Lake, one of the numberless lakes in this area

which happens to be named, and through the native village of Kichlulik

on its way to Russian Mission.

        Ogalvik is the only village between altshak Kalskag and Tuluksak. Tuluksak, at

the confluence of the Tuluksak River and the Kuskokwim, Tuluksak had a

1939 population of 88, and is connected by road or trail with Bethel, Aniak,

and Nyac.

        Nyac, just north of 61°N. Lat. and just east of 160° W. Long.,

is a mining community and post office on the T uluksak River in the vicinity

        24 [ ?]

016      |      Vol_XII-0576                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

of Mount Plummer, a 4,800-foot peak in the Kilbuck Mountains south of

Whitefish Lake. Nyac had a 1939 population of 33, and now has a 2,500-foot

landing strip. The Territorial Department of Mines chose Nyac as an

experimental site for the combining of aerial photographs with geological

investigations on the ground. Recent maps show several placer mines and

some buildings along the Tuluksak below Nyac all of which are connected by

road.

        Akiak lies on the east side of the Ku s kokwim about 15 miles south

of Tuluksak. Petrof, in 1880, and Spurr and Post, in 1898, recorded this

town with variants of its present name. By 1939 Akiak had a population of

209. It is connected by trail with Russian Mission on the Yukon and with

Bethel about 22 miles down the Kuskokwim. Kuskokwim river boats from

Bethel serve Akiak regularly, and there is air mail service for the usual

period each year. Reindeer herds in the vicinity of Akiak totaling 81,278

head, were reported by five private owners in 1940.

        Akiakchak (Akachagamut), a native village with a population of

156 in 1939, a few miles below Akiak, is connected by trail with Ohogamute

on the Yukon and with Bethel, fifteen miles down the Kuskokwim. Of the

people of Akiakchak Hrdlicka wrote: "The largest and best Eskimo village

yet seen ... (He was traveling upstream.) ... Really a small town. Yet no

school structure here yet, just a native church. People more orderly than

elsewhere and sturdier, better off economically."

        Below Bethel (for a description of which see separate article) , along the ever-widening Kuskokwim, there are several

small villages: Napaskiak (population 67), Lomavik, Napakiak (population 113),

and Akulurak (population 162), all on the east bank, and Kinak (population

36) on the west bank opposite Akulurak at the point at which the Kuskokwim

veers from its southwesterly course to flow due south into Kuskokwim Bay.

        26 [ ls ?]

017      |      Vol_XII-0577                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

Hrdlicka reports: "Large tides here, they tell, up to and at times over

sixteen feet. At low tide great mud flats everywhere, with small channels

like glancing streaks between ... Boat travel — no other possible — must

regulate itself by tides and the depth of the water. To some places it is

impossible to get except at high tide." From Akulurak he wrote: "In nice

weather and before the mosquitoes come, the life in the Eskimo fish camps is

agreeable. There are many dusky red-cheeked chubby children, not seldom

decidedly good-looking. Here and there a woman doing a little cooking or

bread-toasting outdoors, over a little fire. Men fish, hunt waterfowl,

gather driftwood, construct, make boats — women prepare the caught fish for

drying, skin birds, do housework, cook and sew. Children wanted and loved,

and there are plenty of them."

        Eek, a native village a few miles up the Eek River, had a 1939

population of 170. West Point, Kuskovak, and the abandoned Popocamiut

are native settlements on the west bank of the Kuskokwim opposite Eek

Island. Apokak, also opposite Eek Island but on the east side of the Kusko–

kwim, lies at the mouth of the Apokak River. Nelson recorded this name as

Apokagamute, Apokak people , in 1878-79. A line from Beacon Point, just

south of Apokak, to the site of the former native village of Popocamiut ( see Kuskokwim Bay)

is considered to separate Kuskokwim River from Kuskokwim Bay.

        Mining

        Although much of it is on a small scale, there is considerable

mining activity along the Kuskokwim. Placer gold is mined near Nixon Fork,

McGrath, and Georgetown, and lode gold is produced in the Nixon Fork

District. Tin, tungsten, lead, mercury, antimony, and bismuth have also been

found in various places, but not in commercial quantity. Cinnabar lode was

discovered about 15 miles above Georgetown in 1906, near the present site of

Parks, and, as has been indicated, had been worked in a small way but steadily

ever since.

        26 [ ls ?]

018      |      Vol_XII-0578                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        F.E. Matthew discovered gold placers on Hidden Creek in June,

1917. Further prospecting revealed more placers on the other upper tributaries

to Nixon Fork, and in all cases the gold continued to the extreme headwaters

of these streams. In 1918 Pearson and Strand discovered the Crystal

lode at the head of Ruby Creek. Nixon Peak Mine now works this gold lode

as well as gold placers near Hidden Creek, which have proved to be the

most productive of all the placers in the area.

        ¶ In 1947 several companies

were carrying on gold lode and placer operations in the Takotna section this section : Jackson

Nels, placer, on Fourth of July Creek, with a crew of 5; Nixon Fork Mine,

lode, on Nixon Fork near Medfra; and Yukon Placer Mining Co., placer,

bulldozer, and hydraulic, on Fourth of July Creek.

        Gold placers were discovered on Candle Creek by Louis Blackburn

and Bert Eldridge in 1913. Mining was started in 1915 and has continued

to the present time.

        Gold placer mines have been reported on D onlin Creek, a tributary

to Crooked Creek. The discovery of placer gold in Rainy, Kapon, and Cabine

Creeks in the Eek River system, was given some publicity in 1936, although

there was no stampede, and operation of these mines has been continuous

since 1940.

        First Descent

        In his Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, Spurr

gives a first-hand account of his descent of South Fork and of the Kuskokwim

itself from its union with South Fork to Kuskokwim Bay.

        Starting up the Sushitna River, Cook Inlet, on May 20, 1898, he

and his companions paddled into the Yentna and from it into the Skwentna to

a point where it became necessary to carry the two remaining canoes and all

equipment and supplies over the divide of the Alaska Range. "We were now,"

he writes, "in an extremely picturesque and rugged region, with high mountains,

deep valleys, and beautiful glaciers." They were, as present maps show us,

        26 [ ls ?]

019      |      Vol_XII-0579                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

about midway between Mount Dall and Snow Cap Mountain in the Alaska Range,

on what is now called Rainy Pass.

        ¶ Spurr continues: "To get our boats and

outfit over the pass was, however, slower and more difficult, but was finally

accomplished, and we camped by a foaming stream on the other side. The

pass itself is about 4,400 feet above sea l level, and is guarded on both

sides by mountains rising to 8,000 feet." This "foaming stream" was one

of the headwaters of South Fork, but, since no white man had previously

made this trip, it is not surprising that Spurr mistook it for the Kuskokwim.

        ¶ "The fall of the river was very great, and rapids were continuous," he re–

marks," and in this down-stream traveling our progress was as rapid as it

had before been slow. Much to our surp rise , the river turned and began to

run persistently towar d the north between two parallel mountain ridges."

This refers to the section of South Fork above Lake Farewell. "On the

25th of July we emerged from the mountains into a bro a d, flat, gravelly

plateau, and for nearly 100 miles thereafter went through snag flats

similar to those we had ascended on the Sushitna, presenting, if possible,

even a more formidable aspect to the explorer." Spurr and his companions

were now passing across the broad Kuskokwim Valley and approaching the

Kuskokwim itself.

        ¶ "About this time the prolonged rainy season set in,

which lasted six weeks or so, and was perhaps the most disagreeable feature

of the trip, the rain falling almost continuously night and day with short

intervals.

        "¶"on the 29th of July the streams joined another of nearly equal

size [ the Kuskokwim proper ] , these two streams together making up the

main Kuskokwim River ... Below the junction the current was still slack,

and the course of the river was extremely tortuous as it meandered through

a broad flat made up of finely stratified silts ... On the 1st of August we

came to an old trading post known as Vinasale."

        ¶ Only a day below Vinasale [ ?]

        27 [ ls ?]

020      |      Vol_XII-0580                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

however, they reached the southern fringes of the Kuskokwim Mountains,

through which the river passes on its way to Napaimiut and Kolmakof. "On

the 2d of August we left the broad flats of the upper river and entered a

definite valley lying between picturesque timbered mountains, in appearance

suggesting the Lower Ramparts of the Yukon. The river continued to run

through these mountains for several hundred miles. On the [ ?] 4th of

August, two days after entering the range, the peaks grew higher and bolder

and some of them bore patches of snow, while the river flowed past high, per–

pendicular, rocky bluffs.

        "¶"Just before entering these higher ramparts the

largest stream which we had yet observed entering the Kuskokwim came in on

the left. It is a wide river of dark-colored water, contrasting in this

with the muddy current of the Kuskokwim, and at the time of our passing

the water was alive with leaping salmon. The native name of this stream

we afterward found out to be Holiknuk [ the present Holitna ] , and that it

heads in the Nushagak divide."

        ¶ The party was now running short of supplies ,

and they were eager to reach Kolmakof. "On the 6th of August, when we had

already passed the astronomical position in which Kolmakof was indicated on

the Russian charts, we unexpectedly reached the post, which consists of an

old hexagonal log blockhouse with several other log buildings which were

built by the Russians long ago. We found no one here, however, except some

natives and one half-breed, from whom we obtained some tea, which was the

only article left, the supplies for this year not yet having come up the

river.

        "¶" The next d ay we reached the native village of Oknagamut, where there

were several hundred Eskimos ... After leaving Kolmakof the river rapidly

left the mountains behind and flowed through a perfectly level country, very

sparsely timbered, and always growing broader. The channel bro a dened out in

places to a veritable sea, with many large islands, we estimated the distance

as 9 miles. The land on both sides grew more and more swampy and treeless

        28 [ ls ?]

021      |      Vol_XII-0581                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

until it developed into the typical dreary tundra. Eskimo villages grew

more numerous, and at one, Oknavigamut, we found a vacant mission building

and schoolroom, welcome signs of civilized man.

        "¶" On the 10th of August we

arrived at the native village of Memtrelegamut [ the present Bethel ] , where

the natives had informed us that provisions could be obtained, and here we

were surprised and delighted to find, not only a trading post, but a mission

supported by the Moravians. These people made us very welcome, as we were

the first white people they had seen that year, and we stopped several days

making preparations for our future work."

        ¶ At this point Spurr sent some of

his group back to The Portage to map th is at ancient route between the Kuskokwim

and the Yukon and to continue on down the Yukon. He himself went down the

Kuskokwim with John H. Kilbuck, a Moravian missionary, and one of the

founders of Bethel.

        ¶ Spurr describes this part of the journey in these words:

"Below this mission the Kuskokwim grows very large and begins to be affected

by the tides, and so gradually passes into the broad Kuskokwim Bay. The shores

are barren, swampy, and flat, and with no firewood except scattered drift–

wood ... We left the mission on the 19th of August and reached our destina–

tion at the mouth of the river — Kwinhagamut [ the present Kwinhagak ] — on

the 25th, our progress having been slow on account of the extreme width and

shallowness of the river and the difficulty in finding the proper channel.

The tides too, were so high and the bottom was so flat that when we were

not in the deepest channel the receding tide left us dry, out of sight of

water, while the flood tide lifted us upon a broad sea out of sight of shore."

        This description shows how little the Kuskokwim itself has changed

in the past 50 yars, but how very different were the isolated settlements along

it then from the busy mining, fur farming, and fishing villages of today.

        26 [ ls ?]

022      |      Vol_XII-0582                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

Summer and winter air service, and regular frequent ligh t erage service up and down the

river during the season of navigation are the two brightest hopes for

the development of the Kuskokwim Basin.

        2 [ ?]

023      |      Vol_XII-0583                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        BIBLIOGRAPHY

        Mertie, J.B., Jr. Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region ,

Alaska. Alaska. Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1936.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 864 - C Bulletin 864 - C )

        Spurr, J.E. A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898 A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898 .

(Contained in: U.S. Geological Survey. 20th Annual 20th Annual

Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898. Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898.

Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1900. pp.31-264)

        Annabel, Russell. Hunting and fishing in Alaska. Hunting and fishing in Alaska. N.Y., Knopf, 1948.

        Hrdlicčka, Alesš. Alaska Diary, 1926-1931. Alaska Diary, 1926-1931. Lancaster, Pa., Jacques

Cattell Press, 1943.

        General References;

        VSGB

        USCP & Supplement

        Colby. Alaska. Alaska.

        Sundborg. Opporunity in Alaska Opporunity in Alaska .

        Tuttle, CharlesR. Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources

its opportunities. its opportunities. Seattle, Wash., Shuey, 1914.

001      |      Vol_XII-0584                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

November, 1948

        1,550 - Text

100 - Bibl.

        KUZITRIN RIVER. ALASKA, rises in a broad lowland measuring about

twenty miles wide and lying northeast-southwest across 164° W. Long.,

in the heart of Seward Peninsula. The Kuzitrin and its tributaries

drain an area aggregating about 1,890 square miles.

        North and South Forks, the two branches at the head of the main

stream, rise in the lava beds just north of the Bendeleben Mountains.

After their junction, the Kuzitrin continues southwestward across the

interior basin, and is joined by a large number of tributaries, includ–

ing, Noxapaga (q.v.), Garfield, and the famous gold stream, the Kou–

garok (q.v.), from the north, and by Minnie, Ella, Bonanza, Birch,

and Belt Creeks from the south. Just below the mouth of Belt Creek

the Kuzitrin passes through a narrow, twenty-mile valley, guarded on

the north by Bunker Hill, after which it debouches on the plain at the

head of Imuruk Basin (q.v.). The river follows a meandering and

generally westerly course across this plain to its junction with the

Kruzgamepa (q.v.) to form the Kaviruk, which flows directly into

Imuruk Basin.

        Geography

        Both topographically and geologically, the Kuzitrin drainage

basin is diversified. To the south of the upper river lie the Ben–

deleben Mountains, a rugged range of sharp peaks with glaciated valleys.

The large lowland basin through which this part of the river [ ?] flows

is known as the Kuzitrin Flats. The Kougarok Region, which, as the

name implies, includes not only the drainage basin of the that river itself

but also the adjoining territory, lies north of these Flats. This

002      |      Vol_XII-0585                                                                                                                  
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

region is a high plateau characterized by rounded summits with

elevations varying from 1,200 feet just north of the Flats to

1,600 feet at the divide separating the Kougarok drainage from that

of the streams flowing northward into the Arctic Ocean.

        The many lakes along the Kuzitrin are of two kinds. Those

dotting the Flats section of the river are were produced by lava flows, but

those on the Imuruk Plain are mainly lagoons or old cut-off meanders

of the river.

        There is no timber anywhere in the drainage basin, except for

a few cottonwoods along the lower river. Small willow and alder,

good for fuel but of no use in building, are well distributed throught

the basin. The entire area is within the permafrost line. Even dur–

ing the summer, the ground is , for the most part, frozen a few feet below the surface and covered

with a mantle of ice and mud. In the northern part of the basin

such partial thawing of the ground does not take place at any time

of year. Insert from Collier, Aithur J. Becon. [ ?] Portion Seward P [ ?] . 1902 P.9

        Late in May , the Kuzitrin usually break s up at Shelton (formerly

Lanes Landing) (q.v.) and runs clear of ice early in June. It

freezes over at the same point in September. Insert Collier NW p. 11 - "Suice During the season of

navigation, the river is safe for flat-bottomed boats and scows for

about sixty miles from the mouth, and for horse boats upstream from

this point. Up to the completion of the Seward Peninsula Railroad

to Shelton, during the first decade of this century, and still some–

what thereafter, supplies were brought into the Kougraok and Noxapaga

Regions via Port Clarence, Grantley Harbor, Imuruk Basin, and the

Kuzitrin River.

003      |      Vol_XII-0586                                                                                                                  
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

Settlements The only settlements on the Kuzitrin are Igloo, about ten

miles from the mouth, New Igloo, and Shelton , about fifteen miles

farther upstream.

        Igloo (65° 10′ N.Lat., 165° 04′ W.Long.), which the prospectors called

Mary's Igloo, because this structure was originally the largest in the

settlement, was established in 1901 and given a post office that same year.

        Collier visited this settlement in 1901. He writes: "Marys Igloo

was reached on September 3. This place, the former winter home of a well–

known Eskimo woman, is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Kuzitrin

River, and has within a year or two become a settlement of some importance.

Here the stock of provisions was replen [ ?] hed from supplies shipped to this

point from Nome and kept in storage by Mr. A. D. Nash, who was doing a general

freighting business on the Kuzitrin River. The horses here rapidly recuperated

from the privations of the long trip, as forage was abundant."

        As the head of light-draft steam-boat navigation, Igloo was an impor–

tant freight ransfer point on the Kuzitrin, for, with the discovery of gold

on the Kougarok in 1900, a great many tons of supplies and machinery were

needed in the interior. Most of this was brought up the Kuzitrin and so to

the Kougarok for several years after the first strike. After the completion,

in 1906, of the Seward Peninsula Railroad to Shelton, farther upstream,

some supplies still continued to be brought in by boat rather than by rail.

        In 1947, Igloo had a population of about 182, making it one of the

largest towns in this part of Seward Peninsula. The school-teacher, a mission–

ary, and the manager of the trading post are about the only white inhabitants

of the town. Igloo is a fox-raising center, and several reindeer herds

have been reported in the vicinity. Igloo was the first recording office

for the Kougarok District, but this has subsequently been removed to Teller.

003a      |      Vol_XII-0587                                                                                                                  
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

        New Igloo, a few miles down-river from Igloo, has a government school

Shelton (65° 12′ N.Lat., 164° 50′ W.Long.), about ninety miles

north of Nome, and fifteen miles upstream fro Igloo, was originally called Lane's Landing, probably after

T.T. Lane, who built the first ditches and did much to develop the

mineral wealth of this part of Alaska. As the northern terminal of

the Seward Peninsula Railroad, now known as the Kougarok Limited, Shelton is now a busy freight-transfer point,

and has a roadhouse equipped to accomodate fifteen or more persons.

004      |      Vol_XII-0588                                                                                                                  
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

        The building of the 36-inch guage line, formerly called the

Seward Peninsula Railroad, but now known as the Kougarok Limited, or

the "Pupmobile", across ninety miles of unsurveyed marsh [ ?] and grass–

land, which was subject to the all the vagaries of permafrost soil,

was one of the major engineering feats of the early part of this cen–

tury. Like so much in the Seward Peninsula of those days, the idea

and the need for this railroad grew out of the discovery of gold,

first at Nome and then farther and farther into the interior. With

the need of for supplies farther inland, the railroad progressed north–

ward up the Nome river, then eastward down the Kruzgamepa, and finally

northward again to the Kuzitrin. The original goal had been to con–

tinue the line into the heart of the Kougarok District and even north

to Kotzebue Sound, by [ ?] , by 1906, when the road had been extended to

Shelton, the gold in the Kougarok and other outlying areas had been

too thoroughly worked out to justify any further addition to the line.

        During the particularly poor gold mining years of 1912 to 1917,

the railroad was relatively little used and almost forgotten. In

1922 the Territory bought the line from its private owners for $24,000.

It had for several years previous become known as a 'tramcar' or

'pupmobile' line, and had functioned, not as a railroad, but as a

highway with regulations governing weight of loads, speed, class of

equipment, etc. The Alaska Road Commission now keeps the line in re–

pair, and two companies have the right to send fieight shipments over it, but individuals can, if they wish, supply their own means of

transportation. These include, flange-wheeled automobiles, handcars,

or the unique 'pupmobiles' (small push cars drawn by twelve or

more dogs). Although there has been considerable talk about continu–

ing the road into the Kotzebue country, it has never progressed be–

yong Shelton. Shelton, itself, has remained what it always was,

005      |      Vol_XII-0589                                                                                                                  
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

a town given over entirely to the needs and demands of miners and

mining, to the exclusion of almost every other consideration.

        Mining A reconnaissance map of the U.S. Geological Survey,

dated 1913, shows no gold placers on the Kuzitrin itself,

but it indicates a great many on the tributaries to that river,

including Garfield Creek , and, of course, in addition to the Kougarok. It was, there–

fore, as a navigable waterway into the interior, rathern than as a

producing stream, that the Kuzitrin was important to the development

of gold mining on Seward Peninsula. Remembering that it the Kuzitrin is

joined to Port Clarence, the only deep water harbor anywhere on the

Peninsula, it will be realized that the role of the Kuzitrin was far

from a minor one.

006      |      Vol_XII-0590                                                                                                                  
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA

        SOURCES

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington,

D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.299)

        Colby, Merle. A Guide to Alaska. A Guide to Alaska. N.Y., 1942.

        Sundborg, George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., 1946.

        Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., 1925.

        * Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome

and Norton Bay Regions, in Alaska, in 1900. and Norton Bay Regions, in Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C.,

1901.

        * Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Pen- Surface Water Supply of Seward Pen-

insula, Alaska. insula, Alaska. Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Water-Supply Paper 3 Water-Supply Paper 3 14)

        * Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Pen- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Pen-

insula, Alaska, including the Nome, Co u ncil, Kougarok, Port insula, Alaska, including the Nome, Co u ncil, Kougarok, Port

Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Washington, D.C., 1908.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin, Bulletin, No.328)

        Pilgrim, Mariette Shaw. Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography ,

and Government. and Government. Caldwell, Idaho, 1939.

        Alaska Weekly. Alaska Weekly. August 1, 1947

        Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern

Portion of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,

D.C., 1902 (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper No.2)

        * = Principal References.

001      |      Vol_XII-0591                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

26 April 48 KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA

        650 wds

        KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA, a large northeastern arm of Bristol Bay, is

bounded on the south by an arbitrary line extending from the south

entrance point of Egegik River (q.v.), Alaska Peninsula, northwestward

to Etolin Point (q.v.) on the mainland. Kvichak Bay is funnel-shaped

and bounded on the east and west by the low, lake-studded coastal strip

of the peninsula and the mainland. Numberless minor tributaries flow

into Kvichak Bay from these small lakes, but five larger lakes contribute

the four major tributaries to the bay. These are: the Egegik River,

rising in Becharof Lake; the Naknek River, draining from Naknek Lake;

the Alagnak River, fed by Kukaklek and Nanwhyenuk Lakes; and the

Kvichak River, flowing out of Iliamna Lake.

        The tidal rise is extreme throughout the bay and its rivers, varying

from 24 to 28 feet. Low water exposes dangerous shoals and flats for

4 to 6 miles off the coasts at the mouth of the bay and across its

entire width at the head. The remaining channel is extremely shallow

and navigable only by small vessels specially constructed to withstand

repeated groundings. Because of the extreme range of tide, currents

are strong and [ ?] swift, resulting in shifts of the channel from year

to hear.

        Most settlements are on the eastern side of Kvichak Bay, and the

inhabitants here as elsewhere in this area are engaged almost entirely

in catching, packing, and shipping the red salmon for which the entire

Bristol Bay area is famous. During the cannery season, mid-June to

late July, everyone in these villages turns fisherman, but for the

duration of the year the chief activities are hunting and trapping.

002      |      Vol_XII-0592                                                                                                                  
KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA

        The first point of interest north of the Egegik River (q.v.)

along the eastern shore of Kvichak Bay is Cape Chichagof, the northern

entrance point of the Egegik. This cape was named by Lütke in 1828 in

honor of Admiral Chichagof of the Russian navy. A few miles north of

this cape lie Halfway, a salmon cannery, and Hennings Cabin. Still

farther northward a great many canneries are grouped around the mouth

of the Naknek River (q.v.), where the settlements of Naknek, South

Nak nek , North Naknek (q.v.), Pawik (q.v.), Suwarof, and Libbyville are

also located. Cape Suworof, on the north side of the mouth of the

Naknek, was named by Staniukovich, who ended his reconnaissance of

Alaska here in 1828. From this point northward to Koggiung (q.v.),

and Levelock (q.v.) (sometimes called Kvichak) the number of canneries

increases markedly, so that both sides of the head of Kvichak Bay

are dotted with them. Beyond Cape Suworof, however, Kvichak Bay is

shoal and the channel narrow and tortuous. It is here, at the head

of the bay, that the exaggerated tidal range most strongly effects

navigation. Vessels of greater than 3 feet draft cannot navigate

beyond Cape Suworof at low tide, and vessels of greater than 12 feet

draft have difficulty at high tide. Strangers to these waters are

well advised to ask for help from the pilots of cannery vessels anchored

in the area.

        All these points on the eastern side of the bay are connected

by the winter trail which runs from Portage Bay, Shelikof Strait, on the

eastern side of the Alaska Peninsula, northwestward along the

southern shore of Becharof Lake, down the Egegik River, and then northward

to Naknek and Koggiung. At about Koggiung the trail turns westward,

crosses the head of Kvichak Bay, and joins the trail which connects

points on Iliamna Lake (q.v.) and the Kvichak River (q.v.) with Dillingham,

Owens, Goodnews (q.v.) and other Bristol Bay points to the west.

003      |      Vol_XII-0593                                                                                                                  
KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA

        On a recent map only one cabin is indicated

for the entire western side of Kvichak Bay between Etolin Point [ ?] and

the territory opposite Koggiung. This lack of habitation is probably

due to the fact that the western side of the bay is blocked by

higher and wider bars and shoals than the eastern side, making it

virtually impossible to effect a safe landing except at the height

of the tide.

Sources: VS GB; US CB and suppl.

001      |      Vol_XII-0594                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

23 April 48 KVICHAK RIVER, ALASKA

        500 wds

        KVICHAK RIVER, ALASKA (Kvitchak; Koichak), in the northwestern

part of the Alaska Peninsula, drains from Iliamna Lake (q.v.) and runs

a winding, generally southwesterly course for about 62 miles to the head

of Kvichak Bay (q.v.). The Kvichak Basin is a long, narrow strip of

territory containing Iliamna Lake and Lake Clark (q.v.) lying northeast-

southwest between 153° and 157° W. Long. and about 59° and 60° 3 0 ′ N. Lat.

The eastern [ ?] divide is near the coast of Cook Inlet, northeast of Iliamna

Lake, and the western divide is close to the northwestern shores of

that lake but west of Lake Clark. Just below its head the Kvichak River

weaves a swift, netlike, westward course for about 6 miles, but thereafter

turns somewhat southward and follows a deep, well-defined channel to its

mouth. Its main tributaries flow from the north where a system of

innumerable small lakes and creeks dot the broad coastal strip of this

part of the Kvichak Basin. The Alagnak River (q.v.), largest tributary

to the Kvichak, enters from the east near its mouth.

        When assisted by strong winds, launches and Columbia River

boa [ ?] s can navigate the entire length of the Kvichak River, despite bars,

islands, narrow channels, and currents of 6 miles an hour near its head.

At high tide cannery vessels drawing 12 feet or less can navigate the 22

miles of deep channel above Koggiung (q.v.). As in other Bristol Bay

rivers, however, navigation is dangerous or entirely impossible at low

tide. The rise and fall of the tide at the mouth of the Kvichak varies

from 24 to 28 feet. Low water exposes a network of bars and flats at

the head of Kvichak Bay and for some distance up the river. Channels often

drop to 3 feet in depth. Such an extreme range of tide presents problems

not only of navigation but also of anchorage. Tidewater extends about

32 miles up the river.

        The chief activity on and along the Kvichak, as on most Bristol

Bay rivers, is the red salmon canning industry for which the entire area

002      |      Vol_XII-0595                                                                                                                  
KVICHAK RIVER, ALASKA

is famous. The Alaska Salmon Company, the Alaska Packers Association,

the Nakat Packing Corporation, and the Libby, McNeill & Libby Company

maintain canneries and radio stations on the mouth of the river and the

head of Kvichak Bay near Koggiung. The wharves maintained by these

companies are all dry at low water, all have fresh water connections, and

some have company machine shops which will take on occasional small

outside jobs. These wharves are usually fitted with either a crane or a

marine railway. Because of the many hazards to navigation in Kvichak Bay

and River, strangers are well advised to radio for the assistance of

a cannery pilot familiar with local waters.

        The largest settlements along the Kvichak are Igiugig, at

its head, Levelock (on some maps, Kvichak) (q.v.), on the west bank about

8 miles north of the junction of the Alagnak River (q.v.), and Koggiung

(q.v.), on the east bank of the mouth. In addition there are several

canneries along the river, some of which have local names. These include:

Squaw Creek, which the Nakat Packing Corporation operated in 1939:

Libbyville, a cannery and radio station operated by Libby, McNeill &

Libby the same year; Halle r sville, shown on some maps on the east bank

just north of the junction of the Alagnak River; Graveyard Creek, another

Libby, McNeill & Libby cannery operating in 1939: and Coffee Creek,

operated by the Alaska Packers Association in 1939 but inactive in 1940.

        The Kvichak River was reported by early Russians and by Lütke

in 1828 as the Kvitchak.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0596                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

26 April 48 LEVELOCK, ALASKA

        100 wds

        LEVELOCK, ALASKA, sometimes called Kvichak, is a settlement

and post office just northwest of the Alaska Peninsula, on the west bank of the Kvichak River (q.v.), about 7

miles north of the mouth of the Alagnak River (q.v.). Levelock was

founded in 1938 as a community of homes, so that the children of the

area might be given proper schooling and be removed from the influence

of the canneries which throng the area. $20,000 were appropriated in

May, 1940, for the construction of a new school to replace the rented

building previously used and no longer available. The winter trail

from Iliamna Lake (q.v.) passes through Levelock on its way westward

to Dillingham, Owens, Goodnews, and other Bristol Bay points.

Sources: VS GB; World Aeronautical Chart No.136

in Baker, US CP & Suppl.; Tewkesbury

001      |      Vol_XII-0597                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 Text - 275 wds LOPP LAGOON, ALASKA

        LOPP LAGOON, just northeast of Cape Prince of Wales, western

Seward Peninsula, Alaska, was named by A.H. Brooks , in 1900 , after Reverend

William Thomas Lopp, and a late nineteenth century missionary to the Cape

Eskimos.

        Lopp Lagoon is about 14 miles long and about 3 1/2 miles wide

at the wi greatest. It is separated from the Polar Sea by a narrow sand

spit which reaches northeastward from Cape Prince of Wales (q.v.). This spit

widens about midway of its length sending a point of land into the lagoon.

The ocean side of the spit remains regular even throughout its length. The spit is

interrupted in two places where are found the small Eskimo villages of

Mugisitokiwik and Mitletukeruk.

        Although Brooks found the sands around this lagoon to be barren

of gold, several of its tributaries rising in Cape and Potato Mountain and in

the York Mountains have proved to contain stream tin. (See York Mountains

article.)

        In addition [ ?] to several unnamed streams, the Cape Mountain tribu–

taries are Village and Prince of Wales Creeks. Those flowing down from the

general vicinity of Potato Mountain are Manna, Potato, Dry, and Oakland Creeks.

Mint River, the largest tributary to the lagoon, enters its northeast end.

Yankee River, M m ain affluent to the Mint, Yankee River, drains the northern flanks of Brooks

Mountain, and is joined about midway of its course by Clara Creek. Other

tributaries to the Mint are Grouse, and its affluent Buck Creek, both of which

are tin-bearing streams. Other streams creeks in this system are South Fork, Montana,

Gold, Sutter, East Fork, Skookum, Sterling, Tapioca, and White Horse Creeks.

        Lopp Lagoon is extremely shoal throughout its entire length

[ ?] and is navigable only to light-draft vessels.

002      |      Vol_XII-0598                                                                                                                  
LOPP LAGOON, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Gibson, Arthur. Map of Seward Peninsula. Map of Seward Peninsula. Nome, Alaska, 1908.

U.S. C.G.S. Chart No.9380.

001      |      Vol_XII-0599                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 495 wds LOST RIVER, ALASKA

        25 wds - Bibl

        LOST RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises in the

York Mountains and empties into Bering Sea about ten miles east of Cape

York (q.v.). Early maps show a river by this name emptying into the

lagoon on the north side of Port Clarence, just east of the Don River.

        The major tributary to the Lost River comes in from the west

and is variously designated as Rapid, or Rand River. Eastern tributaries

to Lost River are Cassiterite, and Tin Creeks.

        Lost River s , istelf, rises just south of 2,918-foot Brooks

Mountain and flows almost directly south to Bering Sea. Since the mountains

here crowd very close to the shore, the river runs w wiftly and for almost

its entire length. There is now a 1,500-foot landing strip at its

mouth.

        Casserite Creek was the location of the first official tin

lode discovery in the York District. Steidtmann writes that in 1903 A.J.

Collier and Frank L. Hess "were engaged in a study of the geology and mineral

resources of the southern part of Seward Peninsula. In the course of this

work they reached Teller, on Port Clarence, and here met Crum, Randt, and

O'Brien, three prospectors who had been searching for tin. They had about a

bushel of samples of supposed tin ore. This material was examined by Collier,

who found only one piece of rock that looked as if it might contain cassiter–

ite. With an improvised blow pie and pipe and candle Collier determined

the mineral as cassiterite. It came from an angular fragment of float rock.

Collier decided that the occurrence was important enough to warrant a [ ?] pecial

[ ?] examination of the locality. He therefore accompanied the three

prospectors to Lost River, where they pointed out the locality from which

        23

002      |      Vol_XII-0600                                                                                                                  
LOST RIVER, ALASKA

the specimen had been derived. Collier discovered the tin-bearing ledge,

which the three prospectors staked under the name Cassiterite Lode. Collier

was therefore the discoverer of lode tin in the York district, though prior

to this time some alleged tin ore had been found at Cape Mountain, most of

which on test proved to be a tourmaline granite. Later some lode tin was

found at Cape Mountain."

        Despite early efforts to mine tin in this area, these deposits

have remained relatively uncommercialized. (For a general discussion of

the history of the Seward Peninsula tin mining see Tin City article) Still, in 1946,

after two world wars had emphasized the need of the United States for a

reliable tin supply, Bain again mentions the Lost River deposits. "It is

estimated that at Lost River approximately 4,000,000 tons of low-grade lode

tin is available, averaging 0.336 percent of tin plus 0.061 of tungsten cal–

culated as WO ₃ . Although this is not rich ore when account is taken of the

isolation of the district and the many difficulties of mining in the Arctic,

the combination of high- and low-grade ore would seem distinctly to warrant

an attempt at commercial production in the district." (For a general

discussion of the history of tin mining in Seward Peninsula see York Mountains Tin City

article.)

        15

003      |      Vol_XII-0601                                                                                                                  
LOST RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Steidtmann, Edward. Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska . Washington,

1922. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No.733)

Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's Minerals As a Basis for Industry Alaska's Minerals As a Basis for Industry . Washington,

1946. (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular 7379.

December, 1946)

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

001      |      Vol_XII-0602                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

20 April 1948 MCGRATH, ALASKA

        480 wds

        MCGRATH, ALASKA (62° 57′ N.Lat.; 156° 26′ W.Long.) is a town

and post office at the junction of the Kuskokwim and Takotna Rivers in

southwestern Alaska about 325 miles up-river from Bethel. The town was

founded by Abe Appel who chose it for a trading site in 1905. The

population, estimated at 175 in 1939, is still largely supported by

trade since McGrath is the freight transfer point for shipments to

the upper Kuskokwim. Steamboats from Bethel make three round- tips every summer bring ing passen b g ers and

freight up the Kuskokwim as far as McGrath, where they are both must be transferred

to launches for points up the Takotna or up the Kuskokwim to Berrys

Landing. In addition most freight and passen b g er planes leaving

Anchorage or Fairbanks for Bristol Bay, the Kuskokwim or the lower

Yukon stop at McGrath. When regular freighting is delayed by low

water in the Kuskokwim, a great deal of air-freight is flown from

McGrath to Takotna, Flat, and other towns on the Kuskokwim and the

Yukon. The east-west runway of the hard-surfaced 5600-foot landing strip is the main street of the town. Although the airport itself is small, A bar in the Kuskokwim

can be used as a summer landing-field, and the frozen Takotna has been

used for the same purpose in winter. In summer the quiet water at the mouth

of the Takotna affor d s an ideal landing place for hydroplanes.

        The post office, U.S. Commissioner's office, and the Radio

Communications Center are contained in one building which has, as

well, an up-to-date airplane passenger waiting-room. There is a

restaurant near the field for the use of passen b g ers and personnel.

The U.S. Weather Bureau maintains a station in McGrath.

        The town is connected by road or trail to Takotna,

and Candle Creek. It has five general stores, a cold storage plant,

a school, a sawmill, and a roadhouse. The largest local manufacturing

002      |      Vol_XII-0603                                                                                                                  
MCGRATH, ALASKA

establishment , is Lou Laska's Fur Factory, maks a mukluk s (skin boot s ) factory, and is equipped with

modern fur-sewing machines and other labor-saving devices. At least half of the resident population works in the CAA or the U.S. Weather Bureau offices in the Town. Their families live in the ten modern, two-story Government.Built houses facing the north-south runway. Other

activities are mining and trapping. There is a permanent game warden

stationed in a fine building in the town. The remains of an old

Indian village lie nearby, but there are no longer any native inhabi–

tants there of the town . The Kuskokwim River floods the Takotna side of

town almost every year. In October, 1938, this part of town was

being moved across the river to escape the devastation of the

spring and fall floods. About one-third of the population spends only

the spring and summer months in town; the rest of the year they spend these residents

trap ping in an area extending from twenty to two hundred miles around McGrath.

        The weather is typically sub-arctic, reaching a low in

the -60's in winter and a high in the 80's in summer and maintaining

a relatively high humidity the year around. The following chart

reproduces in part the 1947 U.S. Weather Bureau report for McGrath:

        Fonts, Helen L, "Summer at McGrath," (ALASKA

SPORTSMAN, Aug. 1948, pp. 6-9,2 6-29)

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0604                                                                                                                  

        McGrath Weather Report-1947 T= Trace

       

	Temp. of the Air	Mean Relative Humidity	Total Precipitation in Inches	Wind	Clear Days	Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days	Snow fall Total in Inches
Maximum Velocity	Average Hourly Velocity MPH	Prevailing Direction.
Max.	Date	Min.	Date	MPH	Direct.
Jan.	37°	5th	-64°	25th	94	1.98	-	-	-	S	12	19	24.4
Feb.	47°	16	ࢤ64°	3	83	1.26	-	-	-	N	5	23	15.3
Mar.	50°	19	ࢤ32°	14	83	1.35	-	-	-	NW	9	22	31.6
Apr.	42°	22	ࢤ20°	2	72	0.30	-	-	-	N	10	20	2.0
May	80°	28	9°	3	68	0.53	24	S	-	S	1	30	1.0
June	79°	9	37°	6	66	3.63	-	-	-	S	1	29	0.0
July	85°	21	40°	1	72	3.03	-	-	-	S	3	28	0.0
Aug.	77°	7	29°	30	76	2.11	28	S	-	W	4	27	0.0
Sept.	56°	1	19°	20	78	2.79	35	S	-	W	1	29	T
Oct.	48°	7	ࢤ3°	25	80	0.53	17	N	-	NW	3	28	4.7
Nov.	41°	22	ࢤ27°	17	89	1.46	22	NE	-	NW	1	29	19.7
Dec.	33°	6	ࢤ27°	25	90	1.86	16	N	-	W	0	31	23.9

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0605                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

4 May 48 MULCHATNA RIVER, ALASKA

        450 wds

        MULCHATNA RIVER (Molchatna, Malchatna, Mulchutna), in

southeastern Alaska, the largest eastern tributary to the Nushagak

River (q.v.), rises in the Bonanza Hills, foothills of the Alaska

Range (q.v.), at the confluence of three streams known as the Big,

the Middle, and the Small Mulchatna. It follows a meandering, south–

westerly course for about 145 miles to join the Nushagak from the

east at about 59° 39′ N. Lat, 156° 06′ W. Long. For over 50 miles

of its early course, the Mulchatna flows through a broad basin, in

places 40 miles wide, which extends northeast-southwest between the

Bonanza Hills and Mesa Mountain to the southeast , and Halfway Moun–

tain and the more spotty highlands to the northwest.

        The largest tributary to the Mulchatna along this section

of its course is the Chilikandrotna River, which is formed by two

streams rising in the mountains south of the Bonanza Hills. The

Chilikandrotna is about 18 miles long and enters the Mulchatna from

the east at about 60° 37′ N. Lat., 155° 23′ W. Lat. The Chilchitna

River enters the Mulchatna from the east a little over ten miles south

of the Chil ch itna, drains from Tutna Lake, a small lake covering about

4 square miles, lying about 10 miles southwest of Mesa Mountain.

Other tributaries to the Mulchatna along this section of its course

drain the lake-dotted area between the river itself and Tutna Lake.

        Soon after these junctions, the Mulchatna turns more directly

southward, crosses 60° N. Lat. and then bends southwestward again.

The Kakhtul River enters the Mulchatna from the east a few miles

south of 60° N. Lat. The Kakhtul rises in the highlands northwest

of Iliamna Lake (q.v.) This river and has appeared with many variants of its

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0606                                                                                                                  
MULCHATNA RIVER, ALASKA

present name (Kokhtuli, Kakhtut, Kakhtul) ever since Schanz first

recorded it in 1890. All these names, however, would appear to be

based on the Indian word meaning forest . From its junction with

the Kakhtul to its own confluence with the Nushagak, many small

streams, draining the countless lakes to the north and the south,

are shown entering the Mulchatna from both sides.

        On a map dated November, 1946, the only habitations

indicated along the Mulchatna are one unnamed village about 15

miles from its mouth and a cabin several miles farther upstream.

Some mine prospecting has been carried on here in the past. In

1912 the U. S. Geological Survey reported the findings of several

prospectors who had spent the summers of 1909 and 1910 in this

region. Fine flour gold had been found on all bars along the

gravel bed of the river above 60° N. Lat., and course gold and

pay were found near the head.

        Petrof recorded this river as the Molchatna in 1880.

Baker listed it, in 1906, as the Mulchatna in agreement with local

pronunciation of the name.

Sources: Baker; VSGB; us Ycol Surv. Ball, 485

° in Colby; Sundborg; Greeley, USCP & Suppl.

001      |      Vol_XII-0607                                                                                                                  

        Text - 7,370 wds.

Bibl- 50 wds

        Ruby Collins

July, 1948 KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        Connected 13 Oct 48

        THE KUSKOKWIM RIVER, ALASKA, is about 550 miles long and second

only to the Yukon in length, volume, and navigability. The Eskimo name,

Kuskokwim, was apparently first obtained by Ustiugof in 1818, and it

appeared in Sarichef's atlas of 1826. The old Indian name for this river

is China-ana, and the Indians called the tributary to the Kuskokwim now

known as South Fork, the Echitna. It was this tributary to the main r iver

which Josiah E. Spurr and William S. Post considered the Kuskokwim proper

in their U.S. Geological Survey Report of 1899. The following description

is based, in part, upon this report.

        The Kuskokwim Valley, which lies north of the Iliamna Region,

north and west of the Nushagak-Togiak Region, and south of the Yukon

valley, may be divided into three natural geographic provinces. These

are: an extensive interior basin southeast of the inland section of the

Kuskokwim Mountains and no r thwest of the Alaska Range, which contains

the branching headwaters and the upper course of the main river; a

deeply-cut central section about 150 miles long from east to west which

passes diagonally across the entire width of the Kuskokwim Mountains; and

a lowland section through which the river flows in a generally southwester–

ly direction from the northwestern flanks of the Kuskokwim Mountains

across 300 miles of swamp and granssland to the head of Kuskokwim Bay. The

100 miles of these lowlands farthest from the sea are true valleys of the

Kuskokwim Mountains and are bounded by sloping highland on either side.

The remaining 200 miles of lowland are coastal in nature and in this

part of its course the Kuskokwim is affected by the tides of Bering Sea.

For this last 200 miles the Kuskokwim runs approximately parallel to the

Kilbuck Mountains, lying to the southeast, and all the tributaries to

this section of the river drain from these mountains. The lowlands north

002      |      Vol_XII-0608                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

of this stretch of the river merge with similar lowlands which border

the lower Yukon so that between the mouths of these two great rivers

extends an enormous, triangular coastal plain whose area is about 30,000

square miles.

        This coastal section of the Kuskokwim is tundra, or grasslands,

and remains treeless for about 150 miles, or as far as Aniak, at which point

the river swings into the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains where trees

of various kinds begin to appear. The most common tree in this region is

the spruce. Some popular, commonly called "cottonwoods," grow along the

valley floor and the lower slopes, some birches and a few tamarack.

Willow and alder grow along the banks of the stre a ms and upland gulches

and, in great profusion, in the damp places near the timber line. Dwarf

black-birch brush is common above the timber line, and, in the Nixon

Fork District, about 250 miles above Aniak, spruce grow well above

altitudes of 2,000 feet. The stand of timber in this area is not heavy

and has been depleted, particularly in recent years, by use as fuel

and by great forest fires. During the summer of 1933 fires swept much

of the Nixon Fork area, so that since that ti m e the large r mining camps and

many private individuals have had to depend on kerosene and gasoline

from Outside for fuel. Above Nixon Fork the Kuskokwim is reported to be

largely untimbered. Forage for stock is fairly plentiful in the valley

floors, but on the upland slopes grass is scarce.

        Caribou herds exist in the higher mountains which border part

of the river course, and some of these herds, as will be indicated later,

have been assembled and protected by private her d smen. Bear and moose

are not numerous, but smaller game such as rabbit, ptarmigan, and

003      |      Vol_XII-0609                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

grouse are relatively plentiful. The enormous triangle of tundra between

the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon is one of the major breeding

grounds for game fowl not only for Alaska but also for all of western

Canada and the United States. Salmon run up the Kuskokwim. It is also

well supplied with whitefish and pike, and enormous numbers of grayling

are to be found in the smaller streams which feed this great river.

        The ice usually leaves the Kuskokwim open to navigation by June

1, although the breakup comes at different times each year. In 1924, the

river ice broke up on May 23, and went out at Eek Island on May 29,

although large pieces of ice were still partially obstructing the channel

past the island on June 5. However, this was the latest breakup in 15 fifteen

years. The mean range of the tide is about 9 1/2 feet at the mouth of

the river, but drops to about 2 feet 65 miles up the river at Bethel (q.v.)

        Generally speaking, Bering Sea tides extend up the Kuskokwim for

about 100 miles, and for approximately another 100 the river currents

increase and decrease wit h the ebb and flow of the tides. Currents in the

bay also have their effect on the river. Currents as strong as 3 1/2

knots have been observed in the vicinity of Apokak at the mouth, and the

flood current is felt about as far as Bethel. Ocean-going vessels can

ascend the river to Bethel where lighters and river steamboats transfer

cargo and passengers to McGrath (q.v.) , 500 miles upstream. In the

spring of 1948, the Santa Ana Steamship Company's Coastal Rider made

her last round trip between Seattle and Bethel, and in the fall of that

year the Alaska Steamship Company's Reef Knot took over this service.

Pilot boats meet these steamships at the mouth of Kuskokwim Bay (q.v.)

004      |      Vol_XII-0610                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

and assist them up the intricate maze of bay and river channels to their

destination.

        As has been implied previously, the Kuskokwim makes several

changes in direction. Its eastern headwaters rise in the glacier-clad

Alaska Range, flow northwestward to the valley which separates this range

from the Kuskokwim Mountains, then northward across this wide valley to

about 63° N. Lat. Here the Kuskokwim turns due westward for about 30

miles (airline) to McGrath. At McGrath it veers abruptly west of south

and, with many large-scale bends, continues in this direction to its con–

fluence with the Holitna, an airline distance of over 120 miles. From

this point, although bending once to the north and once to the south, it

turns in a generally westerly direction for about 80 miles (airline) to

Aniak, at which point the Kuskokwim is a mere 25 or 30 miles from the

Yukon. The Kuskokwim then turns southwestward and follows a fairly

direct [ ?] course to Kuskokwim Bay.

        The headwaters of the Kuskokwim rise in two different mountain

chains, the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north and northwest, and the

Alaska Range to the south and southeast. The chief upper tributaries

for the Kuskokwim are North, East, South, Middle, and West Forks.

        North Fork is fed by streams rising in the Kuskokwim Mountains

north and northwest of Lake Minchumina and flows in a southwesterly

direction for about 100 miles (airline) to its junction with East Fork,

a few miles above Medfra, known also as Berry Landing. North Fork re–

ceives sever a l tributaries from the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north of

its course, but its main tributary, Swift River, enters from the south.

Swift River, a glacier-fed stream rising in the Alaska Range in the

vicinity of Mount Russell, flows in a northwesterly direction for about

005      |      Vol_XII-0611                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

65 miles (airline) to enter North Fork about midway of its course.

Mount Russell is an 11,500-foot peak abo [ ?] t 35 miles southwest of Mount

McKinley.

        East Fork is formed by several streams rising in the foothills

of the Alaska Range just south of Swift River and flows in a generally south–

wester l y direction to join North Fork a few miles above Medfra. East Fork

receives the waters of Chedotlothna and Ekolina Rivers. The Kuskokwim

proper may be said to begin with the junction of these forks, or perhaps,

a few miles farther downstream at the confluence of South Fork.

        South Fork, the most important upper tributary, rises farther

south in the Alaska Range, and takes a northwesterly course to enter the

Kuskokwim near Medfra. South Fork receives the Tatina, Jones, Dillinger,

and Tonzona Rivers, as well as several unnamed tributaries. The Tonzona,

largest of these tributaries, is a glacier-fed stream rising in the

vicinity of Mount Dall, a 9,000-foot peak about 45 miles southwest of Mt.

McKinley. The Tonzona flows in a generally northwesterly direction from

the foothills of the Range and across about 55 miles of the broad Kuskokwim

Valley before joining South Fork.

        About 10 miles below [ ?] the South Fork confluence, the Kus–

kokwim receives the waters of another southern tributary, one that is

formed a few miles above its mouth by the union of three streams which follow almost parallel courses . On

some maps the final three or four miles of this tributary are identified

as Big River. Middle Fork, which, as its name indicates, is the middle

branch of this tributary, originates in the Alaska Range near 62° N.Lat.,

154° W. Long., in the midst of mountains rising to over 7,000 feet, works

its way northwestward for about 35 miles (airline) to the valley, and then

006      |      Vol_XII-0612                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

crosses another 35 miles of lowland to its junction with Pitka, the most

northerly of these branches. West Fork, the southwestern branch, has its

source in glacier-fed streams rising in the Alaska Range, somewhat south

of the headwaters of Middle Fork, where the Range reaches heights of 9,000

feet. This stream trends northward for about 80 miles (airline) to join

the Middle-Fork-Pitka branch a few miles below their confluence; thence

the combined waters flow westward three or four miles to enter the south–

ern side of the Kuskokwim.

        Medfra, at the confluence of South Fork and the Kuskokwim, is

the farthest upstream of the Kuskokwim settlements and is the supply point

for the Nixon Fork District. From this point the Kuskokwim trends south–

westward 8 or 10 miles to the junction with Big River, and thence follows

a tortuous course westward for 25 or 30 miles to its junction with Nixon

Fork, where McGrath settlement is located. Big River Roadhouse is located

2 or 3 miles downstream from the mouth of the river from which it takes its

name.

        Nixon Fork has its source 50 or 60 miles northweastward of

McGrath in stream s rising in the Von Frank Mountain area of the Kuskokwim

Mountains and follows a generally southwesterly course to enter the

Kuskokwim from the north. Nixon Fork is joined early in its course by

Cottonwood, Boulder, Jones, Submarine, Mystery, Ruby, and Hidden Creeks,

and by West Fork about midway of its course.

        Takotna River, the largest tributary to Nixon Fork, enters

Nixon from the west a few miles above its mouth. The Takotna, which has

a length of perhaps 50 miles, is formed by the confluence of Waldren and

Moore Creeks and takes a generally northward and then eastward course,

007      |      Vol_XII-0613                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

being joined by Fourth of July, Big, Gold, Bun, and Gal ickson Creeks, to

its junction with Nixon Fork. This junction is called The Forks. The

village of Ta k otna lies about 13 miles above The Forks.

        Tat la al ina River enters Nixon Fork from the west a little over

one mile s above its junction with the Kuskokwim. The Tat a lina rises in

the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains, which, in this vicinity, form a

divide between the Kuskokwim and the Tatalina, and flows northeastward to

Nixon Fork. It is joined from the south by Rex, Candle, and Cash Creeks.

        At its confluence with Nixon Fork, the Kuskokwim turns southward

and continues in this direction for about 100 miles (airline) to

Sleitmut where it [ ?] again turns westward. F or about 25 miles south

of McGrath the river follows a twisting course, and along this stretch

are, from north to south, the three villages, Candle Landing, Wilson's,

and Vinasale. About 10 miles below Vinasale the Kuskokwim passes between

an irregular group of highlands from 1,400 to 2,200 feet high. The

slopes to the west appear to belong to the Kuskokwim Moutains and those on

the east to the Alaska Range. Several tributaries enter this section of

the Kuskokwim, most of them from the east. These are: the Tatlawiksuk,

the Swift (on some maps called the Chagavenapuk), and the Stony. All

these rivers rise in the Alaska Range; the Tatlawiksuk flows in a

westerly direction, and the other two in northwesterly direction across

the wide Kuskokwim Valley to the main river. Stony River, the longest

of these three tributaries, rises in the vicinity of Snow Cap Mountain,

flows southwestward through a narrow valley in the Alaska Range, and then,

west of Telquana Lake, from which it receives a tributary stream, turns

sharply northwestward to pass no r th of Carin Cairn Mountain and through

008      |      Vol_XII-0614                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

the Lime Hills to the Kuskokwim. The mountains through which the upper

course of the Stony runs are perpetually snow-covered, and the river-bed

is strewn with huge boulders. Although rapids are frequent in this section,

the stream is reported to be easily ascended with poling boats. Stink

River enters the Stony about 25 miles (airline) from its mouth. On a tiny

island in the midst of the confluence of the Stony and the Kuskokwim is

the village and post office of Stony River.

        From th [e?] is point the Kuskokwim more and more loses its connection

with the Alaska Range which continues southward into the Illiamna Region

whereas the river veers westward through the high southern fringes of the

Kuskokwim Mountains and so to the broad coastal section of the Kuskokwim

Basin.

        About 18 miles southwest of Stony River the

        About 18 miles below the mouth of Stony River, the Holitna, one

of the major tributaries to the Kuskokwim enters from the south. The dark-colored

Holitna, with its principal tributary the Hoholitna, drains the area north

of the headwaters of the Nushagak and Mulchatna Rivers (q.v.). Very little

is known about this section of Alaska, almost the only source of informa–

tion being the manuscript map made by the prospector, W.R. Buckman, who

wintered in this vicinity in 1902-1903. The Holitna was one of the first

inland Alaskan streams known to the early Russian explorers in this region

and was descended by Ivan Simonson Lukeen in 1832. The Indians Natives call this

stream the Chulitna, but it is now generally known as the Holitna, a

transiliteration of the Russisn form of the Eskimo name. The Holitna has

its source in stre a m s, rising northeast of Nishilik [ ?] Lake, the most northerly

of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.), and flows in a generally northeasterly direction

009      |      Vol_XII-0615                                                                                                                  
to the Kuskokwim. The middle branch of these headwaters, the Kogrukluk,

joins the Holitna in the vicinity of Kashegelok, a small Eskimo village

about 150 miles from the mouth of the Holitna. The river then swings north–

west of the Taylor Mountains past Eskimo village of Nogamut, across a

broad flood plain to its junction with Titnuk Creek near the village of

Itulilik. Titnuk Creek rises east of the Nushagak Hills and Finn Mountain,

which form part of the divide between the Nushagak and the Holitna systems,

and flows in a northerly direction east of the Taylor Mountains to join the

Holitna about 70 miles from its mouth. The Holitna receives many unnamed

tributaries from the Kiokluk and Chuilnuk Mountains which lie west of the

middle section of its course.

        The Hoholitna, as it is now generally called, in its upper reaches

receives the waters of a fan-shaped system of unnamed streams rising in the

vicinity of Halfway Mountain and Cairn Mountain, in the Alaska Range,

which here separates this section of the Holitna watershed from that of the

Mulchatna. The main headwater of the Hoholitna drains from Whitefish

Lake, a lake about 8 miles long by one to two miles wide, lying just south

of 61° N. Lat. and just east of 155° W. Long. in a broad lowland surrounded

by the di continuous ridges and knobs of the foothills of the Alaska Range.

← From Whit e fish Lake the river follows a westerly course for about

35 miles, and throughout this stretch is joined from both north and south

by its numerous upper tributaries. The river then flows in a northwesterly

direction for about 50 or 60 miles airline) to i n ts confluence with the

Holitna at a point about 15 miles above its junction with the Kuskokwim.

Sleitmut (Sleetmute) lies on the north bank of the Kuskokwim just opposite

the mouth of the Holitna.

        From Moose Village, about 15 (airline) miles upstream from

Sleitmut, the Kuskokwim follows a twisting but generally southwesterly

010      |      Vol_XII-0616                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

course to within three or four [ ?] miles of the mouth of the Holitna, where

it turns sharply northwestward. Then the Kuskokwim continues in a generally

northwesterly direction for about 30 miles (airline) to its confluence

with George River. This river drains a dissected plateau, marked with

ridges and knobs about 2,000 feet high, which characterize this south–

western fringe of the Kuskokwim Mountains.

        George River flows in a generally southwesterly direction from

its northeasterly divide, which separates it from the Takotna system, past

the divides separating it from the [ ?] ditarod to the northwest and from the

Kuskokwim itself to the southeast. North Fork, its first named tributary,

flows down from the vicinity of Lookout Mountain in the Iditarod Divide

to enter the George from the west. East and South Forks, rising in the

highlands separating the George from the Kuskokwim, join and enter the

George from the east. The George drains an area about 50 miles from north–

east to southwest and about 35 miles from east to west. Although strong

currents sweep this river during flood seasons, at all other times, starting

at Georgetown at the mouth, it may easily be ascended in poling boats for

25 or 30 miles.

        At Georgetown, the Kuskokwim turns southwest, and, a few miles

below this point, is joined by Steamboat Creek from the north. The stream

rises in Twin Buttes in the divide between its waters and those of North

Fork.

        Below Steamboat Creek the Kuskokwim forms an S. veering first south,

then north, then south again. This second turn is called Great Bend, and

receives Crooked Creek from the north. Crooked Creek rises west of Lookout

Mountain and flows in a southerly direction to the Kuskokwim. Its main

tributaries are Donlin Creek, early in its course, and Bell Creek a few

miles above its mouth. At Crooked Creek the Kuskokwim twists southward and

011      |      Vol_XII-0617                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

flows between Horn Mountain and an unnamed group of hills to the southeast,

for about 30 miles (airline) past the two abandoned villages, Canoe Village

and Oskawalit, past Horn Village and Little Mountain Village, to Napaimiut.

        At Napaimiut the Kuskokwim swings westward and continues in this

general direction for about 30 airline miles to Aniak, at the mouth of the

river of the same name. Below Napaimiut the river passes Chuckwak and the

abandoned village of Ko l makof, continues south of Russian Mountains and on to

the small native village of Russian Mission, about 8 miles east of Aniak.

        The Aniak River rises in the northern park of the Kilbuck Mountains,

north of the Tikchik Lakes, and flows in a generally northerly direction for

about 75 airline miles to the Kuskokwim. Salmon River is its main tribu–

tary, although it receives many unnamed streams from the vicinity of Fisher

Dome and Mount Plummer in the more northerly reaches of the Kilbuck Mountains.

        Below Aniak the Kuskokwim flows westward about 15 miles and then

takes a southwesterly, often multiple, course across the lake-studded swamp

and tundra of the coastal plain. The plain is bounded on the north by the

Yukon River and the Kuskokwim Mountains and on the south and east [ ?] by the

Kilbuck Mountains. At the point where the river turns southwest, only 20 or

25 miles of lake-studded grassland separate the Kuskokwim from a southerly bend of the

Yukon River. Crow village and Oknagamut lie on this stretch of the

Kuskokwim, followed by Kalska g (Kaltshak), a settlement about 27 miles below

Aniak, at about the point where the river passes between Kukaklik and White–

fish Lakes. (The latter is not to be confused with the lake of the same name

previously mentioned as the headwaters of the Hoholitna River.)

        About 36 airline miles below Kalskag, the Tuluksak River enters

the Kuskokwim. This river rises to the east between Mount Hamilton and

Mount Plummer, flow s ing southward and then westward to join the Kukokwim. from

the east. The Kiselalik River rises in the Kilbuck Mountains across the

012      |      Vol_XII-0618                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

divide from the Salmon River, the main tributary to the Aniak, and takes

a generally northwesterly course to join the Kuskokwim just south of Akiak.

Just below Akiak, the Kuskokwim divides and follows two meandering courses

for about 10 airline miles, after which it joins again and flows on past

Bethel, the largest town on the Kuskokwim.

        For the remaining 65 miles of its course, the Kuskokwim gradually

broadens out until it is ten miles wide in the vicinity of [ ?] Eek Island.

Some maps show the Lomavik River and the Tundra River entering the Kuskokwim

from the east and west respectively a few miles below Bethel, and Johnson

River, with a main tribu [ ?] ry, the Pimichtaluk, flowing in from the west in

the vicinity of the settlement of Kinak. On other maps the course of Johnson

River is identified as the Kinak. The main eastern tributary to the Kuskokwim

south of this point is Eek River which drains from Eek Lake in the foothills

of the Kilbuck Mountains and flows in a westerly direction past 2,000-foot

Tiokpit Mountain across 60 miles of tundra to enter the Kuskokwim just north

of Eek Island. Eek River, although muddy and full of silt, is navigable

for 15 or 20 miles from its mouth.

        Eek Island is a grass-covered mud flat in the mouth of the

Kuskokwim just south of the mouth of Eek River. The higher tides completely

cover this island. It is cut by deep sloughs and affords an ideal feeding

ground for the thousands of ducks and geese which breed in the swamps and

marshes between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon.

        Settlements & Trails An intricate system of winter trails connects the settlements

and roadhouses along the Kuskokwim and its tributaries. From Medfra and

McGrath, the two most northerly Kuskokwim settlements, these trails run in

several directions; northeastward to Lake Minchumina and beyond, southeast–

ward across the Alaska Range to Cook Inlet, northwestward into the Innoko

District, and southwestward along the Kuskokwim itself to The Portage and on

013      |      Vol_XII-0619                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

to the mouth of the Kuskokwim.

        Me d fra. (63° 07′ N.Lat., 154° 43′ W. Long.)

35 miles upstream from McGrath, had a population of 24 in

1939. It has, as well, a post office, a general store, and a 2,000-foot

landing strip. The chief occ u pations are mink and marten farming. From

June 1 to October 5 air mail service runs every two weeks from Fairbanks

and Anchorage. A $36,000 road connects Med f ra with Nixon Peak Mine

on Rub b y Creek, twelve miles to the north.

        On the Takotna River, west of McGrath (q.v.) and about 13 miles (airline)

above The Forks, is Takotna, a mining community with a post office and a

1939 population of 70. Takotna is the head of launch navigation on that

river, and is connected by an intricate maze of roads and trails with Flat,

Ophir, Holy Cross, and other Yukon points to the southwest, and with McGrath,

Candle Landing, Berry Medfra, and other villages to the northeast and the

southeast on the Kuskokwim. Takotna has a landing strip on a mountain-top

above the town, with a road leading to it. Although this strip is 1,700

feet long, it appears to be much shorter because each end drops a considerable

distance downhill. In 1942, a herd of 2,000 reindeer was reported by its

owners to be grazing on Beaver Mountain several miles west of Takotna.

        Candle Landing and Vinasale are the main Ku s kokwim settlements

immediately below McGrath. New Candle Landing, a few miles west of Candle,

is a gold mining community with an 1,800-foot landing strip. As the Kuskokwim

continues to work its way through the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains,

there are no settleme n ts along it for over 100 airline miles.

        Stony River, at the mouth of the river of by the same name, has two

warehouses, and is a trading post and outfitting point for trappers and

prospectors, although the 1939 census gives the population as only seven.

Referring to the native population in this area, Hrdlicka writes: "People

014      |      Vol_XII-0620                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

of Stony River, according to Sergei, speak a language of their own, called

'Nunamute.' Twenty-eight natives in all between Stony River and McGrath,

and of these twenty or twenty-one children and undergrown."

        Sleitmut, about 18 miles below Stony River, is a post office and

settlement which had a population of 86 in 1939. The village has a Territorial

School,a 2,000-foot landing strip, and air mail service from June 1 to

October 5 each year. Across the river from Sleitmut is Smeato's Trading

Post. Parks, a settlement with a population of 11 in 1939, also lies on

the north side of the Kuskokwim a few miles below Sleitmut. The cinnibar

lode mine, mentioned above below , is in this vicinity and was being worked, as

Hrdlicka reports in 1930, by Parks himself. "Parks is an old man," Hrdlicka

writes, "over 70, visionary, alone, working mercury mine with the help of

three native boys of from about 10 to 15."

        Georgetown, a small native settlement, lies on the north side

of the Kuskokwim at the mouth of the George River about 19 miles below Parks.

A winter trail, known as the Iditarod and Georgetown Trail, connects

Georget wo ow n with Flat, which itself is connected by trial with Holy Cross, on

the Yukon River, and with various points in the Iditarod and Inniko

Districts to the north.

        Crooked Creek, about ll airline miles below Georgetown, is a

native settlement and post office at the mouth of the stream of the same

name, which has a 1939 population of 48. At low tide the natural river

bars near Crooked Creek afford summer landing fields, and planes equipped

with skis can land on the frozen river in winter. Crooked Creek is one

of the southern terminals of a network of winter trails coverging at Flat.

        Napaimiut, about 30 airline mile below Crooked Creek, is a post

office and settlement with a 1939 population of about 75. This village

has a 2,000-foot landing area and receives air mail service from Fairbanks

and Anchorage.

015      |      Vol_XII-0621                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        The village of Kolmakof, now abandoned, was first the site of

a fort built by the Russian trader Lukeen, who discovered gold in this

vicinity about 1832. He built a fort about 25 miles above the mouth

of the Aniak River, and called it Lukeen's Fort. In 1841, after being

partly burned by the Indians, it was rebuilt by Alexander Kolmakof, who

gave it his name.

        Aniak, with a 1939 population of 122, is a settlement and post

office on the Kuskokwim near the mouth of the Aniak River. It has a U.S.

Commissioner in residence, and a 5,000-foot landing area. A reindeer herd

numbering 12,000 head is reported in this vicinity. Aniak has one of the

finest, most modern, and best-equipped roadhouses in all of interior Alaska.

        Kalska g , over 25 airline miles below Aniak, has summer air mail

service between June 1 and October 5 and was reported in 1939 to be one of

the winter air mail stops between Fairbanks and Bethel. K alskag is the

Kuskokwim terminal of the two [ ?] trails which connect this part

of that river with the Yukon. The more northerly of these trails runs

from Kalska g to Paimiut, and the other, generally known as The Portage,

runs to Russian Mission (Ikagmut), 38 miles down the Yukon from Paimiut.

The Portage passes Kulik Lake, one of the numberless lakes in this area

which happens to be named, and through the native village of Kichlulik

on its way to Russian Mission.

        Ogalvik is the only village between altshak kalskag and Tuluksak , Taluksak at

the confluence of the Tuluksak River and the Kuskokwim , Tuluksak had a

1939 population of 88, and is connected by road or trail with Bethel, Aniak,

and Nyac.

        Nyac, just north of 61° N. Lat. and just east of 160° W. Long.,

is a mining community and post office on the T uluksak River in the vicinity

016      |      Vol_XII-0622                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

of Mount Plummer, a 4,800-foot peak in the Kilbuck Mountains south of

Whitefish Lake. Nyac had a 1939 population of 33, and now has a 2,500-foot

landing strip. The Territorial Department of Mines chose Nyac as an

experimental site for the combining of aerial photographs with geological

investigations on the ground. Recent maps show several placer mines and

some buildings along the Tuluksak below Nyac all of which are connected by

road.

        Akiak lies on the east side of the Ku s kokwim about 15 miles south

of Tuluksak. Petrof, in 1880, and Spurr and Post, in 1898, recorded this

town with variants of its present name. By 1939 Akiak had a population of

209. It is connected by trail with Russian Mission on the Yukon and with

Bethel about 22 miles down the Kuskokwim. Kuskokwim river boats from

Bethel serve Akiak regularly, and there is air mail service for the usual

period each year. Reindeer herds in the vicinity of Akiak totaling 81, 278

head, were reported by five private owners in 1940.

        Akiakchak (Akachagamut), a native village with a population of

156 in 1939, a few miles below Akiak, is connected by trail with Ohogamute

on the Yukon and with Bethel, fifteen miles down the Kuskokwim. Of the

people of Akiakchak Hrdlicka wrote: "The largest and best Eskimo village

yet seen ... (He was traveling upstream.) ... Really a small town. Yet no

school structure here yet, just a native church. People more orderly than

elsewhere and sturdier, better off economically."

        Below Bethel (for a description of which see separate article) , along the ever-widening Kuskokwim, there are several

small villages: Napaskiak (population 67), Lomavik, Napakiak (population 113),

and Akulurak (population 162), all on the east bank, and Kinak (population

36) on the west bank opposite Akulurak at the point at which the Kuskokwim

veers from its southwesterly course of flow due south into Kuskokwim Bay.

017      |      Vol_XII-0623                                                                                                                  

        [ ?] Hrdlicka reports:"Large tides here, they tell, up to and at times over

sixteen feet. At low tide great mud flats eve [ ?] ywhere, with small channels

like glancing streaks between ... Boat travel ... no other possible ... must

regulate itself by tides and the depth of the water. To some places it is

impossible to get except at high tide." From Akulurak he wrote: "In nice

weather and before the mosquitoes come, the life in the Eskimo fish camps is

agreeable. There are many dusky red-cheeked chubb y children, not seldom

decidedly good-looking. Here and there a woman doing a little cooking or

bread-toasting outdoors, over a little fire. Men fish, hunt waterfowl,

gather driftwood, construct, make boats — women prepare the caught fish for

drying, skin birds, do housework, cook and sew. Children wanted and loved,

and there are plenty of the [ ?] ."

        Eek, a native village a few miles up the Eek River, had a 1939

population of 170. West Point, Kuskovak, and the abandoned Popocamiut

are native settlements on the west bank of the Kuskokwim opposite Eek

Island. Apokak, also opposite Eek Island but on the east side of the Kusko–

kwim, lies at the mouth of the Apokak River. Nelson recorded this name as

Apokagamute, Apokak people , in 1878-79. A line from Beacon Point, just

south of Apokak, to the site of the former native village of Popocamiut (See Kuskokwim Bay)

is considered to separate Kuskokwim River from Kuskokwim Bay.

        Mining Although much of it is on a small scale, there is considerable

mining activity along the Kuskokwim. Placer gold is mined near Nixon Fork,

McGrath, and Georgetown, and lode gold is produced in the Nixon Fork

District. Tin, tungsten, lead, mercury, antimony, and bismuth have also been

found in various places, but not in commercial quantity. Cinnabar lode was

discovered about 15 miles above Georgetown in 1906, near the present site of

Parks, and, as has been indicated, had been worked in a small way but steadily

ever since.

018      |      Vol_XII-0624                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

        F.E. Matthew discovered gold placers on Hidden Creek in June,

1917. Further prospecting revealed more placers on the other upper tributaries

to Nixon Fork, and in all cases the gold continued to the extreme headwaters

of these streams. In 1918 Pearson and Strand discovered the Crystal

lode at the head of Ruby Creek. Nixon Peak Mine now works this gold lode

as well as gold placers near Hidden Creek, which have proved to be the

most productive of all the placers in the area.

        ¶ In 1947 several companies

were carrying on gold lode and placer operations in the Takotna section this section : Jackson

[N?]els, placer, on Fourth of July Creek, with a crew of 5; Nixon Fork Mine,

lode, on Nixon Fork near Medfra; and Yukon Placer Mining Co., placer,

bulldozer, and hydraulic, on Fourth of July Creek.

        Gold placers were discovered on Candle Creek by Louis Blackburn

and Bert Eldridge in 1913. Mining was started in 1915 and has continued

to the present time.

        Gold placer mines have been reported on D C onlin Creek, a tributary

to Crooked Creek. The discovery of placer gold in Rainy, Kapon, and Cabine

Creeks in the Eek River system, was given some publicity in 1936, although

there was no stampede, and operation of these mines has been continuous

since 1940.

        First Descent In his Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, , Spurr

gives a first-hand account of his descent of South Fork and of the Kuskokwim

itself from its union with South Fork to Kuskokwim Bay.

        Starting up the Sushitna River, Cook Inlet, on May 20, 1898, he

and his companions paddled into the Yentna and from it into the Skwentna to

a point where it became necessary to carry the two remaining canoes and all

equipment and supplies over the divide of the Alaska Range. "We were now,"

he writes, "in an extremely picturesque and rugged region, with high mountains,

deep valleys, and beautiful glaciers." They were, as present maps show us,

019      |      Vol_XII-0625                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

about midway between Mount Dall and Snow Cap Mountain in the Alaska Range,

on what is now called Rainy Pass.

        ¶ Spurr continues: "To get our boats and

outfit over the pass was, however, slower and more difficult, but was finally

accomp [ ?] ished, and we camped by a foaming stream on the other side. The

pass itself is about 4,400 feet above sea l level, and is guarded on both

sides by mountains rising to 8,000 feet." Th [ ?] s "foaming stream" was one

of the headwaters of South Fork, but, since no white man had previously

made this trip, it is not surprising that Spurr mistook it for the Kuskokwim.

        ¶ "The fall of the river was very great, and rapids were continuous," he re–

marks," and in this down-stream traveling our progress was as rapid as it

had before been slow. Much to our surprise, the river turned and began to

run persistently towar d the north between two parallel mountain ridges."

This refers to the section of South Fork above Lake Farewell. "On the

25th of July we emerged from the mountains into a bro a d, flat, gravelly

plateau, and for nearly 100 miles thereafter went through snag flats

similar to those we had ascended on the Sushitna, presenting, if possible,

even a more formidable aspect to the explorer." Spurr and his companions

were now passing across the broad Kuskokwim Valley and approaching the

Kuskokwim itself.

        ¶ "About this time the prolonged rainy season set in,

which lasted six weeks or so, and was perhaps the most disagreeable feature

of the trip, the rain falling almost continuously night and day with short

intervals.

        "¶" On the 29th of July the stream joined another of nearly equal

size [ the Kuskokwim proper ] , these two streams together making up the

main Kuskokwim River ... Below the junction the current was still slack,

and the course of the river was extremely tortuous as it meandered through

a broad flat made up of finely stratified silts ... On the 1st of August we

came to an old trading post known as Vinasale."

        ¶ Only a day below Vinasale . ,

020      |      Vol_XII-0626                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

however, they reached the southern fringes of the Kuskokwim Mountains,

through which the river passes on its way to Napaimiut and Kolmakof. "On

the 2d of August we left the broad flats of the upper river and entered a

definite valley lying between picturesque timbered mountains, in appearance

suggesting the Lower Ramparts of the Yukon. The river continued to run

through these mountains for several hundred miles. On the [ ?] 4th of

August, two days after entering the range, the peaks grew higher and bolder

and some of them bore patches of snow, while the river flowed past high, per–

pendicular, rocky bluffs.

        "¶" Just before entering these higher ramparts the

largest stream which we had yet observed entering the Kuskokwim came in on

the left. It is a wide river of dark-colored water, contrasting in this

with the muddy current of the Kuskokwim, and at the time of our passing

the water was alive with leaping salmon. The native name of this stream

we afterward found out to be Holiknuk [ the present Holitna ] , and that it

heads in the Nushagak divide."

        ¶ The party was now running short of supplies

and they were eager to reach Kolmakof. "On the 6th of August, when we had

already passed the astronomical position in which Kolmakof was indicated on

the Russian charts, we unexpectedly reached the post, which consists of an

old hexagonal log blockhouse with several other log buildings which were

built by the Russians long ago. We found no one here, however, except some

natives and one half-breed, from whom we obtained some tea, which was the

only article left, the supplies for this year not yet having come up the

river.

        "¶" The next day we reached the native village of Oknagamut, where there

were several hundred Eskimos ... After leaving Kolmakof the river rapidly

left the mountains behind and flowed through a perfectly level country, very

sparsely timbered, and always growing broader. The channel broadened out in

places to a veritable sea, with many large islands, we estimated the distance

as 9 miles. The land on both sides grew more and more swampy and treeless

021      |      Vol_XII-0627                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

until it developed into the typical dreary tundra. Eskimo villages grew

more numerous, and at one, Oknavigamut, we found a vacant mission building

and schoolroom, welcome signs of civilized man.

        "¶" On the 10th of August we

arrived at the native village of Memtrelegamut [ the present Bethel ] , where

the natives had informed us that provisions could be obtained, and here we

were surprised and delighted to find, not only a trading post, but a mission

supported by the Moravians. These people made us very welcome, as we were

the first white people they had seen that year, and we stopped several days

making preparations for our future work."

        ¶ At this point Spurr sent some of

his group back to The Portage to map this ancient route between the Kuskokwim

and the Yukon and to continue on down the Yukon. He himself went down the

Kuskokwim with John H. Kilbuck, a Moravian missionary, and one of the

founders of Bethel.

        ¶ Spurr describes this part of the journey in these words:

"Below this mission the Kuskokwim grows very large and begins to be affected

by the tides, and so gradually passes into the broad Kuskokwim Bay. The shores

are barren, swampy, and flat, and with no firewood except scattered drift–

wood ... We left the mission on the 19th of August and reached our destina–

tion at the mouth of the river — Kwinhagamut [ the present Kwinhagak ] — on

the 25th, our progress having been slow on account of the extreme width and

shallowness of the river and the difficulty in finding the proper channel.

The tides too, were so high and the bottom was so flat that when we were

not in the deepest channel the receding tide left us dry, out of sight of

water, while the flood tide lifted us upon a broad sea out of sight of shore."

        This description shows how little the Kuskokwim itself has changed

in the past 50 yars, but how very different were the isolated settlements along

it then from the busy mining, fur farming, and fishing villages of today.

022      |      Vol_XII-0628                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

Summer and winter air service, and regular frequent ligh t erage service up and down the

river during the season of navigation are the two brightest hopes for

the development of the Kuskokwim Basin.

023      |      Vol_XII-0629                                                                                                                  
KUSKOKWIM RIVER

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mertie, J.B., Jr. Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region,

Alaska Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region,

Alaska . Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1936.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 864 - C Bulletin 864 - C )

Spurr, J.E. A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898. A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898.

(Contained in: U.S. Geological Survey. 20th Annual 20th Annual

Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898 Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898 .

Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1900. pp.31-264)

Annabel, Russell. Hunting and fishing in Alaska Hunting and fishing in Alaska . N.Y., Knopf, 1948.

Hrdlicka, Ales. Alaska Diary, 1926-1931 Alaska Diary, 1926-1931 . Lancaster, Pa., Jacques

Cattell Press, 1943.

        General References;

        VSGB

        USCP & Supplement

        Colby. Alaska Alaska .

        Sundborg. Opporunity in Alaska Opporunity in Alaska .

        Tuttle, CharlesR. Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources

its opportunities Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources

its opportunities . Seattle, Wash., Shuey, 1914.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0630                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

20 April 48 NAKNEK, ALASKA

       

200 wds

        NAKNEK, NORTH NAKNEK, and SOUTH NAKNEK, ALASKA, are villages

and post offices at the mouth of the Naknek River, Kvichak Bay, a north–

eastern arm of Bristol Bay. Naknek, a modern community with a population

of about 152 in 1939, has medical facilities, a new hotel, a cold

storage plant and branches of several large canneries including the Red

Salmon Canning Co., Alaska Packers Association, Libby, McNeill & Libby,

and Pacific American Fisheries, Inc. Each of these companies operates

its own radio station. Coal, gasoline, and fuel oil are obtainable

from supplies in the village. Naknek has a 200-ton marine railway

and is connected by trail with Egegik, Koggiung, Dillingham (q.v.),

and other Bristol Bay villages. Unlike most of the fishing communities

in the area, Naknek is inhabited the year around. A U.S.Army weather station was

established here in 1939, a commercial airways radio station at North

Naknek, and a Department of the Interior Station at South Naknek. There

is regular air service from Anchorage (q.v.) and Koggiung, a village

15 miles up the east side of Kvichak Bay.

Sources: VS GB; US CP and suppl.

001      |      Vol_XII-0631                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

21 April 48 NAKNEK LAKE, ALASKA

       

400 wds

        NAKNEK LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska

Peninsula, extends east and west across 156° W. Long. about midway

between 58° and59° N. Lat. It is 40 or 50 miles long and varies in

width from about 5 to 10 miles. The shores are irregular and steep.

The western end of the lake is split in half by a mountain and its

surrounding fringe of lower land into the Bay of Islands and Iliuk

Arm. Iliuk Arm is over 300 feet deep everywhere except close to

shore. Here and elsewhere throughout the lake there are many rocky

and picturesque islands. The north shore of Naknek Lake is marked

by a large, narrow-necked hook of land reaching southward into the lake,

and, a little to the west of this hook, by a smaller spit which

bends eastward toward the outer curve of the hook.

        The lake is fed by many rivers and creeks flowing down to

it from all directions, but particularly by glacier-fed streams rising

in the volcanic mountains of Katmai National Monument (q.v.) in the

Alaska Range to the southeast. The head of Naknek Lake, which lies

just inside the western boundary of the Monument, teems with trout,

24 to 32 inches long. Naknek River (q.v.) drains from the western

end of the lake.

        Savonoski, the only settlement on the lake, lies on the

eastern shore of Iliuk Arm at the mouth of the Savonoski River. It

was reported to have a population of 20, in 1939, although some recent

maps show it as abandoned. Savonoski is on the winter trail which runs

from Katmai, Shelikof Strait, on the northeastern side of the Alaska

Peninsula, northwestward across Katmai National Monument, down the Valley

of Ten Thousand Smokes to Ukak and on to Savonoski. The mountains near

002      |      Vol_XII-0632                                                                                                                  
NAKNEK LAKE, ALASKA

this trail rise from 4000 to 7585 feet and are partially glacier-covered.

The National Geographic Society travelled along this trail in 1915, three

years after the eruption of Katmai Volcano on June 6, 1912. They found

the trail covered with ash and pumice, the floor of the valley broken

by millions of fumaroles, or little vol [ ?] anoes, belching steam, and the

entire area covered with brightly colored mud. Recent visitors to the

region report that the fumaroles, which in time will develop into

geysers similar to those in Yellowstone National Park, are less active

than formerly, but the district is still unsafe for all except hardy

and well trained explorers.

Sources: Baker; USCP & Suppl; VS GB; Sundborg; Colby

001      |      Vol_XII-0633                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

22 April 48 NAKNEK RIVER, ALASKA

       

400 wds

        NAKNEK RIVER, ALASKA, northwestern section of the Alaska

Peninsula, flows from the western end of Naknek Lake into Kvichak

Bay (q.v.), a northeastern extension of Bristol Bay, at a point

about 18 miles south of Koggiung (q.v.). The river is fed from the

north and south by numerous creeks draining a complex system of lakes

which dot the coastal lowlands on this side of the peninsula. For

the first few miles of its approximately 25-mile course the Naknek

is rapid and rocky, but its lower portion is slow and sluggish.

Ascent of the river is difficult because of the rapids at its head,

although the trip can be made without portages. The Naknek, like so

many other rivers on the Alaska Peninsula, originates in a lake,

making it an ideal habitat for the red salmon.

        Several large salmon canneries and their radio stations,

including the Alaska Packers Association, operate in or near Naknek

(q.v.) at the mouth of the river. Although the Naknek has been

called the head of deep water navigation in Bristol Bay, even here the movement

of cannery vessels here is made difficult by the regular appearance

at low tide of banks and flats not only in the river, but for 3 or 4

miles off-shore. All cannery wharves are dry at low water. Only

small vessels drawing about 10 feet can go to the upper canneries,

and they only at hightide. Larger vessels, drawing up to 24 feet,

must anchor off the mouth of the river. The tidal rise at the mouth

is over 20 feet, and tide water is reported to extend several miles

up-river.

        Besides Naknek proper the settlements of North Naknek, South

Naknek, and Pawik are grouped around the mouth of the river. Pawik

002      |      Vol_XII-0634                                                                                                                  
NAKNEK RIVER, ALASKA

is a small native village and cannery on the north side of the

river a few miles up from its mouth. The village has a government

school and a United States deputy marshal. Spurr and Post recorded

the name in 1898, although Pawik is probably the same as the settle–

ment, Pakwik, which appeared in the Eleventh Census of 1890. Early

Russian explorers reported a village of Suworof, on Cape Suworof

which forms the north shore of the mouth of the Naknek River, but this

site is probably now occupied by Naknek, although some maps still show

a town of Suworof just south of Naknek.

Sources: USCP & Suppl; VSGB; Colby, Tewkesbury; VSGB

° Colby, Tewkesbury

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0635                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

22 April 48 NANWHYENUK, LAKE,

ALASKA

       

200 wds

        NANWHYENUK, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the

Alaska Peninsula, lies northwest-southeast across 59° N. Lat.

between 155° and 156° W. Long. It is about 17 miles long and from

2 to 7 miles wide. It is one of the sources for the Alagnak River

(q.v.), which drains from its western end, and is connected by a

small stream with Lake Kulik lying immediately to the east. Accord–

ing to the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey map of November, 1946,

Nanwhyenuk Lake has no tributaries other than the stream connecting

it with Lake Kulik.

        Lake Kulik lies northwest-southeast across 155° W. Long.

just east of Nanwhyenuk Lake. Kulik is a small lake about 11 miles

long and only 1 to 2 miles wide. It is surrounded on all sides

by the foothills of the Alaska Range which rise to 2,000 and 3,000

feet and from which many small streams flow down to feed the lake.

In 1947 no settlement was reported on the banks of Lake Kulik.

Tikhmenief reported this lake as the Kullik, in 1861, and Raymong

called it the Koulakh in 1869.

Sources: VSGB; Baker

° in USCP & Suppl.; Colby, Sundborg

001      |      Vol_XII-0636                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

6 July 1948 NEWENHAM, CAPE

       

372 wds

        NEWENHAM, CAPE, southern Alaska, the extreme tip of an

unnamed peninsula which separates Bristol Bay from Kuskokwim Bay,

is the landfall for this region. It is a level plateau backed by

the rough, sawtooth mountains of the Ahklun Range, which extend

along the peninsula and then northeastward up the coast toward

G oodnews Bay. Cape Newenham, which is both the northern entrance

point to Kuskokwim Bay Bristol Bay and the southern entrance

point to Bristol Bay Kuskokwim Bay, was named by Cook, July 16,

1778, although the natives still call it Cape Black, because of

its color. Seal Rock, a few miles northeastward from Cape Newenham,

was named by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1890. Castle Rock,

the western entrance point to Security Cove, which lies about 9

miles eastward from Cape Newenham, is the tip of a high narrow–

necked spit which forms the eastern side of the Cove. Security

Cove is about 5 miles wide and offers good anchorage in all

except a northwest wind. Chagvan Mountain separates Security Cove

from Chagvan Bay. This bay has a narrow, shoal entrance, shoal

water inside, and is veined with bars which are bare at low tide.

Sarichef first published this name in 1826. The south shore of the

bay is bordered with moderate heights of the Ahklun Range which

stretches northeastward from the head of the bay leaving a wide,

lake-studded region south of the Unaluk River, which joins the

Kinegnak River, a tributary to Chagvan Bay, a few miles from above

its mouth. The Kinegnak River rises in Crater Hill about 14 miles

(airline) northeast of Chagvan Bay, receives several unnamed tribu–

taries from the south, Wind, Fog, Shaw, and Koekukluk Creeks from

the north , and west, and takes a meandering, generally southwesterly

002      |      Vol_XII-0637                                                                                                                  
NEWENHAM, CAPE

course to Chagvan Bay. Kinegnak, a small native settlement with

a population of about 20 in 1939, lies at the junction of the Unaluk and

Kinegnak Rivers. The area between Chagvan Bay and Goodnews Bay

(q.v.), where platinum deposits were discovered in 1927, is

mountainous and threaded with tiny streams and creeks.

        USCP & Suppl.

        VS GB

        Baker

        U.S. Dept. of Mines. Mineral Resources, 1945.

        Colby - Tewkesbury - Sundborg

001      |      Vol_XII-0638                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins 2796 wds

50 wds - Gce

September, 1948 NIUKLUK RIVER

        NIUKLUK RIVER Alaska, in southeastern Seward Peninsula, the largest western tributary to the Fish River ,(See Golovnin Bay Region)

in southeastern Seward Peninsula, drains an area of 825 square miles , which

nearly equals the size of the Fish River basin above its junction with the

Niukluk.

        ¶ Niukluk is the Eskimo name for this stream and has been

variously written Nea-kluk, Neukluk, etc., whereas the Western Union

[ ?] Telegraph Expedition map of 1867 identified it as the Icathluik. The

members of this expedition were the first white men to explore the Niukluk,

and they reported, upon their return, the existence of gold in the area,

but it was not until 25 years later, after this same gold had been redis–

covered several times without being worked , that Daniel B. Libby and his party established

the Eldorado Mining District in the vicinity of Ophir Creek, an eastern

tributary to the Niukluk, thereby founding Council and opening up one of

the richest gold-mining areas on Seward Peninsula. To add to the confusion

concerning the name of this river, Dall called it the Fish River in 1869,

which identification it kept for over 30 years, when it was finally and

properly designated as the Niukluk.

        Like the Fish, although farther west, the Niukluk rises in an

extremely mountainous area, carves a course through glaciated valleys,

then passes across a mountain-locked valley, once again enters a mountainous

region, and finally emerges on the coastal tundra to jo i n the Fish River

from the west.

        ¶ The headwaters of the Niukluk drain from the southeastern

watersheds of 3,760-foot Mount Bendeleben. The main river trends south–

westward for about 13 miles, then veers abruptly southeastward, which

direction it maintains for the duration of its course. At this turn the

Niukluk is joined by the Libby River from the west, which flows down from

the western watersheds of Mount Bendeleben and which receives West Fork

a few miles above its junction with the Niukluk. Farther down this

early lowland section , of the Niukluk receives American Creek and its

        27 [ls?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0639                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

largest tributary, Casadepaga River, from the west, and Post Creek

from the east. The Casadapega rises in the mountains to the southwest

and flows in a generally northeasterly direction , just north of the divide

separating it from the Solomon River (q.v.) system , for about 27 miles to the

Niukluk.

        ¶ The Casadepaga receives the waters of many short tributaries some

of which have proven to be important gold streams. These are: Lower

Willow, and its tributary Wilson Creek, Canyon, with its tributary

Texas Creek; Goose, with its tributary Quartz Creek; Dixon and Bonanza Creeks,

from the west, and Willow, Johnson, Curtis, Ruby, Banner, Penelope,

Spence, Big Four, and No Man Creeks from the east.

        ¶ In the mountainous

section below the Casadepaga, the Niukluk is joined from the north by

Goldbottom, Sweetcake, Ophir, and Melsing Creeks. Warm Creek runs

into Goldbottom; North Branch, Oxide, Snowball, and Dutch Creeks contribute

to the Ophir system; and Melsing receives Eclipse and Basin Creeks, from

the east . Along this same mountain section, the Niukluk receives the

waters of Elkhorn, Foster, Camp, Bennett, Richter, and Holyoke Creeks.

During the last 10 miles of its course, again in the lowlands, it is

joined by Bear River, from the west, with Trout Creek as an early

tributary, and by Mystery Creek from the east.

        Council, formerly dignified with the name Council City, is

the distribution center of one of the richest mining communities in Seward

Peninsula. The town is situated at the mouth of Melsing Creek, which enters

the Niukluk a few miles below Ophir Creek. Council City was founded in the

late fall of 1897 by Daniel P. Libby and his three companions,Louis Melsing,

Harry L. Blake, and A. P. Mordaunt. Libby had been with the party of the

Western Union Telegraph Company Expedition of 1865-66 which, under the

        26 lo

003      |      Vol_XII-0640                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

leadership of Baron Otto von Bendeleben, traveled up Golovnin Bay, the

Fish, and Niukluk Rivers and so across the divide to the Kruzgamepa River,

in search of a good route for the proposed United States-to-Europe telegraph

line. The plan had been to run the line across Canada, Alaska, Bering Sea,

and Siberia to Europe. The successful laying of the second Atlantic cable

voided this plan , and the Western Union Expedition members were recalled —

but Libby never forgot the colors and the likely-looking gravel banks of

the Fish River country. Over 25 years later, despite his age, and inspired by

the recent Klondike strikes on the Yukon, he returned to Golovnin Bay with

his three partners, and, guided by the Eskimo, Tom Guarick, he repeated his

journey up the Fish and Niukluk Rivers to the mouth of the stream which he

named Melsing Creek.

        ¶ Between here and Ophir Creek the Libby party spent

the winter of 1897-98. By spring they had thoroughly prospected the

entire area and had discovered and staked all the richest claims on both

streams. They built the first white man's residence on the site of the

present town of Council, patterning it after an Eskimo snowhouse, and

registered the Eldorado Mining District (now Council District), which proved

to be one of the richest gold mining sections of all Seward Peninsula.

Libby and his companions were already working their claims when the Anvil

Creek strike, in the Nome District, was made late in 1898. Because of its

in accessibility from Seattle, Nome burst from a collection of native

huts into a roaring tent city of 18,000 people [ ?] n two years, but Council,

because of its inaceessibility during the summer months, when mining is

possible but overland travel almost impossible, grew at a more reasonable

and healthy rate.

        ¶ Writing in 1905, E.S. Harrison says: "Council District

is unlike the Nome country in that it is forested. In the entire Nome District

there is not a tree, nor a shrub other than willow. In the Council District

there is plenty of spruce timber for domestic use. The mines of Ophir

004      |      Vol_XII-0641                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

Creek are among the most valuable in Northwestern Alaska. There are places

where the pay-streak is 700 feet wide, and the gravel de [ ?] posit twenty feet

deep. Ophir Creek and its tributaries have produced a total of about

$4,500,000 of gold. Although this creek contains very rich mineral deposits

mining operations by crude methods were not successful. The early conditions

with which the miner had to cope made it impossible for him to conduct his

business so as to obtain the profits that should come from ground containing

such high values. He found it necessary to dig ditches so as to provide

water supply, to use machinery and entail expenses not h within the mea n s of

the ordinary prospector. The first operations on Ophir Creek were not profit–

able and claims containing vast values were sold at moderate prices. Most

of this creek is owned by the Wild Goose Mining and Trading Co. This

company acquired the property by purchase paying a large sum for it. But

the company has extracted from one mine, No. 15 Ophir, a sum more than

twice as large as it paid for its entire holdings on the creek. The company

has con structed near forty miles of ditches to bring water with which to

wash the gravels of its Ophir Creek property. The main ditch is the largest

in Seward Peninsula and is big enough to float a small river steamboat.

        "Besides Ophir Creek the other gold bearing streams of this

region are Dutch, Snowball, Albion, Crooked, Sweetcake, Warm, E o lkhorn,

Goldbottom, Richter, Neukluk, Melsing, Mystery, Oxide, I & L. Big Four,

Willow, Ruby, Goose, Quartz, Canyon, Boulder, Dixon, Dry, Damson, Banner,

Johnson, Sunshine, Curtiss, Kingsley and Camp. So far as has been discovered

Ophir Creek has the distinction of having the largest pay streak of any stream

in Alaska."

        24 [ ls ?]

005      |      Vol_XII-0642                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

        .In 1900, having left the confusion

and disappointment of Nome behind them, Lanier McKee and his companions

arrived at Council City on July 19. McKee wrote: "At last ... on rounding

one of the many curves of the river, Council City, in the bright evening

sunlight, burst upon the view, the prettiest, best sight that we had seen

in Alaska. The peculiar light seemed to magnify it, to make it stand out

        66

006      |      Vol_XII-0643                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

very clear and distinct. There is a sudden high plateau, terminating

abrupt and sheer at the stream in a rocky cliff some thirty or forty feet high,

bare for the most part, but covered here and there with a growth of moss

and sh [ r ?] ubbery. This elevation tapers down to the level of the stream,

where the little camp of miners marks, at the east, the point where Melsing

Creek flows into the Neukluk, and also falls off at the west, where the

large camp or general reservation is found, free ground for all. Along

the plateau and beyond — a sprawling, scattered collection of log cabins,

saloons, and dance-halls, with here and there a sod house or tent — is

Council city. Back of it, to the north and west, along the foot of a bleak

mountain which seems to shelter the camp, is the narrow belt of invaluable

timber. The river-bed here is perhaps a hundred yards wide, but at that

time the greater part of it was visible, the stream breaking above and

coming down in two rapid, narrow forks touching each side of the shore.

Across the river and the bar, and following its course, is a long stretch

of tundra reaching out for several miles to low and barren mountains in the

south and west. In a straight line southwest, over the tundra and moun–

tains, it is said to be eighty or a hundred miles to Nome." But McKee

had come by the only possible summer route — by steamer from Nome to

Golovnin, by lighter up the Fish River to White Mountain,and then by

poling and towing the last 25 or 30 miles upstream to Council. Despite the fact that the first and richest gold depositsin all Seward Peninsula were discovered at Council in 1868, its This ex–

treme inaccessibility Of Council was one of the reasons for its 'safe and

sane' development as contrasted with the stampede to the seacost town

of Nome where gold was discovered in the fall of 1868. Harrison

gives a good description of Council as it appeared in 1905. "Council

City," he writes, "is second in importance of the towns of the peninsula,

and is the seat of the recorder's office for the Council District. It is

        28 [ ls ?]

007      |      Vol_XII-0644                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

on the northern side of the Neukluk River about ten miles from its confluence

with Fish River, and inland from Cheenik about sixty miles. It has been built on

a bench of 'the stream which forms a natural townsite, furnishing splendid

drainage and being of such elevation as to secure safety in case of high

water and ice gorges for which the Neukluk is noted. When the town was first

established it was in the midst of a spruce forest, but construction of

buildings and the need [ ?] of fuel have caused the destruction of the

surrounding timber, until the clearing in which Council City is situated has

become so large that available timber is no longer near at hand.

        "The population of Council City in the winter time is about 600. The

town has two churches, a Presbyterian and a Catholic; a public school, and

Camp No. 11 of the Arctic Brotherhood, a Northland fraternal order. The

business establishments during the winter of 1903-04, consisted of seven

stores, two hotels, two hospitals, one drug store, one lumber yard and

eleven saloons."

        One of the most difficult mining problems at that time was

getting mining equipment to the gold. A river bed was the nearest approach

to a road anywhere in Alaska, and M m iners were paying $200 to $300 a ton for

the transporting of supplies overland by teams and wagons. In the summer–

time, wagon wheels and horses both sank feet deep into the bog-like tundra,

and teamsters were happiest when wading along streams or lifting their wagons

over huge boulders in the bed of a creek which promised to lead them where

they wanted to go. Because of these conditions early demands were made

for railroads, and many narrow-gage roads were built, but one of the

first standard gage lines was the Council City and Solomon River

Railroad which, in 1905, already had 16 miles of track laid and in use.

operation. ← Before the Federal tax of $100 per mile, the coast of fuel,

and the reduction in mine output combined to discourage further railroad

008      |      Vol_XII-0645                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

construction, this line ran for 33 miles, the Golovnin Bay Railroad

for 7 miles, and the Seward Peninsula Railroad for 97 miles. However, all

these efforts were a bandoned, and as late as 1942 there were still only

two railroads in operation in all of Alaska, the Alaska Railroad with

470.3 miles of main line, and the White Pass & Yukon, with 20.4 miles

of track. Neither of these serves Seward Peninsula. By 1925, on the

other hand, A.W. Greely reported the existence of 16 roads aggregating

50 miles in length for all of Seward Peninsula, and the flagging, with

sturdy pieces of red flannel on sticks, of 500 miles of winter trails.

"The flagging of winter trails," he remarks, "in this bleak and treeless

tundra country has rendered travel in the winter darkness, during periods

of storm, much less hazardous. The difficulties of safe travel on Seward

Peninsula are very gre a t during the period of winter and almost sunless

days over a gently rolling, unbroken tundra, where there is no tree, bush,

or even stone to mark the trail or relieve the unvarying monotony. In

earlier years scores of bewildered travellers have wondered from the dim,

snow-covered trail and miserably perished in the winter blizzards."

        The exhaustion of the easily reclaimed placer gold in the

Council area, as everywhere else, the inaccessiblity of the district both

by land and water, the necessity of diverting vast quantities of water

into intricate systems of ditches in order to get sufficient elevation to

run hydraulic mining machinery, the placing of gold on the "non-essential"

list during World War II, and the ever-rising cost of labor have combined

over the years to reduce mining activity in the Council area. The

Wild Goose Mining Company, famous throughout the peninsula for pioneering work

in the building of ditches to supply hydraulics with a reliable,

all-season water-supply, was one of the 8 dredges still in operation in

1919, but in 1946 only four companies were working the area.

009      |      Vol_XII-0646                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

The reported 1939 population of Council was only 48, but the town had certain

facilities such as a Territorial school, post-office, general store,

roadhouse, and fish saltery. The modern answer to the transportation

problem is a 1,200-foot wheeled p o l ane landing strip at Council with

another of equal size a few miles up Melsing Creek. A net work of

winter trails from Golovnin and Norton Bays to the southeast, Bluff, Solomon,

and Nome to the southwest, and Kotzebue Sound to the north converge at

Council.

        The future of the Council District is far from hopeless.

In addition to the coming of the airplane, Philip Smith, dean of Alaskan

geologists, states that not half the gold in Alaska has yet been dis–

covered and that much less than that has been taken out of the ground.

Many large large areas of known mineralization on Seward Peninsula,

particularly around Council, have not been worked because of the still

troublesome transportation difficulties. Frank Whaley, one of the most

famous and reliable of Alaska's aviators, and a miner in his own right,

thinks he has the final solution to g etting the gold out of the tundra

of Seward Peninsula . with a technique which, H h e calls this technique 'Operation Helicopter.'

Whaley defines the problem as a race against time. The Seward Peninsula

miner has about 100 days out of the year when the partial thawing of the

permafrost layer s makes it possible for him to dig the ground. During

these 100 days the miner must travel into the wilds, decide on a particular

creek, haul supplies to the spot, and dig as many test holes as time

allows. As soon as the ground freezes again in the fall, the miner is

through work until next year's season. 'Operation Helicopter' would bring

a team of prospectors, geologists, and mining engineers to a previously

air-surveyed likely stretch of tundra, supply them with walkie-talkies,

pick up and carry geologists and engineers to sites which any of the pros–



010      |      Vol_XII-0647                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

pectors reported as promising, and in this way complete a detailed examina–

tion of a large area in one working season. Any company planning to mane

gold in this manner would naturally need considerable capital as well as

a group of picked prospectors and scientists well-grounded in Alaskan

mining problems, additional camp personnel to free these men from all

time-consuming chores in camp, at least two helicopters, and a supply [ ?] and

spare-part base not more than 200 miles (ideally considerably less) from

the main prospecting activities. Whaley believes that this is the mining

technique of the future. If it succeeds, it will, of course, be in the

hands of large, already well-established companies, and the day of the

solitary prospector who packed his own supplies over the bog-like tundra,

panned a stream, perhaps made a strike, staked claims for himself, his

parents, sisters, brothers, and assorted relatives at home (for every

miner had power of attorney in the early days), and returned to civilization

over the refrozen tundra a rich man — those days will have disappeared

permanently into the pages of the history books on about Seward Peninsula.

011      |      Vol_XII-0648                                                                                                                  
NIUKLUK RIVER

        Sources:

        Tewkesbury

        V.S.G.B.

        Colby

        Sundborg

        Hilseher, Herbert H. Alaska Now. Alaska Now. Boston, Little,Brown, 1948

        Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., Scribner, 1925.

        McKee, Lanier. Land of Nome Land of Nome . N.Y., Grafton (c1902)

        Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula: a book of information Nome and Seward Peninsula: a book of information

[ ?] about Northwestern Alaska. about Northwestern Alaska. Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan

Press, c1905.

        Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough . Norman,

Oklahoma, Univ. of Oklahoma press, 1945.

        French, L.H. Seward's Land of Gold. Seward's Land of Gold. N.Y., Montross, Clarke & Emmons (n.d.)

        French, L.H. Nome Nuggets. Nome Nuggets. N.Y., Montross, 1901.

001      |      Vol_XII-0649                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

        4,862 words Text

100 words, Bibl.

        THE NOATAK RIVER, tributary to the northern end of Hotham

Inlet, which measures with an airline length of 220 airline miles from head to mouth, but whose an actual

course has been estimated at over 500 miles, is, next to the Kobuk, one of

the most extensive rivers in northwestern Alaska.

        In the main the river trends westward from a valley divide

in the midst of the Endicott and Schwatka Mountains at about 155° W. Long.

to about 162° W. Long. where it bends sharply southward to Hotham Inlet.

Relief One of the notable features of the Noatak is the variability

of the terrain through which it travels, the basin allowing

of division into six topographically distinct regions. These are: the headwater

mountains; the Aniuk Lowland; the second highland; the Mission Lowland; the

Igichuk Hills, and the coastal lowland.

        The mountains overlooking the first sixty or seventy miles

of the river rise to over 8,000 feet, with a peak 8,800 feet high only about

five miles south of its headwaters. From a stee p -sided cut in the mountains,

the river pushes northwestward until the valley is perhaps two or three

miles wide, the course of the stream meandering, and its bed increased to a

width of about three hundred feet. Some small glaciers, none more than one or

two miles long, are known to exist in this part of the Schwatka Mountains,

but never below an elevation of 5,000 feet.

        There are several passes from the Alatna to this headwater

section of the Noatak, one by Lucky Six Pass, and another by Gull Pass. The

pass used by the 1911 Geological Survey expedition is about 1,000 feet above

the Noatak and only about eight or nine miles long (airline). The total

distance between boatin g water on the Alatna and the head of canoe navigation

on the Noatak by way of this pass is only about eleven and one-half miles, so

that this route is particularly suitable for a canoe portage. Gull pass is

002      |      Vol_XII-0650                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

at least 1,000 feet higher and much longer.

        Opposite the mouth of Lucky Six Creek there is a pass into

Reed River, a tributary to the Kobuk. This pass is steep and difficult, but

horses may be taken over it.

        For the next seventy or more miles the mountains recede from

the river leaving a valley ten to thirty-five miles wide known as the Aniuk Low–

land. The river here turns more nearly westward and attains a width of one–

eighth of a mile, all the while sweeping around large angular bends and

twisting through numberless smaller meanders at a velocity of two to three

miles per hour. an hour.

        Small boats may navigate this section of the river without

difficulty except during periods of very low water, when exposed boulders in

the river bed cause dangerous rapids, or when [ ?] periods of high water transform

this section into a swift torrent.

        McLenegan gives a remarkable description of his one-day

descent of 150 miles of this Aniak Lowland section in a frantic but finally

successful effort to reach a cache of food , left far downstream on the river

bank , before the water should have risen and carried it away.

        "Rocks which before were plainly visible," he wrote, "were

now partly hidden by the flood, and every faculty was required to avert con–

stantly impending destruction. In places of this kind the speed at which we

traveled left no time for debate; an obstruction was no sooner sighted than

we were upon it. Now resting on our paddles while borne swiftly along, the

next moment we were straining every muscle to avoid the rocks which suddenly

loomed up ahead and towards which we were dashing with locomotive speed. In

places where the rocks were entirely submerged, the canoe seemed to be drawn

toward them by some irresistible force, and before we learned to detect these

places we had more than one escape from disaster. My fears in regard to the

003      |      Vol_XII-0651                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

cache were greatly increased by finding those of the natives in very precarious

situations, a fact which proved the flood to be almost unprecedented in extent...

The rain continued at intervals during the day, and from the appearance of the

banks it was evident the river had not reached the high-water mark...The long

twilight of the Arctic summer fell upon us we entered the flats through which

the Noatak flows before entering the Mountains beyond.

        "To my dismay, however, the river was found to spread over the

entire section...The main channel, on [ ?] the banks of which the cache lay,

could not be distinguished...Thus we drifted onward, tired and despondent, when,

about a half mile below, a clump of willows was seen, around and through which

the waters of the swollen river were washing...As we were borne swiftly by I

recognized the spot, and with an exclamation of joy we dropped our paddled and

grasped the overhanging boughs to check the mad career of the canoe. A moment

later the precious burden was lashed to the bidarka, and we determined to seek

the first suitable place for camping."

        Under normal conditions, the river, having incised its bed,

lies below the general level of the flat valley bottom and is hammed in by steep

gravel walls from fifty to two hundred feet high. Even so, it floods out over

the plain in some places and, in others, abandoned courses are preserved as

lakes.

        Still farther downstream the Baird Mountains on the south and

the Brooks and De Long Mountains on the north constrict the river valley to

only a few miles in width. This mountainous topography, which rises to heights

of two and three thousand feet, extends along the river for another six ty or

more miles forming the second highland district of the Noatak.

        This part of the river is form one-eighth to one-quarter of

a mile wide and, although it bends abruptly in several places, there are no

well-developed meanders since the stream here is in a comparatively youthful

004      |      Vol_XII-0652                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

stage. Gravel terraces from fifty to one hundred feet high overlook the

river, and higher terraces also occur although they are not so noticeable.

A narrow canyon, perhaps six hundred to eight hundred feet deep, with rocky walls

on both sides, constricts the western end of this part of the river. Currents

in the canyon are swift, and the water deep. During heavy rains, the water

level rises rapidly above the canyon but falls again quickly, the differential

sometimes being as great as eight feet in a single day. It was such a

partially-dammed flood as this which swept McLenegan down-river at such speed

in August of 1885.

        Below the canyon, which is only a few miles from 162° W.Long.,

the Noatak bends southward and enters another lowland area about fifty miles

long and from twenty to thirty miles wide. This is the Mission Lowland.

The Baird Mountains bound this region on the north, and the Igichuk Hills inter–

rupt it on the south. The braided and meandering river bed is here surrounded by

a lake-strewn exp a n se at the most only a few hundred feet above the level of

the river.

        "The river now widened," wrote McLenegan,"into a stream of

twice its ordinary breadth, dotted with islands, and covering a vast tract of

plains...The banks are very low, and the river presented a perfect maze of

channels, none of which are well defined or apparently of permanent character...

At this time [ July ] the river was at a very high stage. Later, however,

many of these channels become dry and the Noatak is confined to a definite bed."

        The Igichuk Hills, trending east and west athwart the direc–

tion of the river, attain heights of from 1500 to 2000 feet and persist for

between five and fifteen miles. On the east these hills join those south

of the Squirrel River (q.v.), in the Kobuk system, which in turn are part

of the Baird Mountains. To the west the Igichuk Hills dwindle to nothing

in the vicinity of Cape Krusenstern. Above one thousand feet they are bare

005      |      Vol_XII-0653                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

rock, affording a great choice of landmarks for travellers to the region.

        The Noatak cuts this range in another narrow gorge between

400 and 600 feet deep, where the rough bedrock projects into and above the

river in fantastic forms and pinnacles.

        Escaping from the hills, the Noatak makes a wide meander

across the low coastal plain before entering the northern end of H otham Inlet.

This plain is hardly more than 200 feet above sea level and is often submerged

by the waters of Kotzebue Sound during periods of high water.

        With the exception of the last two miles of the river, this

plain retains its truly coastal nature and does not assume that of a delta.

For its final two miles, however, the Noatak splits up into distributaries,

although it may not in any sense be said to have developed a delta comparable

to that of the Kobuk (q.v.). Lakes and marshes, both delta characteristics,

do occur in great numbers on both sides of the river for ten miles above its

mouth, but, on the other hand, the braided and meandering river bed is here

surrounded by a lake-strewn expanse gravel benches fifty or more feet

in height appear as far downstream as the first distributary. This plain is

of marine origin, having been laid down under water, uplifted, and later partly

dissected.

        Near the river the plain is fairly well drained, but farther

away from the stream the thawing of the surface during the summer makes of it an

almost impassable morass. As would be expe cted, the entire Noatak region is

within the permafrost zone (q.v.).

        Throughout this coastal section, the Noatak is about one

mile wide, with a gentle current, and very few islands or sand bars. Although

it is nowhere remarkably deep, it carries a depth of from twe n l ve to fifteen

feet in the channel.

006      |      Vol_XII-0654                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

        With careful navigation of the channels at its entrance,

where the Noatak is extremely shallow, the river will carry launches drawing

three feet or a little more as far upstream as Noatak settlement, but above

this point the stream is particularly blocked by boulders, although small

[ ?] launches have ascended to a point just above the upper canyon, and canoes

may complete the ascent of the river. Because of the strength of the current

everywhere except for a few miles above the mouth, very little progress can

be made upstream by rowing or sailing, but the trip is possible [ if ?] tracking

is frequently resorted to by tracking.

Tributaries Lucky Six Creek, one of the earliest tributaries to the

Noatak, heads near Gull pass, the name for the above-mentioned

portage to the Alatna. Portage Creek also flows in from the east a few miles

below Lucky Six. About twenty-five miles (airline) below this point, the

Ipmiluik enters from the south, and, a little over ten miles farther downstream,

Midas Creek comes in from the north. A great many other tributaries join the

Noatak throughout this first mountainous stretch of its course, , but their

names do not appear on recent maps.

        Aniuk River (q.v.), the first major affluent to the Noatak,

enters that stream from the north a few miles east of 158° W.Long., 68° N.Lat.,

and gives its name to the first lowland section of the main river. Cutler

River flows in from the south a little over ten miles below the Aniuk, and the

Nimiuk, sometime called Indian River, enters some forty or fifty miles

downstream near the eastern en d of the first lowland section. The mouth of

the N imiuk lies on 160° W.Long. It is reported that for more than five

miles above its junction with the Noatak, the Nimiuk splits up into a maze

of channels separated by low sandy islands.

        Stoney called the Cutler, Caribou River, but this name was not

published until after the other had already been adopted. The Cutler carries

007      |      Vol_XII-0655                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

at least half as much water as does the Noatak above its junction with the Cutler this confluence,

and drains an extensive region between the Noatak and the Kobuk.

        Between this point and the canyon at the end of this second

mountainous section of the Noatak, a great many small mountain torrents enter

both from the north and the south, but they are still nameless on modern maps.

← Just east of 162° W.Long., the Kugururok (q.v.) comes in

from the north. The valley of this river would seem to be the dividing line

between the Brooks and De Long Mountains .

        The only named tributaries to the Mission Lowland section of

the Noatak are Kelly River from the north, some ten miles below the mouth of

the Kugururok, and the Agashashok from the east, just above the Igichuk Hills.

        The Agashashok heads far back in the Baird Mountains and

probably receives some water from the western side of these hills as well.

For a considerable distance across the Mission Lowlands, it flows almost

parallel with the Noatak, until that stream suddenly swings eastward just

above the Igichuk Hills to meet the [ ?] Agashashok.

        There are relatively few affluents to the Noatak throughout in

the Mission Lowland district because the pox of lakes and marshes throughout

the area so effectively drains the surrounding countryside as to make the

formation of a stream almost impossible.

        The Igichuk Hills are so narrow and low that they afford only

a small run-off, with the consequence that streams tributary to this part of

the Noatak are short and small. The only named affluent is the Igichuk River,

which enters the Noatak from the east. The Igichuk has an over-all length

of only fifteen or twenty miles. At the point at which it enters the Noatak,

that river is so sluggish that the Igichuk has built up a small delta.

        There is one fairly large tributary coming in from the east

below the Igichuk Hills, but it is not named. Whatever other tiny tributaries

008      |      Vol_XII-0656                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

there may be to may join this coastal section of the Noatak are un charted on recent

maps.

        Vegetation and Animal Life The vegetation in the Noatak basin is typically arctic and

sub-arctic.

        Entering the Noatak from Hotham Inlet, McLenegan, of the

Corwin expedition of 1885, noticed "a scattered growth of Arctic willows

extending to the water's edge, and an occasional spruce." A scant four miles

farther upstream, where the banks become higher and therefore better drained,

timber became more prevelent, although it was still stunded.

        Willow, alder, and poplar bushes are common in the lowland

sections bordering the river, but, as the elevation increases, vegetation

decreases until even the hardiest grasses disappear from the steepest slopes

and from the peaks of the mountains. The natives use the scrubby bushes

fringing the lowland waterways to make the frameworks for their huts.

        Spruce, averaging about eight inches in diameter, appears

for the first time along the Noatak j ust a few miles east of the canyon in

the vicinity of 162° W.Long. This growth of timber continues downstream as a

narrow fringe on the banks of the river to a point about half way between the

Igichuk Hills and the mouth of the river. Throughout the remainder of the

Noatak valley, spruce is completely absent. This is in marked contrast

to the Kobuk region, immediately to the south, which has a growth of spruce

along its entire length. The absence of timber on the Noatak is a handicap

to the development of the mineral resources of the region, since all building

material must be brought in from Outside. Smith remarks that the existence

of permafrost throughout this area is not a dominating influence on the

growth or lack of timber, since "spruce may be seen growing almost immediately

on top of clear ice."

        The valley grass down does not supply as much nourishment

009      |      Vol_XII-0657                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

as that of the lower hill slopes and is not suitable for the permanent

pasturage of pack animals. Like much of the grass along the Squirrel (q.v.),

to the south, it is heavily weighted with water and supplies only a small

percentage of food value in comparison with its bulk.

        In 1911, the United States government introduced a herd of

reindeer between the mouth of the Noatak and Cape Krusenstern, the northern

entrance point to Kotzebue Sound. This herd found the supply [ ?] of

reindeer moss in this locality sufficient for survival.

        Blueberries, cranberries, currants, and salmon berries are

most plentiful in the lowlands, and furnish an important part of the local

food supply to whites and natives alike. The natives are particularly apt to

freeze great quantities of these berries for use during the winter, and they

sometimes allow them to freeze on the bushes, after which they can be knocked

off with clubs and more easily cleaned of leaves and twigs.

        From his observations on the 1911 Geological Survey expedition,

Smith concluded that game was, on the whole, more abundant in the Noatak than

in the Alantna region.

        Sheep are so numerous in the headwater mountains that natives

from as far away as the Kobuk travel over the mountains to this region every

year for their winter meat supply. The name Ipmiluik, which identifies one of

the rivers of this region section , is said to mean "sheep." On their annual hunting

trips, many natives use this river in order to reach the Noatak from the Kobuk.

Smith also reports seeing some wolverine as well as fox, mink, and squirrel

in these mountains.

        Kobuk natives also come to the Anuik Lowland to hunt caribou.

Fox, marten, and wolves also inhabit this part of the river valley. Although

Smith himself did not see any game birds there, he noticed great piles of

ptarmigan bones around the many hawks' nests which he examined, proving that

010      |      Vol_XII-0658                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

they did exist in the neighborhood.

        Downstream from the second highland, the caribou and

sheep disappear, but bear become fairly numerous. Great numbers of game birds,

such as ptarmigan, ducks, geese, and cranes, are obvious even to the human

predator in this Mission Lowland section. Smith also reports seeing crowds

of seal in the shallow waters of this part of the Noatak, "looking at a distance,"

he adds, "like masses of sand."

        Salmon, grayling, and trout are found in the Noatak but not

in as great numbers as exist in the Kobuk. Most of the Noatak natives go

down to Kotzebue (q.v.) during the salmon run in order to lay in a supply of

fish for the winter.

        Climate Temperatures on the Noatak do not differ appreciably from

those on the Kobuk (q.v.), except in so far as they may be

a few degrees cooler the year around.

        No complete records have been kept on the climate of the

Noatak region, since the Weather Bureau has never opened a station there, but

it would appear that the highest readings occur during June, July, and

August, and may reach the mid-eighties, while the most extreme low temperatures

occur during January and F ebruary, when the mercury has been known to fall to

ࢤ50° F. or even somewhat lower.

        McLenegan has much more to say about the cold from which he

suffered during August of 1885 than from any extraordinary heat, but it would

appear that that particular summer was unusually rainy and windy. These two

circumstances, combined with the fact that he and his companion spent a large

amount of time wading in the icy waters of the river itself, might explain his

[ ?] giving such a wintry description of the Noatak summer.

        Without any dou b t temperatures in different parts of the

Noatak basin would differ greately at all times of year. Those at Noatak,

011      |      Vol_XII-0659                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

for instance, since they would be steadied by the large bodies of water

relatively nearby, would have a smaller range than those in the upper moun–

tainous section hundreds of miles inland. Extremely high or low temperatures

always occur in the interior of a country protected either by distance o r

an intervening mountain chain from the regulatory effect of some large body

of water, be it gulf, lake, or ocean.

        The precipitation curve on the Noatak is similar to that

on the Kobuk. Summer precipitation in the form of rain is heaviest during

July and August, dropping off sharply in September. Smith estimated that of the

sixty-four days which he spent in the Alatna-Noatak district, rain fell during

thirty-seven of them.

        Precipitation in the form of snow begins in September and

continues into June, the largest amount falling in November and December, with

a considerably lighter but persistent fall throughout the next six months.

McLenegan noted that snow remained on some of the higher peaks the year around.

        Total precipitation for the year averages between fifteen

and seventeen inches, but the countryside is exactly the opposite of the aid

waste such a low record would seem to imply. Smith explains this circumstance

in the following words: "A region of small precipitation is usually pictured

as devoid of water, but in northern Alaska water is almost everywhere. The sur–

face of the country during the summer is commonly wet and swampy, and water

stands on the surface in ponds and lakes. The streams, unless they traverse a

broad belt of limestone, show no marked diminution of volume but constantly

increase in size toward their lower courses. All these features are due in

large measure to the permanently frozen condition of the subsoil, which makes

removal of surface water by percolation and by underground migration impossible.

        "Furthermore, the low elevation of the sun, even during the

summer, prevents rapid evaporation. The rainfall or snowfall thus stands on the

012      |      Vol_XII-0660                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

sur f ace or collects in the low areas where the slope is not sufficient to

induce surface run-off. Then again, the upper 6 to 18 inches of the frozen

zone melts during the summer and thus produces wet, soggy footing that is most

unlike any preconceived idea of a dry country. Furthermore, the precipation does

not come in deluging cloud-bursts, separated by long intervals of low precipitation

as in the countries more often referred to as arid, but comes in numerous light

showers or heavy mists. As illustrative of this condition may be cited the

experience of travelers in this general region."

        The conditions here described pertain not only to the Noatak,

but to great stretches of Alaska where permafrost (q.v.) exists but becomes partially

thawed during the summer.

        Settlements Although certain of the tributaries to the Noatak have settle–

ments on their banks, there are none on the main river above

Noatak (67° 34′ N.Lat., 163° W.Long.), a little over fifty miles (airline) up

from the mouth.

        As late as 1911, this settlement was known as Noatak Mission,

because of the establishment of a Friends' mission there. The two town was

located on a gravel terrace on the west bank and consisted of a church, a school–

house, a nd several sturdily built cabins. Most of the inhabitants, both white

and Eskimo, spent the summer months trading and fishing in the vicinity of

Kotzebue, or fishing farther up the Naotak itself, but the population resumed

residence of the village for the rest of the year. Smith estimated in 1911

that less than one hundred white people lived in the basin of the Noatak,

even after including the large town of Kotzebue, and that not over 250 natives

lived along the Noatak and Alatna river the combined native population of

the Noatak and Alatna basins did not exceed 250. This indicated a population

of one person for every fifty square miles of territory.

        By 1930, Noatak had dropped the word "Mission" from its name

013      |      Vol_XII-0661                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

and had assumed some of the characteristics of a permane nt village. It was

by this time a strictly Eskimo settlement, with a population of several

hundred. The school, supported by the U.S. Bureau of Education, was run by

two very competent Eskimos and had an attendance of about forty pupils. The

reindeer herd still existed in the neighborhood and was cared for by several

native herders. The little town had two stores carrying a small stock of

supplies, one a so-called "native" store operating in Connection with the

reindeer business, and the other a branch of a Kotzebue store.

        Smith, writing in 1930, remarks that the Noatak basin

contains very few signs of abandoned town sites. One such would seem to have

been Anuik, at the mouth of the strems of that name, another Shotkoaluk, about ten

miles above Aniuk, and another Nimiuk, near the stream leading to Riley Pass.

        According to the 1939 Census, Noatak had a population of

336, an Alaska Native Service school, the Friends' Mission, which has been

there so long,a post office, a general store, and a 1500-foot landing strip.

        Mining As late as 1911, gold had been found only in the headwater

region of the Noatak and there only in two small areas. One

placer was then at work on Lucky Six Creek.

        Gold had first been discovered there in 1898, and many small

parties had visited the region from that time forward, but the extreme

inaccessibility of the region, the briefness of the summer, and the lack of

timber restricted its development, by combining to reduce the working season

to only a few days.

        One early party had logs whipsawed by hand on Reed River

and hauled by dogs and men the thirty miles over the divide to Lucky Six

Creek. Spruce could can also be brought into this area from the Alatna valley

twelve (airline) miles away, but the time and labor involved in transporting

such heavy loads over the 1,000-foot divide greatly reduced the attraction

this region might have had for gold miners.

014      |      Vol_XII-0662                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

Exploration Although both kotzebue (q.v.), who discovered the Sound which

bears his name, and Beechey (q.v.),who continued the inves–

tigation of the Kotzebue area, sailed past or very close to the mouth of the

Noatak, neither mentions this important tributary to Hotham Inlet.

        John Simpson, surgeon for the Plover , during his search

for the Franklin party, explored Hotham Inlet and made the first map which con-

known to contain any indication of the Noatak. Simpson called this stream

the Nunalak or Inland River and charted only its lower section, although he

reports "on native authority" that it continues far inland.

        Dall, who accompanied the Western Union Telegraph Expedition

of the mid-186′s, made a map of the northwestern part of Alaska showing the

lower Noatak (which he also called Inland River), but identified it as a

described it as one of the "small, unexplored streams" of the region.

"They are prolonged," he added, "to fill up the unexplored spaces on most

maps." This quotation is intended not to disparage Dall but merely to

indicate the extent and duration of the lack of knowledge of this part of

Alaska.

        No white man is known to have visited the Noatak after Dall

until S.B. McLenegan was detailed to explore it in 1885. With a seaman

named Nelson, he started the ascent on July 2 in a 27-foot boat. McLenegan's

report was practically the only source of information about the Noatak until

the U.S. Geological Survey expedition of 1911. McLenegan plotted the course

of the river about sixty miles too far east and made very few observations

except along his immediate route, but his general mapped form of the course

was excellent and the amount of data obtained truly remarkable considering

the difficulty of the trip and the bad weather he encountered.

015      |      Vol_XII-0663                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

        During the winter of 1885/86, W.L. Howard, of the Stoney

expedition to the Kobuk, reached the Noatak by way of the Ambler, continued

up the Noatak and over the divide to the Colville. After traveling down that

river for some time, he crossed the portage to the Chipp and form there attained

Point Barrow.

        The original of Stoney's report was lost, and we have only

his resumé published ten years later which barely mentions this side trip of

Howard's. Stoney does say, however that Ensign Reed visited the Notak

during July of 1886, remaining away for ten days. Since no mention is made

of Noatak Canyon, it may safely be assumed that this expedition did not con–

tinue downstream as far as 162° W.Long. Stoney's map contains a good rep–

presentation of the lower Noatak, but the middle and upper remainder of the course is unrecognizable

        The U.S. Geological survey party of 1911 reached the Naotak

by way of the [ ?] a portage from the Alatna. They then descended the

Noatak to its mouth. Between the time of their arrival at the mouth of

the Alatna on July 1 and at Kotzebue, on August 27, the party completed a

ge elogical and topographical survey of nearly 10,000 square miles of territory,

three quarters of which was within the Noatak basin. Much of the information

given above was obtained from the official report of this expedition which

appeared as Bulletin 536 of the U.S. Geological Survey.

016      |      Vol_XII-0664                                                                                                                  
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Brooks, A.H. Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 .Washigton, 1911.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 480)

McLenegan, S.B. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue-Marine Steamer Corwin, Report of the Cruise of the Revenue-Marine Steamer Corwin,

in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1885 in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1885 . Washington, 1887.

(pp.53-83. Map)

Smith, P.S. & Mertie, J.B., Jr. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern

Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Bulletin Bulletin 815)

Smith, P.S. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska . Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin 536)

Stewart, R.L. Prospecting in Alaska Prospecting in Alaska . Juneau, Alaska, 1944.

Twekesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index, 1947 Twekesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index, 1947 . Juneau,

Alaska, 1947.

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska Part II. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska Part II.

Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean. Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean. 5th (1947)ed. Washington, 1947.

001      |      Vol_XII-0665                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

September, 1948

        Text - 13,780 wds

Bibl - 700 wds

        NOME

        NOME (64° 30′ N.Lat., 165° 23′ W. Long.), Norton Sound, Alaska, [Read partly around Oct 10, rest Oct 27/48 Excellent. Reindeer and former sections should perhaps be shortened a little, because handled elsewhere. JS?] the largest city

on Seaward Peninsula, and the site of the gold rush of 1900 which lured

thousands of men away from their homes in the States, for homes or gold fields of newote countries like SouthAfrica and Australia, and even from the promise

of riches in the Klondike, lies on the beach at the mouth of the Snake River

in the southern part of Seward Peninsula.

        The establishment of a U.S. Weather Bureau station there [ ?]

has dispelled the notion that Nome is one of the coldest spots in "Uncle Sam's

Icebox." As shown by the following chart (See below) the temperature [ ?] sometimes

drops to the -40′s in winter but rises to the mid-70's in summer. The average

winter temperature is - + 10°F. These winter readings could be matched in many mid–

western communities in the States.

        Contrary to most popular notions concerning the weather of

the Nome area, the most dangerous storms blow up not from the north, for broad

Seward Peninsula itself protects Norton Sound from northerly winds, but rather

from the south. As will be seen from the chart, these winds prevail during

July and August, although they occur at other times of the year as well,

and have the effect of raising the water on the Nome beach, whereas northerly

winds lower it. Since this section of Norton Sound is relatively shallow,

[Some long pgfs should be broken up wherein a logical subject division is found.?] these southerly storms have an almost instantaneous effect on the level of

the water and, with little or no warning, begin to send huge breakers up the

Nome beach. In such weather, deep-draft vessels, which must, in any case,

anchor at least a mile off the coast, are forced either to put out to sea

or to seek the protection of tiny Sledge Island, about 5 miles offshore and

25 miles west of Nome. Similarly, before the fury of one of these southerly

storms, the situation of the lighters and barges, by which all freight is

beached at Nome, is precarious. A landing of any kind is impossible, and these

25[ls?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0666                                                                                                                  
NOME

smaller vessels, lacking the power necessary to achieve Sledge Island,

must sometimes ride out the storm, although, in the controlled language

of the U.S. Coast Pilot Guide , "the anchorage is unsafe." Neither this anchorage

nor the mouth of the Snake River has ever been dredged out so as to provide

protection from these vicious storms. On November 1, 1946, three weeks

after a similar storm had taken two lives, a freezing gale hurled towering

waves bearing huge, jagged pieces of sea ice up the beach and against the

business structures along Front Street, innundating warehouses, demolish–

ing a bar, a theater, a bakery, a fire station, two restaurants, and the

City Hall. The Alaska Committee of the Seattle Chamber of Commerce,

then recommended that the business district be relocated and a permanent

breakwater, at an estimated cost of $150.00 per linear foot, be built along

2,500 feet of the Nome Beach. At the present writing, no such protective

measures have been taken, and Nome continues to suffer from these southerly

storms much as we shall see she has in the past.

        The seasons make more differen ce to the citizens of Nome than

they do to the inhabitants of lands farther south. The freezing over of

Norton Sound closes Nome to navigation from about the end of October to

mid-May or early June, and the sun is not as reliable as it is in the

Temperate Zone more southerly latitudes. On the shortest winter day

the sun is up not quite 4 hours, while it is out of sight only about 2

hours on the longest day of summer. Starting about the first of May and

continuing until the middle of August there is never the complete dark–

ness which is generally associated with night. However, because the

southern part of Seward Peninsula is below the Arctic Circle, the midnight

sun is never visible from Nome.

        See table with page (temporarly with carbon)

003      |      Vol_XII-0667                                                                                                                  

        Nome Weather Report - 1947 T= Trace

       

	Temp. of the Air	Mean Relative Humidity	Total Precipitation in Inches	Wind	Clear Days	Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days	Snow fall Total in Inches
Maximum Velocity	Average Hourly Velocity MPH	Prevailing Direction.
Max.	Date	Min.	Date	MPH	Direct.
Jan.	32°	3°	ࢤ37°	15th-	96	1.29	66	E	12.0	E	12	19	13.1
Feb.	47°	8	ࢤ42°	5	86	0.65	56	E	17.3	E	7	21	4.1
Mar.	33°	18	ࢤ38	13	82	0.10	43	NE	9.4	N	18	13	1.5
Apr.	40°	21	ࢤ4°	1	82	0.15	37	NE	11.6	E	8	22	1.6
May	68°	30	10°	1	81	0.66	36	E	13.5	E	2	29	1.4
June	73°	18	34°	6	76	0.46	34	W	11.9	W	7	23	0.0
July	75°	21	40°	9	88	3.79	36	SE	12.1	SE	2	29	0.0
Aug.	65°	6	32°	29	86	3.10	47	SE	11.8	SW	2	29	T
Sept.	56°	8	23°	30	84	1.78	36	N	13.0	N	4	26	0.7
Oct.	50°	7	ࢤ2°	30	81	1.00	39	E	14.0	N	7	24	8.1
Nov.	44°	23	ࢤ12°	11	90	1.49	45	NE	14.0	E	8	22	10.1
Dec.	33°	5	ࢤ28°	29	92	0.77	45	N	11.9	N	6	25	8.0

004      |      Vol_XII-0668                                                                                                                  
NOME

        Nome is built on ground which is perpetually frozen below a

depth of from 1 to 2 1/2 feet. This natural phenomenon is called permafrost

and creates certain engineering problems well known to the contractors and

the h ome owners in Nome. All structures, big and little, heave and settle

with the vagaries of the frost in the ground, and, if one wants to keep

his house on a level foundation, it is necessary to prop it up at different

points every one or two years. The beach, which still displays some of

the litter left over from the gold rush days, rises gradually around and

behind the town and becomes the treeless , grassland moss- and sedge-grown tundra,

characteristic of all the surrounding countryside. Small willows and

alder may grow along the creeks, but there is no timber large enough

for the building of even a one-room cabin. However, because of the

frequency and turbulence of the southerly storms in this section of Norton sound,

driftwood , from the Yukon rivers and farther south, is relatively plentiful. Excepting what could be brought in from

Outside, this driftwood was the material from which, the in 1899, the more substantial structures in the young town of

Nome were was built. in 1899.

        Founding of Nome In 1870, Dall estimated the population of the entire coast of

Norton Sound at about 10 Russians, 10 Creoles, and 1,000

Natives. He added that these figures were "if anything, above rather than

below the actual number." In 1898, the year the Nome story opens, no

whites and less than a dozen N atives were reported for the Cape Rodney

to Cape Nome section of this coast. No one could have guessed that a town

of 18,000 people would spring up at the mouth of the Snake River within

the next two years.

005      |      Vol_XII-0669                                                                                                                  
NOME

        In July, 1898, a party, said to include H.L. Blake, N.C.

Hultberg, J.J. Brynteson, and J.L Haggalin, sailed westward from Golovnin

Bay (q.v.) in search of gold. Their destination was the Sinuk River, just

below Cape Rodney, but a strom drove them to shore near the mouth of the

Snake River. While stormbound, they prospected along the Snake and up the

future Anvil Creek, and, although they found fine gold colors on the first

and coarser gold on the second stream, they did not consider them encourage–

ing. With the subsiding of the storm, they continued on to the Sinuk,

where they found nothing. Disappointed, and without realizing that they

had walked over the richest beach deposits in all of Seward Peninsula,

they returned to Golovnin Bay.

        Meanwhile, Jafet Lindeberg, an unemployed reindeer herder (q.v.),

John Brynteson, a Michigan coal miner (q.v.), and Erik O. Lindblom, an

adventurous tailor (q.v.) were converging on Council City. It may cer–

tainly be assumed that these three men all heard of Blake's July trip

upon their arrival at Golovnin Bay, and that they discussed it after they

met in Council, in August. Finding Council "staked to the mountain tops",

they formed a prospecting partnership, returned together to Golovnin Bay,

and, on September 11, 1898, set out in a large open boat to examine the

coast as far as west as Cape Rodney. Prospecting as they went, they finally

arrived at the mouth of the Snake River. "From there we proceeded up

Snake River, which we named," Lindeberg writes, "and camped at the mouth

of Glacier Creek [ ?] . . . After locating our camp . . . we pro–

ceeded to prospect along the tributaries of Snake River, which tributaries

we named as follows: Anvil Creek (taking the name from an anvil-shaped rock

which stands on the mountain on the east side of the creek), Snow Gulch,

Glacier Creek, Rock Creek, and Dry Creek, in all of which we found gold in

006      |      Vol_XII-0670                                                                                                                  
NOME

paying quantities, and proceeded to locate claims, first on Anvil Creek,

because we found better prospects in that creek than in the others, and

where we located the "discovery claim" in the name of us three jointly.

In addition to this, each man staked a separate claim in his own name on

the creek . . . the universal custom in Alaska, as it was conceded that the

discoverer was entitled to a discovery claim and one other. After locating

on Anvil Creek, claims were staked on Snow Gulch, Dry Creek, and Rock Creek,

after which we returned to Golofnin Bay and reported the discovery."

        Lindeberg, Brynteson, and Lindblom, having decided to form a

mining district in the Snake River [ ?] area, immediately organized a

larger party, which included including Dr. A. N. Kittleson, G.W. Price, and P.H. Anderson,

returned to the Snake River, elected Kittleson recorder for the district,

formulated rules for the staking of the creeks, prospected and staked

some more claims and finally returned to Golovnin Bay for winter quarters.

The news spread to Council City, St. Micheal, and even the Yukon country,

and soon the wild stampede began, which was to continue all winter, began .

        "At this period," continues Lindeberg, "very few mining men

were in the country, the newcomers in many instances being from every

trade known. The consequence of this was soon well known; a few men with

a smattering of education gave their own interpretation to the mining laws,

hence jumping mining claims soon became an active industry. Especially

from Council City came the jumpers , who were the . . .They were angry to

think that they had not been taken in at the beginning, so a few of them

promptly jumped nearly every claim on Anvil Crook, although there was an

abundance of vacant and unlocated ground left which has since proved to be

more valuable than the original claims . . . This jumping . . . poisoned the

minds of all the newcomers against every original locator of mining claims,

007      |      Vol_XII-0671                                                                                                                  
NOME

and as a consequence every original claim was relocated by from one to a

dozen different parties." The most troublesome of these "Council City

jumpers" was H.L. Blake, of the July, 1898, party, who considered that the

had a right to the Anvil Creek claims through having prospected them

before Lindeberg and his group had heard of the district, this despite the

fact a t hat he, Blake, had pronounced the area relatively worthless. In the

face of such thorough-going opposition Lindeberg and his partners, with

legal support from Judge L. B. Shepard, the United States commissioner at

St. Michael, hauled supplies in to Snow Gulch and Anvil Creek early in

1899 and began active mining. Every day, however, added to the crowd of

"lawless men" in Anvil City, as the town was then called, who joined forces

with the Council City jumpers and continued to cause trouble. One of the

reasons for this "trouble" was that by the end of 1898 the right of staking

by power of attorney had been so overworked that abou 40 men held 7,000

acres in claims. It was, of course, impossible that for so few men [ ?] actually

to work this number of claims, a condition which constituted an open

invitation to the jumpers.

        Meanwhile, news of the finds reached St. Michael, 100 miles away,

and even traveled the 900 miles up the Yukon to Dawson. The stampede of

miners from Dawson, Fortymile, Circle, and Rampart down the Yukon to Kaltag

and from there overland to Anvil City was immediate and torrential.

Formerly a faint and little used winter trail, the route turned into a

broad, hard-packed snow highway. Late in the spring winter some even made the

trip on bicycles. Roadhouses sprange up every 20 or 25 miles along the way,

and the value of dogs, mules, and horses all along the Yukon tripled over–

night, so eager were these miners to stake their c la ims on Anvil Creek

before the inevitable, rush from Outside could begin.

008      |      Vol_XII-0672                                                                                                                  
NOME

        By May, 1899, the new town had an estimated population of 250.

With the breakup of the ice in June several vessels from Puget Sound put in

at Anvil City and found a population of about 400 living in tents and a

few driftwood cabins. Mining had begun on June 20. The reports brought

back by these veseels on their return trip were the first reliable confirma–

tion of the many wild speculations Outside as to what was going on at Anvil

City. In the course of the summer several more ships put in there, and, by

the late fall of 1899, the exodus from the Yukon had swelled the population

to 3,000.

        Meanwhile relatively little actual mining, as compared with the

number of claims staked, was under way. Gold had actually been found only

on a small section of Anvil Creek, but almost all the ground on this and

other streams had been staked by power of attorney without any prospecting

having been done. The holders of these claims hoped to profit from new

discoveries made by others, but in the letter of the law such staking of

unprospected ground was illegal. During the summer of 1899 probably only

six or seven hundred men were actually engaged in mining, and over, whereas

over 1,000 were idle and unable either to find employment or, they insisted,

new ground to work. It is only to be expected that the claim jumping grew

to such proportions as to threaten the development of the entire district.

There was, of course, no civil government in the new town. Appeals could

be sent to Judge Shepard, at St. Michael, was but his response was necessarily

delayed. In an effort to correct this condition and "for the protection

of property," Kittleson asked that Captain E.S. Walker, of the U.S. Army,

and a few soldiers be sent up from St. [ ?] Michael. Their arrival did not

add to Kittleson's popularity in Anvil City. In 1905 he told Hess that

during that summer of 1899 "the original stakers on Anvil Creek who were

then attempting to work their claims practically had to stand over them with

009      |      Vol_XII-0673                                                                                                                  
NOME

guns all the time to keep from being [ ?] overrun by parties of gamblers,

professional jumpers, and other riffraff." One is tempted to agree with

Alfred H. Brooks when he says: "Had these discontented men spent less time

in protesting and airing their grievances and more in prospecting they would

have been better off, as subsequent operations have shown that there remained

much valuable placer ground which had not then been preempted."

        On July 10, the unemployed malcontents called what they defined

as a "miner's meeting," although none of the actual claim holders was present.

It was decided in advance that at this meeting all existing claims should

be declared null and void. Informed of th a i s plan, Kittleson reported it to

the military authorities who detailed several soldiers to attend the meeting.

In his statement to Hess, [ ?] ittleson continues: "When the resolution was

introduced, declaring all the locations void and the land open for relocation,

the lieutenant ordered that the resolution be withdrawn within two minutes,

stating that he considered it not for the good of the community, and that if

it was not withdrawn he would clear the hall. The men tried to argue with

the lieutenant, but he was firm and at the end of the two minutes ordered

the sergeant ... to clear the hall, which was done." Well in advance of

this meeting, confederates had been stationed in the hills to await the

passing of this resolution and the setting off of bonfires in Anvil City

as a signal for them to descen d upon Anvil Creek and restake all the claims.

The failure of the resolution also spoiled this part of the plan.

        On July 13, the military, obviously confused by the conditions

in the town, posted an order which read in part: "All disputed titles,

whether to mining claims or town lots, shall at once be brought before

the civil authorities for settlement. So long as the civil authorities can

handle such matters the military authorities will take no action. In case

010      |      Vol_XII-0674                                                                                                                  
NOME

it becomes necessary for the military authorities to act, the claim or

lot will be held in its condition at the time, neither party being allowed

to do any work to change the conditi l o n of the same." Taken literally

this order made all mining activity illegal, for every claim in the area

was disputed. It was not very many days, therefore, before a modification

was posted which read as follows: "The instructions contained in the order

of July 13, 1899, posted at Anvil City, will be amended so as to permit

original locators at work on their claims to continue their work in the

event that anyone jumps the claim. The matter can afterward be settled

by the civil authorities." The need was for a solution now, not "afterwards,"

and the appeal to "civil authorities" was a cry in the void, but, quite

suddenly, the immediate problems of the new mining town were solved by the

discovery of what proved to be the richest beach placers, or "poor-man's

diggings , " ever found.

        John Hummel, an old prospector from Idaho, went down to the beach.

A great many reasons have been given for his going there, and all of or none

of them may be true. Too weakened by scurvy to get to the gulches along

Anvil Creek, he is said to have wandered down to the shore for lack of

anything better to do. It may be that he planned to "avail himself of

the old time whaleman's cure of sand and salt water." Hummel would never

have found a cure for his scurvy in this treatment, but he did find gold

in the sands of the beach. Within a few days the news spread throughout

the area, and the unemployed miners, as well as some who were already

profitably at work on the creeks, flocked to the shore. Only the simplest

equipment was needed — a shovel, a wheelbarrow, a bucket on a long handle

for dipping up sea water, and the material for making a rocker or a long

tom. With this equipment a man could earn $20 to $100 a day on the beach.

2,000 men were very soon thus employed, and, it is estimated that $1,000,000

        27 [ls?]

011      |      Vol_XII-0675                                                                                                                  
NOME

was removed with such primitive hand-powered equipment in the next two

months.

        But even this relatively harmless activity was not allowed

to proceed without interruption. One company, which had previously

staked a great many so-called "tundra" claims running inland from the water,

[ beach, ?] protested that it owned these strips of beach and must be paid a

royalty of 50¢ a day for the right to mine them. The miners maintained

that a 60-foot band above high water was public property, and went on

with their work. The company then asked help from the military, whose

commander warned that all trespassers on the beach would be arrested.

This order was ignored, and the commander arrested 300 men. But there

was no civil court or magistrate to hear the charge against them, no

jailhouse, and no money for their support while they awaited trial.

The prisoners were all perforce allowed to go free, and they all returned

to the beach. Sometime within the next few years this claim that a

60-foot strip of any beach was public property and open to all comers

was upheld by the Land Office.

        The pressure at Nome (the name was changed during the

summer of 1899) forced some miners to look for their fortune elsewhere.

These excursions resulted in the finding of gold on the Bonanza and

Solomon Rivers (See Solomon Region) to the east, although it was not

proved to exist in commercial quantities at this time, and on Cripple

and Penny Creeks to the west, which were named and staked during the

summer. At about the same time gold was found near Cape York, and the

York Mining District organized.

        The Nome of the fall of 1899 housed about 3,000 men in

hundreds of tents, in a few frame and galvanized-iron buildings, and an

an even smaller number of tiny driftwood cabins. As a result of the

        26 [ ls ?]

012      |      Vol_XII-0676                                                                                                                  
NOME

        beach placers, a boom struck Nome. Wages rose from $10.00 a day to

$2.00 an hour, and much of this money was spent every night in the

saloons and gambling houses which mushroomed all over town. Prices

were high, but almost everyone could afford them. Lumber at $100 to

$150 a thousand, and coal at $50 to $100 a ton found ready buyers,

as did eggs at $3.00 a doz [ ?] en and fresh reindeer meat imported from

Siberia at $1.00 a pound. One-room cabins with uncertain squatter's

titles sold for $600 to $700, and corner lots on main streets brought

$10,000. By the fall of 1899 Nome had elected a fire department, a

police force, a mayor, and a town council, which wrote and enforced

city ordinances by common c onsent, the NOME NEWS [ ?] had put out its first

issue, and the Federal government had established a post office and

appointed a United States commissioner for the new district.

        ¶ After the confusion and trouble of mid-summer the town settled down to a

rea [ ?] onable amount of orderliness, for these first comers were mostly

serious-minded men — men dreaming of a fortune, perhaps, but still

willing to work for it. The migration of professional criminals,

Lindeberg's report notwithstanding, waited for the season of 1900.

The fall of 1899 was marked by an epidemic of typhoid which resulted

from the total lack of sanitary precautions and the use of tundra

surface waters for drinking. The only hospital, a small army establish–

ment, was unequal to the burden of 200 cases of typhoid at a time, so

that the mortality from this epidemic was very high.

        Brooks summarizes the results of this first mining sea–

son as follows : "Up to January 10, 1900, about 4,500 claims were

recorded in the Cape Nome district, but probably not more than 50

claims were developed and not more than 100 even prospected. These

26 [ls?]

013      |      Vol_XII-0677                                                                                                                  
NOME

50 claims probably yielded over $1,500,000 in gold. The beach-mining

operations described above were more of a dramatic incident in the history

of the region than of permanent commercial significance, for the richest

part of the None beach was worked out the first year ... A result of far

greater importance than the actual mining was that some knowledge of the

character of the deposits and the condition of operations had been gained.

Although this information availed little to the more inexperienced men who

were to invade the peninsula during the following year, yet it was of great

practical benefit to those who did the actual mining in 1900."

        Season of 1900 The last steamers out of Nome in the fall of 1899 brought took

away an estimated 1,000 people whose reports about the

prospects of that fabulous country spread far and wide, not only throughout

Alaska, but also up and down the west coast of the United States. During

the winter of 1899-1900 a gold rush comparable to the great Klondike stampede

gathered steam. Several factors contributed to the failure of this rush and

to the growth, within the next year, of the generally held conviction that

Nome was a fake in the hands of swindlers and that there was no gold anywhere

in the district.

        In the first place, the most popular expectations

were also the farthest from the truth. The majority of the

1900 stampeders, not realizing that the beach had already been

well worked out, planned to arrive at Nome, to make a quick

haul on the beach, and leave by the next boat. They brought

with them but very little money, no supplies, hardly any mining

equipment, and no knowledge of the industry. Their hopes were

naturally doomed to failure.

        ¶ Another popular belief was that

the beach deposits were constantly being renewed by the action

26 [ls?]

014      |      Vol_XII-0678                                                                                                                  
NOME

of the water, from which premise it was argued that if a man

could earn $20.00 a day with one long tom or rocker, he needed

only larger and more equipment to earn $200.00 a day. Converts

to this line of reasoning invested in complicated, costly, and

hopelessly useless machinery with which to work the beach sands

and the supposedly rich but, of course, nonexistant underwater

deposits along the Nome beach.

        ¶ Another cause for failure

was the appearance of an unprecedented number of gamblers,

professional promoters and shysters who chose this opportunity to

form illusory gold mining companies, for which they sold blocks of sto c k

and made extravagant promises. Numberless individuals lost

everything they had without their money ever leaving the States.

Even the mining companies with honest intentions failed in

almost every case through ignorance of fundamental mining

methods and of the true conditions in the Nome district.

        ¶ Still Another very unfortunate circumstance for the new city was that it

could be reached so easily from Seattle and other west coast

ports. There was no Chilkoot Pass along the way to weed out

the weak, the lazy, and the indecisive from the able and

desirable citizens. The voyage up the coast was a pleasant one

except for the crowding on board ship to which most of the

stampeders had resigned themselves before sailing. Passengers

whiled away the ten-day trip by estimating the size of their

fortune future fortune , gambling it away, and taking pictures by the light of the

late setting sun.

        ¶ By July 1, 1900, more than 50 ships had

left over 20,000 people plus their loads of freight on the Nome

beach. "The scene on the beach," French writes, "was absolutely

chaotic. Thousands of tons of freight of every conceivable

description were piled high from the water's edge far up the

beach and for two miles along the water front. Everything was

28 [ls?]

015      |      Vol_XII-0679                                                                                                                  
NOME

in an appalling state of confusion. Machinery, all sorts of

supplies, hay, grain, lumber, hardware, provisions, liquor, tents,

stoves, pianos, sewing machines, mirrors, bar fixtures —

everything that one may imagine was there. The delivery of goods

to their rightful owners was next to impossible. In many

instances steamship companies claimed that their responsibility

for goods ceased when the goods went over the ship's side. As

this performance took place about a mile out to sea, a very

risky and expensive trip on lighters had still to be made before

the landing, through the surf, was accomplished... Goods once

on the beach were still far from their destination, even

though the actual distance to be covered was not great. Trans–

portation along the beach was either by wagon, at $10 an

hour — and a wagon could only haul haul only a few hundred pounds and

move at a snail's pace — or goods could be moved on lighters,

which were towed by steam or gasoline launches. The charges

made by these launches for such towing were frequently as high

as $500 a day... Hauling anything on the tundra was next to

impossible. Dog teams abounded. Six to twelve dogs, harnessed

tandem fashion, could pull a small wagon carrying not to exceed

two hundred pounds."

        The line of tents housing the 'established' citizens

stretched for over 5 miles along the beach, but newcomers were

lucky to arrive on shore with their hand luggage. Tents,

machinery, and other hold freight awaited the convenience of the

lighters, and was in most cases dumped without ceremony on the

beach where it lay a prey to the looters who nightly 'worked'

the beach for whatever they could carry away. Nome had one

25 [ls?]

016      |      Vol_XII-0680                                                                                                                  
NOME

or two frame lodging houses, but no hotels, and a bunk cost

$2 or $3 a night, if one were available. Every night a small

army of men slept out of doors on the boxes and bales which

littered the beach. Food was ex orbitantly high. Three eggs

cost $1.00; bread, butter, and coffee, $1.50. The fortune–

hunters, who had come with very little money intending to live

on their earnings on the beach, discovered that those who had

stayed on during the winter of 1899-1900 had completed the

staking of the entire area, and that a man could travel for days

in any direction without seeing any unclaimed ground. The

beach itself was a solid mass of extraordinary appliances designed

to recover gold from above and below the waterline, for, despite

the advice of experts, almost all newcomers continued to believe

that the sea swept gold onto the beach with every lap of a wave.

As Brooks says, "There was a flood of gold-saving devices,

varying from a patent gold pan hung on a pivot and turned by

a crank to complex aggregates of wheels, pumps, sieves, and

belts, which required a 100-horsepower engine for their

operation." The most successful beach equipment was still the

light, simpole, portable rocker or long tom which could be carried

at a trot to any part of the beach where gold had been found.

Such finds were became daily less frequent, and were, in every case,

worked out in a few hours. The rumor was born that there was

no gold at Nome. A single, well-equipped company could have

made a fortune on the beach in 1900, but with so many individuals

pushing each other aside, no one few even made a living.

        Other kinds of misfortune struck Nome during that

summer of 1900. A smallpox epidemic was controlled only by the

016a      |      Vol_XII-0681                                                                                                                  
NOME

prompt action of Captain D. H. Jarvis, of the Revenue Cutter Service.

On August 9, a southwesterly storm ripped up the beach, destroyed all

the more elaborate 'permanent' appliances, smashed the piles of freight

and baggage, demolished most of the buildings al l o ng Front Street,

Nome's main thoroughfare which ran along the beach, and left behind

a mass of wreckage and debris. This storm put an end to beach placer

mining for the season, except by the owners of the few rockers and long

toms which had been saved from the debacle.

        The next chapter of the Nome story took place was written in Washington.

Up to this time, by the Act of 1884, Alaska had been governed according

to the laws pertaining in Oregon, that act having read in part: "The

general laws of the State of Oregon now in force are hereby declared

to be law in said district (Alaska)." Legally speaking, Alaska was an

extension of Oregon. The Oregon civil code contained two sections

legalizing the acquisition and holding of land and the title thereto

by aliens. In 1899, under the protection of this law, Lindeberg and

his partners had, for a considerable sum, conveyed all their holdings

on Anvil Creek to the Pioneer Mining Company of California, formed by

the locators and friendly California capitalists. Charles D. Lane

and his partners had done the same with the Wild Goose Mining Company

in respect to their holdings in the Nome and Council City Districts.

The locators and present partners in both these companies included

some aliens and some citizens. There were a great many at Nome who

felt that aliens should not be allowed to hold land titles, and this

feeling had been one of the causes for the attempted July 10, 1899,

seizure of all claims on Anvil Creek. A group of shrewd lawyers, later

incorporated as Hubbard, Beeman & Hume, took up the cause of the

26 [ls?]

016b      |      Vol_XII-0682                                                                                                                  
NOME

jumpers, and, late in 1899, sent a representative to Washington

with the one purpose of enlisting the aid of certain powerful politicians

and affecting a change in the United States mining laws. One of these

politicians was Alexander McKenzie. The Nome lawyers and McKenzie

were given the opportunity they needed on March 1, 1900, when Senator

Carter introducted Bill 3919 , making provision for a civil government

for Alaska , was introduced This bill included the Oregon regulations protecting

aliens. Upon the reading of these particular sections, a North Dakota

Senator proposed the substitution of the "Hansbrough amendment"

which would have, under certain conditions, validated any claims the

Anvil Creek jumpers might already have made. Not only did this am l e nd–

ment arous e the instant opposition of the Senators from Nevada,

Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Colorado, but , also , closer study, that

of McKenzie and his supporters as well, since this amendment was not

strong enough to give them a clear claim to all Anvil Creek holdings.

On April 4, the Senator from North Dakota (fittingly enough, McKenzie's

home state) introduced a modified amendment which, although it

categorically barred non-citizens from locating, holding, or convey–

ing mining claims, likewise put an end to staking through power of

attorney, and declared further that those claims already staked through

power of attorney upon which $100.00 worth of labor or improvement

had not been made within 90 days of staking were null and void. From

the point of view of the claim jumpers and their representatives, this

proposal started out well and ended very badly. McKenzie and his block

opposed it, the original Hansborough amendment, and the Oregon stipula–

tions through almost a month of angry, stubborn, bitter, and extremely

personal argument on the floor of the Senate. On May 1, fearing that

27 [ls?]

016c      |      Vol_XII-0683                                                                                                                  
NONE

Alaska would lose her code of laws entirely if the controversy continued,

a group of disinterested Senators affected a compromise, and the bill

was passed denuded of all three of these [ ?] controversial sections.

Although McKenzie had lost his fight for a positive legal basis for

his intended raid on Anvil Creek, he had succeeded in Killing the

Oregon provisions, which left the two questions — title holding by

aliens and staking by power of attorney — in a kind of legal limbo.

        The new Alaska Code divided the Territory into three judicial

divisions, the secon d [ ?] of which was to have headquarters at Nome.

Strongly influenced by McKenzie, President McKinley not only appointed

Arthur H. Noyes Judge for the new district, but also named C.L.

Vawter United States Marshal, Joseph K. Wood District Attorney, and

several more of McKenzie's friends and supporters to lesser positions

in the new court to be set up at Nome. Before leaving Washington,

McKenzie put a few more bricks into the foundation of his plan.

Under the laws of Arizon a he organized the Alaska Gold Mining Company,

with offices in New York City, and with an authorized capital stock

of $15,000,000, named himself president and general manger of this

company, arranged with Hubbard, senior partner of Hubbard, Beeman &

Hume and the only partner then in Washington, to buy from the jumpers

all their "titles" on Anvil Creek and to pay for these titles with

Alaska Gold Mining Company stock. McKenzie, therefore, not only bought

a pig in a poke, but he promised to pay for it with the same pig in

the same peke.

        ¶ McKenzie, Noyes and "the court" sailed out of Seattle

together. On the way they put the finishing touches on a scheme of

confiscation which, as McKee remarks, they were able temporarily to

bring to "a prosperous state of realization." On July 19, 1900, their 25 [ls?]

017      |      Vol_XII-0684                                                                                                                  
NOME

steamer put in at Nome. While Noyes remained on board, McKenzie hurried

ashore. Within two days, by threatening to boycott their cases out

of court and by convincing them that Hubbard had already done business

with him, he had induced Beeman and Hume to hand over to him [ ?] , in

exchange for stock in the Alaska Gold Mining Company, the contingent

interest (amounting to 50%) which their firm had in all the jumper

Anvil Creek claims, had demanded and received a one-fourth interest

in the business of Hubbard, Beeman & Hume for himself and another one–

fourth for Joseph K. Wood, and had made Hume deputy district attorney.

On July 20th these negotiations were legalized. McKenzie still held

more than 50% of the stock in his own company. He had bought half a

big and paid for it with considerably less than half of the same pig.

        On July 21, Noyes stepped ashore, and, without waiting for

the organization of the court.

018      |      Vol_XII-0685                                                                                                                  
NOME

appointed McKcnzie receiver of at least four of the richest

claims in the Nome District. As has already been pointed out,

every claim for miles around was in dispute. McKenzie and

Neyes put this confusion to their own use. Without notifying

the claimants, Noyes directed McKenzie to take immediate

possession of these mines, to manage and work them, and to

preserve the gold and "dispose of it subject to the further orders

of the court." Noyes particularly enjoined the original

claimants from interfering with the mining activities of the

receiver, and, in a further order, directed McKenzie to take

possession of, and to deliver to him, all personal property

on one of these claims. The receiver's bond in all cases was

fixed at $5,000 despite the fact that one of the commandeered

claims was then yielding $15,000 a day. Petitions to the court

for an appeal from its orders were refused, and Noyes announced,

in effect, that the orders of his court were not appealable, that

its jurisdiction was exclusive. Tompkins remarks: "The ease with

which apparent success was obtained in this case suggested the

same course regarding approximately twenty other valuable

claims. The owners were impotent to protect their own interests.

Mining activity on the Seward Peninsula practically ceased. To

develop a claim and prove its value was to risk losing it.

Even prospecting came to a standstill."

        Fortunately for the miners, one of the first victims

[ ?] of Neyes perfidy of the receivership plan was Charles D. Lane, manager of the Wild

Goose Mining Company, who held valuable claims both at Nome and

at Council City. Lane knew his rights and was not intimidated

by Noyes or de t erred by the difficulties of the situation. He

sent papers with sworn affidavits and instructions to his



019      |      Vol_XII-0686                                                                                                                  
NOME

lawyers in San Francisco, dispatching them secretly on a fast

vessel out of Nome. Judge Morrow, of the United States Circuit

Court of Appeals , made orders allowing appeals in all five cases

reported, and commanding Noyes to halt all proceedings in his

court. McKenzie, who, meanwhile, had become known far and

wide as the "King of Receivers" and "The Big One," was ordered

to "cease all action in the suits pending and to turn back to

the defendants all the property seized." This news reached Nome

on September 14 and its three daily newspapers printed the writ

in full under headlines reading: "McKenzie Thrown out of His

Job," "Death-blow to the New York Ring," etc.

        ¶ By no means

defeated by this turn of events, and despite having been served

with all the requisite papers, McKenzie maintained 'upon advice

of his lawyers' that the write were irregular and void. He

refused to return the gold-dust he had already mined, while

Noyes merely stayed all proceedings in his court and neglected

to issue orders which would have forced McKenzie to obey the

writs.

        ¶ At about this time Meanwhile the 'great' storm of Sept. 12 hit was attacking

the Nome beach. McKenzie attempted to withdraw the gold-dust

from the vaults of the Alaska Banking and Safe Deposit Company,

but was stopped by a detachment of troops and several claimants

together with their lawyers. "All this happened," continues Mc–

K ee, "when the storm was at its height, the miserable streets

of the city hybrid 'city' knee-deep in mud, and when, without

the semblance of a harbor, and open to the clear sweep and

fierce attack of the Arctic gale, entire sections of the place

were under water, and houses and wreckage generally drifting

about. It was an excellent background for a dramatic incident."

       

020      |      Vol_XII-0687                                                                                                                  
NOME

        ¶ Since the only 'court' in Nome was temporarily in abeyance and

of no use in any case, a second report had of necessity to be

delivered to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals in

San Francisco. It lacked only a month to the winter freeze-up,

and it was feared, for a time, that the storm would conspire

with the lateness of the season to hold up proceedings for

that year. However, on September 17, the storm blew out and

Mc K ee, making last-minute preparations to sail for Seattle on

the Tacoma, received a visit from Samuel Knight. On behalf of

the Wild Goose Company, Knight had been fighting the receiver–

ship ring all summer. He gave Mc K ee papers addressed to the

proper officials in San Francisco on which could be based

proceedings against McKenzie for contempt of court and that would lead to his arrest.

        ¶ Ten days later the Tacoma put in at Seattle. Mc K ee delivered

the papers and, as McFee he , a lawyer himself and restrained in

his language, says: "The day following, the Circuit Court of

Appeals, with great astonishment, learned in what respect its

mandates had been held; and, shortly afterward, two deputy

United States marshals were despatched to Nome on one of the

last vessels sailing for that port. Thwarting the ring by

reaching Nome before the ice had closed communication with the

outside world, they duly arrested the receiver (McKenzie) and

brought him before the court in San Francisco whose orders he

had deliberately defied." It was not until the following spring

that Noyes was brought to California. These two men ( S s ee

their Biographies) were tried and found guilty, but their

punishment can in no manner be equated with the amount of damage

they did in Nome.

        The fall of 1900 brought a lull in the local

021      |      Vol_XII-0688                                                                                                                  
NOME

excitement and a general accounting was possible. The big

September storm had destroyed all the buildings on the south

side of Front Street, left hundreds of people homeless and

wrecked on the beach or swept out to sea over $1,000,000 worth

of property. Typhoid, pneumonia, and small-pox had taken a

toll o f the population, but the threat of the freeze-up

removed a great many more than any disease although still it is

estimated that 10,000 people remained at Nome during the winter

of 1900-1901.

        ¶ French describes the Nome of camp as of October, 1900:

"The buildings of Nome were, many of them, highly creditable

and were sufficient in number to accom m odate the people who

would remain there all winter. Several well built hotels

existed, and a large theatre in which a typical western variety

show could be seen, as well as weekly prize fights... Front

Street was lined with shops, saloons, dance halls, gambling

houses and restaurants of all sizes and shapes, open for business

day and night. Late in August the United States military

barracks were completed."

        ¶ Front Street, early in the season,

had billowed with dust, while all other streets in the town were

practically impassable because of the tundra mud; but with the

rains which started in August and continued until the freeze-up,

even Front Street turned into a mud lane. Stedman Avenue, also

known as "Hogan's Alley," had been planked over during the

summer, and in the next few years several other streets were

similarly distinguished. After the last indigents had been

shipped home through public or private charity , an estimate of

placer mining activity for the 1900 season could be taken, and,

considering the amount of trouble and confusion which the summer

had seen, the accounting was remarkably good. Value estimates

022      |      Vol_XII-0689                                                                                                                  
NOME

for the Nome area appeared as follow were :

Anvil Creek--------------------------------------------------	$1,750,000
Glacier Creek, including SnowGulch------------------------------------	750,000
Dexter Creek-----------------------------------------------	300,000
Extra Dry Creek--------------------------------------------	15,000
Dry Creek---------------------------------------------------	25,000
Newton Gulch---------------------------------------------	10,000
Bourbon Creek---------------------------------------------	5,000
Saturday Creek--------------------------------------------	10,000
Oregon, Hungry, and Mountain Creeks-	50,000
H igh bench placers near Nome----	145,000
Nome beach-----------------------------------------------	350,000
	$3,410,000

        Final estimates set the total 1900 placer gold output for all of

Seward Peninsula at $4,750,000. Nome vindicated herself in

these figures although she was to suffer for several years from the

name Noyes and McKenzie had given her civil administration.

        Season of 1901 ¶ The rush of 1900 was never repeated. Disappointed

and despairing individuals men [ ?] enlarged upon the

conditions pertaining at Nome during difficulties of the summer of 1900; they complained

that the sea had not renewed the beach placer deposits and des–

c r ibed the town as a nest of thieves and ruffians [ ?] by in the hands

of corrupt and unscrupulous officials. Large, established

mining enterprises in the States which might , had they been known

apprised of the true situation at Nome , might have invested magnificent

sums toward the its development of the country , withdrew to a safe

distance from what they considered a foolish and dangerous

situation.

        ¶ The 10,000 who stayed at Nome put a particularly long and

cold and extended winter to good use. When Mc K ee returned on

June 24, 1901 he was able to report that not only had Nome

acquired a "new and well-appointed post-office," but also that

the town "seemed very orderly, much improved, and more sub–

stantial in general appearance," and added: "It had been duly

incorporated as a city. About a mile of the principal streets

had been boarded over... The banner sign, 'City Morgue,' had

023      |      Vol_XII-0690                                                                                                                  
NOME

now assumed more modest proportions; pe ople who had wintered at

Nome looked strong and well; and the doctors somewhat pla in tively

said that the camp had been' disgustingly healthy.' ... The

average individual who had spent the winter there had lived

very comfortably, with plenty of good things to eat and drink,

and I was informed that the place had been very gay 'socially.'

Some were in fine feather, others hopeful, and but few dis–

couraged."

        ¶ Seen in perspective it can be understood that the

summer of 1900 was the 'Chilkoot Pass' to Nome. The men who

had remained at Nome were either already miners or in experienced

men or willing and able to learn the mining business. They all looked for–

ward confidently to the new season, but the weather conspired

against them. The thaw was late and the summer dry, yet

$3,000,000 was removed from creek placers around Nome that year,

and $20,000 from the beach. However, the most intensive effort

went into the improvement of mining methods so as to reduce

mining costs. Experimental steam pumping plants were installed

on Anvil Creek, but the cost of fuel ruled them out. During

the winter some of the high-bench and tundra inland placers were

successfully exploited by drifting. Although their production

was small, the feasibility of winter mining had been proved.

        ¶ Prospecting in outlying districts increased. Gold was discovered

in the northeastern part of Seward Peninsula, and the development

of the Kotzebue District began. Ditch construction on Ophir

Creek under the direction of Charles D. Lane progressed, and

a dredge started operation on Solomon River. During the winter

of 1901-1902 drift mining increased in the high benches near

Anvil Creek and in the tundra which served partially to solve

the seasonal employment problem, to stabilize the economy of

024      |      Vol_XII-0691                                                                                                                  
NOME

the new district, and to reduce the size of the migratory

population.

        Seasons of 1902-1904 ¶ The arrival of a new judge, Hon. James Wickersham

(q.v.), had in September, 1901, faith in the administration

at Nome, but too late to improve that mining season. During

the 1902 season the gold in the bed of Anvil Creek was

practically exhausted, but parallel channels in the valley were

discovered and mining, with water supplied by two pumping plants

and a system of ditches, continued on Anvil, Glacier and Dexter

Creeks. Despite these improvements the production of the Nome

District decreased to $2,800,000 in 1902.

        ¶ The winter of 1902–

1903 saw a remarkable increase in drift mining with an estimated

$500,000 removed by this method from the bench es lowland back of it and the tundra.

The Peninsula, and particularly Nome, was prosperous. Twenty–

seven steam and seven sailing vessels brought 75,000 tons of

cargo to the peninsula, and most of these shipments were for

Nome. The Seward Peninsula, Railway (formerly called the Nome

Arctic Railway) was extended from Nome to the head of Dexter

Creek. Ditch construction flourished; the Miocene ditch now

extended to the head of Nome River and sent a branch to the

Snake River.

        ¶ In 1903 hydraulic lifts appeared on Glacier and

Anvil creeks, and prospecting with churn drills covered the

tundra prairie belt between Nome and the mountains. The major part of

the season was spent in unproductive or 'dead' work; and yet,

despite the exhausting of some of the shallower placers, the

production for the Nome District in 1903 is estimated at

$2,400,000 — a decrease of only $400,000 over from the previous

year.

        ¶ The winter of 1903-1904 witnessed saw the removal of $1,000,000

by drift mining from the high bench and tundra lowland deposits in the

025      |      Vol_XII-0692                                                                                                                  
NOME

Nome area, and some low-lying gravels and ancient beach placer

in the tundra prairie were explored. Up to July 10 , 1904 the season

remained dry and more than half the mines in the Nome district

were idle because of lack of water. Then came heavy rains and

mining began, but the season had been [ ?] seriously

abbreviated. More ditches were built; a steam shovel operated

successfully on Anvil Creek and hydraulic elevators were at work

on Glacier and adjacent creeks.

        ¶ The most startling development

of the 1904 season was the discovery of rich placers on Little Creek,

a few miles north of Nome, which served to prove the contention

of the experts that there was still the possibility of signi–

ficant finds in the area. However, although the legal compli–

cations were gradually dwindling and disappearing, the miners

in the Nome area had still to learn that large enterprises must

be put in the hands of experts. Brooks , writing only a few years

later, remarks, "Probably two-thirds of the incorporated com–

panies have made failures or achieved only partial success

because of poor management." The greatest increase in production

during this season was that of the high-bench placers, while

the creek placers showed a considerable decrease.

        Seasons of 1905-1906 ¶ Mining along the "second beach line", as it

was called, marked the winter of 1904-1905, and

an extension of this same line, long predicted by the geologists,

was discovered running from Hastings to Bourbon Creek and at

Jess Creek, 10 miles west of Nome. $1,500,000 was recovered

from Little Creek within 12 months of the first discoveries

there.

        ¶ The summer of 1905 was remarkable for a very late

spring and a freeze-up starting around September 18, or about

one month ahead of shedulew schedule. The emphasis was again

026      |      Vol_XII-0693                                                                                                                  
NOME

on ditch construction throughout this summer. Seward ditch

now ran for 37 miles from the head of Nome River to the southern

slopes of Anvil Mountain; Cedric ditch ran for 24 miles to

Arctic Creek west of Nome. Despite all this unproductive work

$3,400,000 worth of gold was removed. from the Nome District.

        ¶ During the winter of 1905-1906 the Little Creek discoveries

sent many prospectors out on the tundra prairie and a "third beach

line" was discovered. This line had been predicted by the

Geological Survey in 1899. So much work was done with steam

thawers and hoists out on the frozen tundra that Nome suffered was

threatened with a coal shortage which had to be alleviated by

drawing on Government coal stored at Fort Davis. By the end

of that winter $2,500,000 had been recovered from the tundra

gravels. This remarkable success drew attention away from the

creek placers, whose production had gradually been dwindling,

and work on the tundra prairie was continued throughout the summer.

        ¶ This

was just as well, for the summer of 1906 was unusually dry, so

that work on the creeks would have been difficult , if possible

at all. Under new management the narrow-ga u ge Seward Peninsula

Railway was extended over the pass above the head of Nome River

to Salmon Lake and from there t o Lanes Landing, on the Kuzitrin.

Steamboat connections with Puget Sound were improved, and the

city of Nome began to show the effects of several years of

prosperity. Many substantial buildings appeared, and the town

began to lose the transient, flimsy look of its early years.

        ¶ Brooks, writing in 1908, while mentioning these improvements ,

and reaffirming his faith in the value of the deposits in the

area, repeats a warning. "The necessity of intrusting the

management of large enterprises," he writes, "only to men

of technical training, experience, and proved ability has not

027      |      Vol_XII-0694                                                                                                                  
NOME

by any means been fully realized. It is common knowledge that

the failures of mining companies are in a large measure charge–

able solely to the ignorance of the men responsible for their

management. This is because the public has not been educated

to the point of regarding mining as anything but a gamble, and

holds in small esteem those who would put i t on a sound

business basis."

        1910 to 1948 As early as By 1910 Nome was already turning to

other sources of income than the mining of gold,

a tendency which has increased with the years.

        One of these new 'industries' was the tourist trade.

In March, 1909, Dan Dix wrote a glowing report of Nome , "the

metropolis of Northwestern Alaska." Here was "a well-governed

municipality," he wrote, with "splendidly equipped modern schools,

numerous religious and social organizations," electricity, the

purest drinking water in the world, local and long-distance

telephone service, substantial business structures, warehouses

and well-built homes, flowers, "hill-sides green with grass,"

and "attractive vegetable gardens on the outskirts of town."

The article reads not so much like a modern travel folder as like

the text of a sermon dedicated to correcting certain cruel

misap p rehensions. Nome was growing up, developing a pride.

Her citizens resented the shadow of the past and began to

emphasize the fact that the villains had all come from Outside,

that the heroes had all belonged to the town itself.

        A second important source of income was the transfer

of freight and passengers bound for other parts of the peninsula.

Despite the fact that T he harbor had never been dredged out and

028      |      Vol_XII-0695                                                                                                                  
96 NOME

ships still anchored one or two miles offshore, delivering

cargoes by lighter or barge; but Nome soon was developed grew nevertheless into the

a commercial center for the southern part of Seward Peninsula.

        ¶ One writer who visited Nome in 1919 mentions that in rough

weather freight and passengers could not be landed on the

warehouse wharves, but were rather loaded into "a sort of

mammoth basket or cage" suspended from a staging anchored in

the sea, "and swung by cable high over the waves ... on to the

dock." Nasty weather was as frequent as ever and the harbor water front as

unprotected. There was much talk [ ?]

029      |      Vol_XII-0696                                                                                                                  
NOME

of dredging out the mouth of the Snake River, but this has not been

done even to this day.

        Meanwhile the production of gold continued, although

not at the fabulous rate of the early days, the heavily mineralized

deposits having been depleted. Still, Nome remained the leading gold

district on the peninsula. There was a gradual absorption of the smaller

outfits by the larger, until, in 1934, it was possible for C.W. Henderson,

of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, to write: "Gold production in Alaska has

become stabilized. Excepting the Kennecott copper mine (now idle) and

small placers the production of gold for several years past has come

chiefly from the low-grade Alaska Juneau lode mine ... the Fairbanks

Exploration Co. in the Yukon district and the three modern dredges of

the Hammon Consolidated Gold Fields at Nome, both subsidiaries of the

United States Smelting, Refining & Mining Co." Brooks' lesson had been

learned and applied.

        ¶ In the very same paragraph, however, Henderson

felt it necessary to add: "Operations (of placers) begin in May, unless

delayed by a late spring, and close in October, unless stopped by an

early winter." Nome placer miners, who continue to the present day to

produce the major part of Alaska's gold output, were still working a

short season which was as unpredictable as ever. The Nome district

suffere [ ?] for many years from the lack of a year-round source of employ–

ment. This lack was later solved in part by the development of methods

by which the deep layers of permafrost could be thawed by steam piped

underground under pressure. As a result of this technique dredges were

able to work the year around.

        Agnes Burr, who visited Nome in 1919, writes of a modern,

030      |      Vol_XII-0697                                                                                                                  
NOME

prosperous city with telephone and wireless service, several a choice of hotels,

numberless stores, and churches, a good school, and a fine hospital.

She, too, mentions the vegetable gardens where she noticed lettuce,

rad d ishes, cabbage, and turnips flourishing, but she makes more of the

Eskimo village on the sandspit between Snake River and the ocean, and

of the rich variety of native handiwork — carved ivory, baskets,

beadwork, moccasins — available in the shops of Nome. By 1920 the

population had shrunk from the 2,610 of 1910 to only 852.

        ¶ After the 1906 peak of $7,500,000 , Gold production rose gradually up to about 1920 and then in dollar values gradually dropped to the $1,533,000

began to fall off. of 1932. In 1933 ,however, the reduction in the gold content of the

dollar had the effect of raising the price of gold from $20.67 to $35.00

per fine ounce, a boost of 69%. Gold mining revived. The United States

Smelting Refining & Mining Co. in its report for 1933 was looking forward

to developing certain low-grade mines in the Nome area which it had not

paid to work under the old statutory price. New mining methods came into

use and the production of gold, in dollar values, began to rise.

        ¶ In addition to gigant i c dredges, hydraulics and other electrical machinery,

the larger companies were now thawing the deep permafrost layers by

driving pipes to the desired level and forcing steam under pressure

against the most heavily mineralized layers. Thawed in this manner,

the lower levels never froze again, while the surface, which did refreeze

thawed with the coming of summer. In 1937 the United States Smelting

Refining & Mining Co. using this method operated its three dredges in

the Nome district for a total of 510 days out of the year , while prospecting,

thawing, and development work continued throughout the year. Here

was the answer to the seasonal employment problem of the area. Companies

set up per manent mining camps on the tundra prairie , outside of Nome itself on the tundra prairie , with 37 [ls?]

031      |      Vol_XII-0698                                                                                                                  
-30- NOME

well-built bunkhouses, recreation halls, family units, and surroundings

sufficiently attractive to influence encourage the em ployees to bring their families

and settle permanently. In this way a great deal of expense entailed

in recruiting men for summer work, in transporting them to and from

Seattle, and other west coast ports, was avoided.

        ¶ The amount of gold

produced as well as the value of the product continued to increase right

up to the beginning of the second World War. Then, practically over-night,

the men and most of the machinery used in the mines was were taken over by

the U.S. Army which needed both manpower and equipment for the building

of innumerable bases and airstrips throughout the Territory. Finally,

after gold was declared nonessential on October 8, 1942, gold mining

could be carried on by only by special permit and only by overage

workmen using nonessential materials. By the end of 1944, only 86

operators (42 of which had crews of less than 5 men) employing a total

of 669 men were mining gold in Alaska. In 1941, 554 placer operations

had employed 4,921 men.

        ¶ Nome ming mining , indeed, gold mining throughout the

Territory, has not yet recovered from the effects of World War II.

(See Bluff Region) The price of gold remains fixed at $35.00 but the

cost of labor, supplies, and taxes has jumped out of all proportion to

anything the Territory has ever known before. Military construction

employing civilian labor goes forward on a wage scale the mining companies

cannot match. As of this writing, (1948) , very few companies have reopened their

mines. Even the giant Alaska Juneau Gold Mining Co., famous for applying

mass production methods to the mining of low-grade ores, has not

reopened since it shut down in 1944 as a result of the War Labor Board

decree increasing wages and authorizing retroactive payment. In 1945 26 [ls?]

032      |      Vol_XII-0699                                                                                                                  
-31- NOME

Bain writes: "The ending of the war found most of the gold mines

closed, stripped of tools and equipment, and with their former working

forces widely scattered."

        However, some progress has been made. In 1945 the

United States Smelting Refining & Mining Co. repurchased the bunkhouses

and other property at Nome which had been taken over by the Army, but

the release of this property came too late in the year for much con–

structive work to be done that season. Lee Brothers operated a dredge,

and Herbert Engstrom a dragline in the Nome area in 1945.

        ¶ The future

holds several possibilities. Many Canadian companies, having profited

from gold mining during the last few years, are beginning to show an

interest in investing their surplus in Alaska mines. United States

construction companies, which handled enormous military installations in

all parts of the Territory during the war , are working their way into the mining busi–

ness. Mining is, after all, largely a matter of moving vast quantities

of dirt from one place to another. If directed by mining experts, these

companies should be able to make a success of gold mining, since, as

Bain says, "they are well-financed, are experienced in moving dirt and

other operations common in mining, and are controlled by men accustomed

to taking risks."

        ¶ Prospecting continued throught the war, and the Army

Air Forces are now completing a set of maps for the entire Territory,

compiled by trimetrogon photography on the scale of 1:500,000. Both of

these activities will help to take the guess-work out of Alaskan mining.

However, the best that can be said for gold mining there today is that

it lies in temporary partial abeyance awaiting the turn of economic and

political events. No one can be sure of what will happen to the industry in the next

ten years to the industry upon which Nome mainly depends.

        25 [ls?]

033      |      Vol_XII-0700                                                                                                                  
NOME

        Meanwhile the city of Nome was undergoing various

changes. In 1920, Billy Mitchell, then Brigadier General Mitchell,

Assistant Chief of the United States Air Force, sent a group of Army

planes to fly from New York to Nome and return. This maneuver, which

was successfully accomplished, was the first of a series of long–

distance flights to include Nome. (See Wiley Post; James Mattern; Hans Mirow; Sigismund Levanarsky) By the early 1920's, the old narrow-gauge

Seward Peninsula [ ?]

034      |      Vol_XII-0701                                                                                                                  
NOME

Railroad line had been bought by the Alaska Railroad Co. and demoted. It

was now known as the Pupmobile Railroad, or the "Kougarok Limited." and It

consisted of a fleet of flat cars or truck bodies , fitted with railroad wheels ,

and was used for carrying freight and supplies out to the tundra mines. Lined

with benches, the Pupmobile was and still is used to show tourists the sights

out on the tundra. Sheldon, 90 miles from Nome, is the end of the line.

        ¶ This period also saw the beginnings of the now world-famous Nome to Candle

and return dog race, or, Alaska Derby, as it came to be called, which roused

the pioneer gambling spirit of the town. The total purse on the race runs

to thousands of dollars every year.

        In 1934 most of the business and re [ ?] i–

dential sections were destroyed by fire. With special attention to making

the streets both wide and straight, characteristics of which the old town

could not boast, the entire city was subsequently rebuilt.

        Aside from the gold mining, the greatest 'rise and fall'

story of the Nome District during the last forty years has been that of the

reindeer industry , It is interesting to note, that just as this industry

which has helped toward the growth of the area and which contributed so did it help toward its dis–

covery , -- for [ ?] one of the men the man Dr. Sheldon Jackson brought from Norway in 1898

to help him get reindeer from Siberia was none other than Jafet Lindeberg. ¶ Starting with the original tiny herd band which Jackson obtained from Siberia in 1891, the

herds grew to about 1,200 in 1900, 50,000 in 1914, and 650,000 in 1932.

¶ After Jackson, Lomen is the name most generally associated with the Alaska

reindeer industry. From the arrival at Nome, early in the century, first

of Judge Gudbrand G. Lomen (q.v.) and his son Carl, and then of the other

four sons, Alfred, Ralph, George, and Harry (See Lomen Brothers), this name

became associated, not only with reindeer but also with a wide range of

legal, legislative, mining, and commercial enterprises activities in the Nome District.

        ¶ Because of his own Norwegian ancestry, however, Judge Lomen took a particular

interest in and was in turn trusted by the Norwegian-speaking Lapp herders who were struggling

        30 [ ls ?]

035      |      Vol_XII-0702                                                                                                                  
NOME

with the legal intricacies of the reindeer industry in Alaska. The elder

Lomen's interest spread to his sons, and, although Carl is usually spoken

of as the "Reindeer King," the Lomen family worked together toward the

development of their several business enterprises, and especially their

reindeer holdings.

        ¶ By 1910 the Seward Peninsula herds had increased

beyond the local demand for reindeer meat as food and the hides for boots,

coats parkas , mittens, leggings, socks, trousers, and sleeping bags. The Lomens

believed there was a tremendous potential market for reindeer meat in the

States, and the hides were already in great demand for the manufacture of

fine gloves and leather jackets. By 1930 the Lomen Reindeer and Transpor–

tation Corporation of Nome managed the largest white-controlled reindeer herds in

Alaska, maintained cold storage plants at Teller and Golovnin, and a cannery

and by-products plant at Golovnin. Meanwhile, Nome had come to be considered the capital

of the reindeer industry and which had long since proved itself to be a

fine year-round source of employment and of community as well as private

income.

        ¶ It is impossible to trace here the hectic, contradictory history

of this industry from its peak in the early 1930's to its present disintegra–

tion. (See Reindeer Industry of Alaska) The U.S. Government, which

finally passed the Reindeer a A ct, transferring all white-owned herds to

federal ownership, was only the last of many agencies which finally forced

the Lomens and most other whites out of the reindeer business. But they retained their position

as the first family of Nome. The present Lomen Commercial Company with

Alfred Lomen, President, and Carl and Ralph, Vice-Presidents, continues to

serve the community and, through it, all of Seward Peninsula.

        ¶ Starting with Judge Lomen, the efforts of this remarkable family to improve their

adopted town have drawn them into public life as well as into business.

Judge Lomen was Mayor of Nome from 1917-1919, U.S. Attorney for the Second

Division, 1918-1921, and U.S. District Judge for the Second Division in 1921

        28 [ ls ?]

036      |      Vol_XII-0703                                                                                                                  
NOME

and 1925. Carl Lomen was Chief Clerk of the U.S. District Court at Nome

several times between the years 1901 and 1908. Alfred Lomen was a member

of the Senate Territorial Legislature in 1929, 1931, and 1933, and Ralph

Lomen was a member of the Nome City Council in 1915 and a Representative

to the Territorial Legislature in 1927. Other Alaska communities may well

envy Nome the concentration of public-spirited ability, energy, and

resourcefulness represented by the Lomen family.

        The Nome of the last decade bears little resemblance

to the city of 20 or 30 years ago. The 1939 population figure appears as

1,559 although the actual population is estimated at 2,800 in winter and

4,000 in summer, with a ratio of two-thirds white and one-third Native.

Sidewa k l ks are all planked and streets either planked or graveled.

Although there is still no harbor, boats out of Seattle and from other

parts of Alaska make eight or ten 8 or 10 round trips a y a ear. Commerce from Nome rose

to 21,265 tons, with a total valuation of $4,796,000, in 1936. In addition

to the U.S. Army post office, there is a second-class Federal post office,

and three airplane companies maintain year-round passenger, mail, and freight

service with other parts of Alaska and Outside. The municipal landing field

has a strip is 3,200 feet long, and well-lighted, hard-surfaced Mark Field is 6,000

feet long. The U.S. Army maintains a telegraph and radiotelephone unit

of the Alaska Communication System at Nome.

        Among the recent improvements are a new Federal Building,

which houses the main offices for the Second Judicial Division, and the

post office building, both built in 1938. A municipal building houses the

police department, a central pumping system, and a fire department with

modern motor equipment. Nome has six churches, a Roman Catholic Mission, and

a fine school system. The public school, which has an attendance of about

200, employs 8 teachers and a school nurse, and is housed in a new, modern

building with a gymnasium and a well-stocked library. Nome also has a

        28 [ls?]

037      |      Vol_XII-0704                                                                                                                  
NOME

the only high school in the Second Judicial District. Since this school

is accredited, its graduates may enter college without special examination.

The graded Alaska Native Service School, with an attendance of about 160, in 1939

emphasizes vocational activities such as boat and sled building, skin

sewing, and ivory carving.

        ¶ Since Nome is the headquarters for all

government activities in Northwestern Alaska, several representatives,

both official and private, are stationed there — 2 two for the Alaska Road

Commission, and one each for the Bering Reindeer Unit, Office of Indian

Affairs, and the U.S. Weather Bureau. There are, in addition, a Deputy

Marshall and U.S. Commissioner of the U.S. Department of Justice, an

Assayer and Field Engineer for the Alaska Department of Mines, and a Liquor

License Officer, and a Land Registration Clerk from the Alaska Department

of the Treasury.

        ¶ In 1946, eight Nome citizens had seats in the Territorial

Legislature: 3 Republicans and 1 Democrat four in the House, and 2 four Republicans

and 2 Democrats in the Senate. The American Red Cross has a Field Director,

the Alaska Steamship Company an agent, and the Standard Oil Company of

California a distributor at Nome. One of the lighterage companies and one

of the light and power companies are run by the United States Smelting,

Mining and Refining Co., but, in addition, one of each of these services

is privately separately owned. Several [ ?] services of a kind relatively rare

in Alaska are available in Nome: 2 laundries, a Railway Express agency,

3 transfer and storage companies, 2 fuel and 2 ice and water dealers,

a dairy, a garbage collection , (delicately named the Nome Sanitary Service),

a bakery, bank, barber, public bath, beauty shop, candy store, and dry

cleaner. Perhaps omit? Offering a sharp contrast to the more lurid names names like the "Malemate Saloon," so characteristic of the Stampedez

town, one of the four restaurants is called the [ ?]

"Snack Shack." Two private physicians, an osteopath, and an optician

        27 [ls?]

038      |      Vol_XII-0705                                                                                                                  
NOME

practice at Nome, and, until recently, 1948 there was a modern 23-bed hospital

operated by the Methodist Church. This hospital burned early in 1948

and patients were transferred to the Air Base hospital. Plans for the

building of a fire-resistant 35-bed hospital with a 10-bed tuberculosis

ward are now in progress. The famous newspaper, the NOME NUGGET NOME NUGGET , is now being published lc

three times a week. ¶ The fact that there are four 4 curio and gift shops, [ ?]

3 three licensed fur dealers, and 1 one retail fur dealer shows how much the

Cap or small? handicraft and fur-farming industries contribute to the community.

        ¶ In the summer the arrival of the N n atives from King Island and Little Diomede

Island to fish and to barter their beautiful hand-made articles for winter

supplies makes of Nome one of the few predominantly white towns in Alaska

where Eskimos may still be seen in their native, everyday dress, living

their lives relatively untouched by the troubles and taints of civilization.

The demand for native-made products grew steadily with the tourist trade

during the 1920's and 1930's and, with the influx of civilians and U.S.

Army personnel during and after World War II, it gained an unprecedented

lead over the supply. It is estimated that the arts and crafts industry

brings more than $500,000 a year into the Nome area. A . Polet, famous

pioneer merchant, who set up his first store in Nome in 1900, features

and encourages all native arts and crafts. ¶ Fur farming is already well on its way to becoming a

full-scale industry. The long, relatively cold winter months are ideal

for the raising of fur-bearing animals, and the Nome district is particu–

larly well known for [ ?] mink and its white, blue, and silver foxes.

We have already discussed the development of the [ ?] reindeer industry.

        24 [ls?]

039      |      Vol_XII-0706                                                                                                                  
NOME

        For the future one of the most promising industries

would seem to be commercial fishing in Bering Sea where king crab, shrimp, cod,

halibut, herring, and salmon abound. In addition to contributing directly

to the economy of the district, the development of this potential fishing

industry would serve to reduce freight rates between Seattle and Nome

by giving vessels a return cargo.

        The annual Northwestern Alaska Fair which is held at

Nome late in March or sometime in April lasts for four days and is attended

by visitors from all over the Territory and from Outside. Most of the

fair-goers arrive by air, since, in honor of the occasion, many airplane

companies sell special round-trip tickets at one-way rates. Indoor exhibits

are set up in the Territorial School auditorium and include n N ative handicrafts, ?

furs, art work, flowers and vegetables, curios, relics, and mining products,

and there [ ?] is a variety of outdoor events as well. The ninth 9th such Fair ,

was held in 1947 , and included two complete reindeer camps where Eskimo

families demonstrated all aspects of the life of a native herder —

methods of butchering, preparing, and preserving the meat for food, and

the manner in which the by-products are fashioned into wearing apparel

or used in the making of sleds and harnesses. Outdoor events included

reindeer racing and dog racing, and the Fair ended with a skit entitled

"Days of ′99" which all attended in "Gay 90's" costumes, or hopeful

fascimiles thereof. Fair week is also the date of the Farthest North

Bench Show for Malemute and Siberian sled D d ogs and of the All-Alaska Championship

Dog Race (158 miles), Nome to Golovnin and back.

        Big game hunters come to Seward Peninsula in July to

hunt walrus and in April and May to hunt polar bear. With the help of the

        25 [ls?]

040      |      Vol_XII-0707                                                                                                                  
NOME

competent guides available at Nome , large r herds of walrus can usually be found

within 2 or 3 days' travel from Nome, and the haunts of the enormous

white bear are only 5 or 6 hours distant by plane. Sport fishermen also

come to the area for the trout, salmon, whitefish, pike, and grayling

in near-by streams.

        More than $103,000,000 in placer gold has been

recovered on Seward Peninsula since 1900 , of which 85% of this came from the

Nome area. Nome citizens have not forgotten this fact, but they are

looking to other less freakish, however less s pectacular industries to

carry them into a prosperous future. 9 [ls?]

041      |      Vol_XII-0708                                                                                                                  
* marks most important references NOME

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alaska Facts; What Alaska is Today. A word picture of America's last frontier Alaska Facts; What Alaska is Today. A word picture of America's last frontier

and what it offers to those interested in this vast and what it offers to those interested in this vast

territory territory . Juneau, Alaska, Alaska Facts (c1945)

Alaska Life, the Territorial Magazine Alaska Life, the Territorial Magazine . May, 1945. (Nome and Northwestern

Alaska Issue)

Alaska Planning Council. Alaska Development Plan. Alaska Development Plan. January, 1941. Juneau,

Alaska, The Council, 1941.

Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's minerals as a basis for industry Alaska's minerals as a basis for industry . Washington,

D.C., Bureau of Mine s , 1946. (U.S. Bureau of Mines.

Information Circular Information Circular 7379. December, 1946)

Baker, Marcus. ... Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington

D.C., G.P.O., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin

No.299. Series F. Geography, 52) (59th Congress, 1st

S.House. Doc.No.938)

Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Alaska, 1730-1885 History of Alaska, 1730-1885 . San Francisco,

History Company, 1890.

Beach, Rex. "Looting of Alaska." Appleton's Booklovers Magazine Appleton's Booklovers Magazine ,

January-May, 1906.

Brooks, ( A .H. (and others). ... Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on progress Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on progress

of investigations in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914, of investigations in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914,

1919, 1920 1919, 1920 . Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1908-22.

(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins Bulletins No.345,379,442,

592,622,714,722)

* Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) ... Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C.,

G.P.O., 1901. (U.S. Geological Survey)

Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) ... Report on Progress of Investigations of Report on Progress of Investigations of

Mineral Resources of Alaska in 1905 Mineral Resources of Alaska in 1905 . Washington, D.C.,

G.P.O., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin

No.284. Seriea A, Economic Geology, 72)

Brown, John W. An Abridged History of Alaska An Abridged History of Alaska . Seattle, Wash., Gate–

way Printing Co., 1909.

Colby, Merle. ... A Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier A Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier . N.Y.,

Macmillan, 1942. (American Guide Series)

042      |      Vol_XII-0709                                                                                                                  
NOME

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Cont'd.)

[[cont]]Collier, Arthur J. (and others) ... Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin-

sula, Alaska, Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, sula, Alaska, Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok,

Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington,

D.C., G.P.O., 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin ,

No.328)

Dall, William H. Alaska and Its Resources Alaska and Its Resources . Boston, Lee and Shepard, 1870.

* French, L.H. Nome Nuggets. Some of the Experiences of a Party of Nome Nuggets. Some of the Experiences of a Party of

Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska in 1900 Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska in 1900 . N.Y.,

Montross, Clarke & Emmons, 1901.

* French, L.H. Seward's Land of Gold. Five Seasons Experience with Seward's Land of Gold. Five Seasons Experience with

the Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska the Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska . N.Y., Mont–

ross, Clarke & Emmons (n.d.)

Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska, Its Resources, Products, and Handbook of Alaska, Its Resources, Products, and

Attractions in 1924 Attractions in 1924 . 3d ed. N.Y., London, Scribner,

1925.

* Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula, a Book of Information about Nome and Seward Peninsula, a Book of Information about

Northwestern Alaska Northwestern Alaska . Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan

press, 1905.

Henderson, Lester D. Alaska, its Scenic Features, Geography, History, and Alaska, its Scenic Features, Geography, History, and

Government Government . Juneau, Alaska, Daily Alaska Empire Print,

1956.

Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. ... Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsu- Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsu-

la, Alaska. With a Sketch of the Geography and Geol- la, Alaska. With a Sketch of the Geography and Geol-

ogy ogy by Philip S. Smith, and a Description of Methods Description of Methods

of Placer Mining of Placer Mining , by Alfred H. Brooks. Washington,

D.C., G.P.O., 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water- Water-

Supply Paper Supply Paper 314)

Hilscher, Herbert H. Alaska Now Alaska Now . Boston, Little Brown, 1948.

Mabie, Janet. " Where is a Lomen, there is Alaska. " Christian Science Christian Science

Monitor. Magazine Section Monitor. Magazine Section . July 1, 1946, pp.6,13.

* McKee, Lanier. The Land of Nome. A Narrative Sketch of the Rush to The Land of Nome. A Narrative Sketch of the Rush to

Our Bering Sea Gold-Fields, the Country, its Mines and Our Bering Sea Gold-Fields, the Country, its Mines and

its People, and the History of a Great Conspiracy its People, and the History of a Great Conspiracy ,

1900-1901. N.Y., Grafton Press (c1902)

Merrill, Charles White, and Meyer, Helena M. Gold and Silver Gold and Silver . Washington,

D.C., Superintendent of Documents, 1946. ( ) P reprint

from U.S. Bureau of Mines Yearbook Yearbook , 1946)

001      |      Vol_XII-0710                                                                                                                  
NOME

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Cont'd.)

[[cont]]Pilgrim, Mariette Shaw. Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography, and Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography, and

Government Government . Caldwell, Idaho, Caxton printers, 1939.

Roberts, Brian. " The Reindeer Industry in Alaska. " (Reprinted from

The Polar Record, The Polar Record, No.24, July,1942, pp.568-572)

Smith, Philip S. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon and Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon and

Casadepaga Quadrangles, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Casadepaga Quadrangles, Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1910. (U.S. Geological

Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 433)

Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. The Arctic in Fact and Fable The Arctic in Fact and Fable . (N.Y., Foreign

Policy Association, 1945) ( Headline Series Headline Series . March–

April, 1945. No. 51)

Sundborg, George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., Macmillan, 1946.

Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, and Alaska Business Index Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, and Alaska Business Index . Vol. 1947 I.

Juneau, Alaska, Seattle, Wash., Tewkesbury publishers,

c1947.

Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyshlennik and Sourdough Alaska, Promyshlennik and Sourdough . Norman,

Okla., University of Oklahoma press, 1945.

U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, 1934, 1938, 1945. Minerals Yearbook, 1934, 1938, 1945. Washington,

D.C., G.P.O., 1934-47.

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II.

Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean . 4th ed. Washington,

D.C., G.P.O., 1938. (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Series No.607)

*Wickersham, James. Old Yukon Tales — Trails — and Trials.

Washington, D.C., Washington Law Book Co., 1938.

001      |      Vol_XII-0711                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins NOME, CAPE, ALASKA

October, 1948

        300 wds

        NOME, CAPE, southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, near 64° 21′ N.Lat.,

165° W. Long., is a rounded bluff about 300 feet high. A border of low

land runs around the edge of this cape, but behind this beach the land

rises to an 820-foot summit about one mile inland from the point. The

water off this cape is farly deep, and the dirunal rise and fall of the

tides is about two feet. About one mile to the west of the point, Hastings

Creek, with its main tributary, Saunders Creek, flows into Norton Sound.

        The matter of the name of this cape, and, resultantly, of the city

of Nome itself, has been the subject of considerable speculation. In

1833, Tebenkof called this cape Tolstoi (broad or blunt) Cape, and it

appeared as such on most maps, until Kellett, in 1849, identified it on

certain British Admiralty Charts, made after the Franklin Search expedi–

tions, as Cape Nome. In April, 1901, Sir William Wharton, hydrographer

to the British Admiralty, went on record as not knowing the source of the

name 'Nome' on Kellett's chart. Professor George Davidson, of the U.S.

Coast Survey of 1867 and 1869, is the originator of the most [ ?] generally

held current opinion that the name " Nome " resulted from a mistake on the

part of a draftsman while copying an original of Kellett's chart.

Davidson believes that Kellett's original chart read "? Name" opposite

the cape in question, which notation the draftsman cop e i ed as "C. Nome."

In any case, subsequent to the 1849 Admiralty charts, this cape appeared

consistently as Cape Nome, and, as a result, Anvil City, about twelve

miles west of the cape at the mouth of the Snake River, was rechristened

"Nome" during the summer of 1899.

Sources: VSGB: USCP & Supplement; Baker

001      |      Vol_XII-0712                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins NOME RIVER REGION, ALASKA

October, 1948

        700 wds.

        NOME RIVER, southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises in the

untimbered Kigluaik Mountains and flows almost directly south for about

thirty miles into Norton Sound. Fort Davis, lies at the mouth of the Nome

River, three miles east of the city of Nome (q.v.).

        Buffalo and Divide Creeks, uppermost tributaries to the Nome River,

rise south of Mount Osborn and enter the Nome from the west. For ten

miles below the mouth of Divide Creek, the Nome Basin is narrowly constric–

ted on both sides by heights of 2,000 feet or more. For this reason, the

tributaries to this section i of its course are torrential, as is the Nome

itself, and are all relatively short strems. From north to south these

tributaries are: Dickens, David, Dorothy, Alfield, Clara, Hobson,

Manila, and Sampson Creeks.

        During the remaining twenty or so miles of its extent, the Nome

basin gradually widens, merging finally with the coastal plain. The

tributaries to this section, therefore, tend to be longer as one travels

south, and, at the same time, the gradient of the Nome River drops from

fifty to ten feet to the mile as one approaches the mouth. Again from

north to south the tributaries to this section of the Nome are: Basin,

Banner, Dewey, Dexter, Buster (with its affluent Lillian Creek), Extra

Dry, Hazel, Osborn, McDonald, and Otter Creeks.

        Although Otter and McDonald are short streams, Osborn Creek, as

might be expected, is one of the longest affluents to the Nome River.

It is formed by the junction of New Eldorado Creek and several unnamed

streams, and flows first south and then southwest to join the Nome only

a few miles above Fort Davis.

        The entrance to Nome River is obstructed by shifting bars, but

there is usually enough water in the channels to allow the passage of

002      |      Vol_XII-0713                                                                                                                  
NOME RIVER REGION

light draft vessels. However, southwesterly storms, which occur frequently

late in the summer and on into the fall, endanger the anchorage in this

part of Norton Sound. The only protection from these storms is behind

Sledge Island (q.v.), a few miles offshore and about twenty-eight miles

west of the mouth of the Nome River.

        Fort Davis was established as a military post in 1899, and is now

a military reserve.

        Colors of gold were found on the Nome River and all its tribu–

taries subsequent to the great strike on Anvil Creek, in the Snake River

system. (See Nome article.) Throughout this area, paying placers were

worked for about a decade after the turn of the century, when all gold

mining on Seward Peninsula, as elsewhere in Alaska, entered a period of

gradual decline.

        By 1900, T t he Seward Peninsula Railroad, a narrow-guage line, constructed

by the Wild Goose Mining & Trading Co., Charles D. Lane, President, ran

from Nome to Anvil Creek and from there to Dexter Creek. Thereafter it

was extended up the Nome Basin to the headwaters of that river. At

about 64° 57′ N. Lat., it veered northeastward, past Salmon Lake, and

down the Kruzgamepa River, and then ran northward to Shelton, on the

Kuzitrin River, for a total distance of 70 miles. This railroad was

one of the great engineering feats of the early years of the Nome District.

At first, no filling of the marshy, summer tundra was done. The tracks

were laid on wooden ties lying loose on the ground. Very often the weight

of the cars , loaded with machinery intended for the mines in the interior of

the peninsula , would press these ties down into the mud so that tracks

and wheels alike disappeared. Still the line was kept running. Although

considerably rebuilt, it is still running, having been taken over by

the Alaska Ra i lroad and rechristened "The Pupmobile", or the "Kougarok

003      |      Vol_XII-0714                                                                                                                  
NOME RIVER REGION

Limited." Truck bodies, fitted with railroad wheels, and a variety of

flat cars are now being dra w n by dog teams over this same line which

serves as a supply route to the Kougarok District and as one of the

favorite tourist side-trips in the Nome area.

        Sources:

        VSGB: USCP & Supplement; Baker

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of parts of Seward Gold Placers of parts of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port

Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908.

001      |      Vol_XII-0715                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins NORTON BAY

August, 1948

        1,056 . wds –

25 . wds. - Bibl.

        NORTON BAY, a northern arm of Norton Sound, reaches

northeastward into the western coast of Alaska. The bay extend s from

Cape Denbigh, its eastern entrance point, northward to Point Dexter,

then eastward, northward, and westward to Bald Head and Moses Point,

and so southwestward to Cape Darby, the western entrance point.

        About midway between Point Dexter and Bald Head there

is a de e pth of 36 feet and the water shoals gradually from this point

as the shores of the head of the bay are approached from any direction.

The rim of extremely shoal water, 4 1/2 to 9 feet in depth, is

several miles wide, however, in the northeastern part of the bay.

Sailing southwestward toward Cape Darby the water gradually becomes

deeper, maintaining 24 feet close to shore for about 20 miles, and then

dropping off sharply to 90 feet directly off the eastern side of that

cape.

        Eastward from Point Dexter, along Reindeer Cove, the shores

of Norton Bay are low and marshy for about 12 miles to the mouth of the

Ungalik River. The Ungalik rises in the highlands northeast of the

bay in the divide d s eparating the coastal waterways of this part of

Alaska from the inland headwaters of the Kateel and Gisasa r R ivers in the

Koyukuk section of the Yukon system. The Ungalik flows in a generally

southwesterly direction for from about 65 miles t o enter t j h e east side

of Norton Bay.

        ¶ The small native village of Ungalik, near the river

mouth, is the point at which the long winter trail along the shores of

Norton Sound divides, one branch striking northward for Candle and

Kotzebue Sound across the neck of Seward Peninsula, and the other trending westward along the north shore s

of Norton Sound and for the coastal points on Seward the P p eninsula. Ungalik

has a 1,700-foot landing area for wheeled planes 1,700 feet long .

        26 [ls?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0716                                                                                                                  
NORTON BAY

        Beyond the Ungalik River the shore s of Norton Bay bends

northward to the mouth of the Inglutalik River, which flows down from the

same mountains which feed the Ungalik , southwestward into the bay.

The region bordering the lower Inglutalik is swampy , and the mouth is

obstructed by bars and mud flats. It is from this point westward that

the waters of Norton Bay are so exceedingly shallow.

        Koyuk River, the major tributary to Norton Bay, enters

from the north a few miles above the mouth of the Inglutalik. The

headwaters of this river rise in the Bendeleben Mountains northwest of

the bay, and in a segregated group of hills containing 2,610-foot Mount

Monument, several miles to the northeast. The Koyuk flows southeastward

for 60 or 70 miles , is joined by receiving several unnamed tributaries , and then, along

the last 10 miles of this stretch, receives Peace River from the north

and Kenwood Creek from the south. A few miles below Kenwood Creek, the

Koyuk twists abruptly southward, flows in this direction for about 15

more miles, and then veers westward to empty into Norton Bay.

        Haycock (population 81 in 1939), about 10 miles up from

the junction of the Peace and Koyuk; Dime Landing, a few miles

upstream from the mouth of Kenwood Creek; and Koyuk at the mouth of the main that

river are the only settlements in this area. All these villages are

on the northern branch of the winter trail which crosses the base of

Seward Peninsula on its way to Kotzebue Sound. Dime Landing was not

reported in the 1939 Census, but Koyuk had a population of 100 at that

time, a post office, a Native Cooperative Store, and an Alaska Native

Service School. There is also a 1,500-foot landing strip near the town.

Haycock is a gold mining community which has a Territorial school,

a general store, a post office, and a 1,400-foot civilian airfield.

In 1947 four companies, Coplin & Hamm, Dime Creek Dredging Co., Rylander

        27 [ls?]

003      |      Vol_XII-0717                                                                                                                  
NORTON BAY

Johnson & Hagberg, and Swanson Bros. were working placer mines in the

Haycock area. Most of this activity is on Dime Creek, [ ?] with

crews ranging from one man to 7.

        Around the head of Norton B ay the from Koyuk, the shoreline dips

southwestward to Bald Head, on which is located Isaac's Roadhouse, and

then retreat s northwestward again to the mouth of the Kwik River.

        Kwik River rises about 18 miles inland in a lake-studded

area east of the Darby Mountains and flows, despite several meanderings,

almost due southward into Norton Bay. The Tubutulik River enters the

bay a few miles west of the Kwik. The Tubutulik heads against streams

rising in the Darby Mountains, and in Death Valley, and all running

southward to form the main stream, which flows southeastward from the main–

land, which partially cuts the mouth of the Tubutulik off from the bay.

There is a 5,000-foot landing strip just south of this spit. The

Kwiniuk River enters Norton Bay near the site of this landing strip.

Elm Mission Roadhouse and Walla Walla Shelter cabin are a few miles down

the we t s t side of the bay. All these points are connected by the winter

trail which continues on around the edge of Seward Peninsula. Since

there are no more towns on Norton Bay be e l ow the shelter cabin mentioned

above, the trail veers westward and crosses directly over to Golovin Bay

(q.v.). Cape Darby is about 20 miles southwest of Walla Walla.

        According to the report of Ellis, assistant surgeon to the

expedition, Captain James Cook explored a great many of these points on

Norton Bay in September, 1778. After sailing eastward from Sledge Island

and "seeing many white porpusses," he cleared Cape Darby and entered

the bay, keeping well to the north shore. "This part of the coast was

high, "Ellis wrote, "though not remarkably so; that next the sea was in

        27 [ls?]

004      |      Vol_XII-0718                                                                                                                  
NORTON BAY

        some places very rocky, in others, low and level, and well covered with

verdure, but there was no appearance of wood." Cook must at this time

have been offshore somewhere between from Cape Darby and Moses Point. The next day he

sailed farther north, but when the soundings showed only four fathom,

he hauled off to the SSE. "A remarkable smooth, but rocky hummock

bore N. 13 deg. W. four or five miles distant," the report continues,

"this hummock captain Cook c alled Bald Head." That night they anchored

off Cape Denbigh and thereafter continued down the mainland coast toward St.

Michael Island (q.v.)

        8 [ls?]

        U.S. C.P. & Suppl; Tewkesbury; Baker;

        Ellis, W. Authentic nar r ative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Authentic nar r ative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and

Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,

and 1780; in search of a North-We t s t Passage. and 1780; in search of a North-We t s t Passage. London, Robinson, 1782

001      |      Vol_XII-0719                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

October, 1948

        2500 wds - Text

50 wds - Bibl. NORTON SOUND, an important arm of Bering Sea, deeply

indenting the west coast of Alaska, may be said to have an entrance extending

from Cape Romanzof on the south ( See Hazen Bay Area) to Cape Rodney on

the north, an airline distance of between 160 and 170 miles. If Norton

Bay, a northeasterly arm of the Sound is included, Norton Sound extends

over 360 miles inland from an imaginary line drawn between its two

entrance points.

        But not only its size makes Norton Sound such an impor–

tant extension of Bering Sea. Much of the south shore of the Sound is

formed by the fan-shaped Yukon Delta, through which, despite the ever–

increasing use of air-freight, supplies are shipped up the Yukon. These

supplies usually come by way of St. Michael Island, farther up the Sound.

Economically speaking, however, the north shore of the Sound is by far

the most important, for it is here that the famous gold mining districts

of Bluff, Solomon, and Nome (q.v.) are located.

        Coastal Outline The various arms reaching off and points extending

into Norton Sound are so large and well-defined that they

have been separately named. (For many of these see individual articles.)

        Just above the Yukon Delta is Pascol Bay, which leads

northward into shoal-locked Stephens Pass. This pass separates Stuart

Island from St. Michael Island, which itself is cut off from the mainland

only by a tidal slough called St. Michael Canal.

        Above St. Michael Island, Norton Sound indents the coast

and receives, along with many lesser known streams, the Unalakleet River.

This shallow bay extends northward to a rectangular neck of land with

Cape Denbigh as its southern and Point Dexter as its northern points.

        Norton Bay extends eastward and northward from Point Dexter,

002      |      Vol_XII-0720                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

        and receives the Ungalik, Inglutalik, Koyuk, and Kwik Rivers. From

east to west, Bald Head, Moses Point, and Cape Darby are the prominent

points on the north shore of Norton Bay.

        Continuing westward, Cape Darby and Rocky Point mark the

entrance to Golovnin Bay, which in turns leads northward into a

smaller, shallow arm known as Golovnin Sound. Fish River, famous as the

main route to the Niukluk and thence to the rich Council gold mining dis–

trict, empties into Golovnin Sound.

        From Rocky Point westward to Cape Nome, Norton Sound again

shallowly indents the mainland, this time bordering the Bluff and Solomon

gold mining districts. From Cape Nome to Cape Rodney, the shoreline is

relatively straight. Nome, at the mouth of the Snake River, about twelve

miles west of Cape Nome, is one of the most famous gold mining towns in

all of Alaska.

        West of Nome, Norton Sound receives the lesser gold streams,

Penny, Cripple, and Sinuk. About six miles south and slightly east of the

mouth of the Sinuk , is tiny Sledge Island.

        Navigation From a navigational point of view Norton Sound presents

certain problems. The Yukon Delta section is fringed for

five to thirty miles offshore by a shoal which is impassable to deep-water

vessels. This shoal, although varying in width, continues around the entire

coast of Norton Sound, cutting off most of the coastal settlements from

direct service by ocean-going vessels. Off the Unalakleet A a rea (q.v.),

this shoal is several miles wide. Shoal water surrounds Cape Denbigh and

Point Dexter, and completely fills in the head of Norton Bay.

        Golovnin Bay is extremely shallow, but westward from Rocky

Point to Cape Nome, the fringe of shoal water narrows considerably so that

deep water vessels can approach within a mile of Bluff and Solomon. From

Cape Nome westward to just beyond Nome, however, this shoal widens again,

003      |      Vol_XII-0721                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

so that all shipments to Nome must be lightered ashore. Since Nome is

the central freight transfer point for much of southern Seward Peninsula,

the lack of a deep channel and docking facilities there is particularly

awkward.

        Westward from Snake River to Cape Rodney, although the water

is shallow very close to shore, greater depths exist than elsewhere in the

Sound. The deep water anchorage between Sledge Island and the mainland

offers ocean going vessels their only protection from the southerly storms

which rage against this section of the coast of Norton Sound in the late

summer and fall.

        Outside these coastwise shoals depths in Norton Sound range

from forty-eight to seventy-two feet. Through out the bottom of the Sound

is remarkably even, the depths decreasing toward shore with unusual

regularity.

        Weather Seward Peninsula [ ?] itself protects N orton Sound

from northerly weather, but the Sound is only partially pro–

tected by the Yukon Delta from southerly winds, and is completely open to

the full force of southwesterly s o t orms.

        The north side of the Sound is, of course, particularly

affected by these southwesterly winds, since their effect is to raise the

level of the water all along that side of the Sound. Northerly winds, on

the contrary, tend to lower the water along the north [ ?] ide of the Sound.

Because of the fringe of shoal water previously described, the effect

o f a southwesterly wind on the level of the water is almost instantaneous.

These southerly storms, which blow up quickly and frequently during August

and September and occasionally during other months of the year, are very

dangerous and have written a history of destruction and loss of life in

the towns all along the coast from Rocky Point to Cape Rodney. During

004      |      Vol_XII-0722                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

such a storm no landing of any kind can be j m ade through the breakers, and

deep-draft vessels , lying at anchor in the various roadstead s , must w e ither

put out to sea or seek shelter behind Sledge Island.

        Ice Although it reforms as young ice every year, T t he ice in Norton Sound, as in all parts of Bering Sea,

Although it reforms as young ice every year, may be divided

into two kinds: 1) that forming late in the year, which, in the course

of the winter is piled up into heavy masses by the force of the winds, and

2) that forming late in the winter or early in the spring in the spaces

left by the movement of the old ice.

        The use of the beaches and bays of Norton Sound for the dis–

charge of cargoes is governed, of course, by ice conditions. Ice closes

the Sound to all navigation sometime between mid-October and early

November and does not usually break up before the middle of June.

        For & Precipitation West of Cape Nome, Norton Sound is subject to the

same fog conditions as Bering Sea. Late spring and early

summer bring much fog and considerabl e rain. In early fall the fog de–

creases, but the strength of the gales increases, and snow is likely any

time after mid-September. Strong winds from any direction usually bring

precipitation of some kind with them, but this may be only showers or

snow squalls with westerly or northerly winds, whereas the precipitation

with easterly or southerly winds usually lasts until the wind shifts.

        Northerly and northeasterly winds prevail in this western

part of Norton Sound from about October to May, and are more likely to

blow from directions in the southern half of the compass from June to

September. The spring and summer fogs, although dense, are often less

than 100 feet deep, so that it is sometimes possible to direct a ship

through a fog by sending a man aloft [ ?] where he will be above the fog it and able

005      |      Vol_XII-0723                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

to see prominent landmarks. Although there is much cloudiness in this

western section of Norton Sound, an average of sixty to eighty percent

of the sky being covered all year, this condition is more prevalent in

mid-summer than in any of the winter months.

        East of Cape Nome, the weather in general is better than

in the previously described parts of Norton Sound. Fogs are rare at

St. Michael, and will amost always clear away as one proceeds up the Sound.

        The only abnormal phenomena in this part of the Sound is

the southern mirage in the vicinity of St. Michael (q.v.). This mirage

is also sometimes apparent in Norton Bay.

        Trails From the time of the freeze-up in mid-October or early

November to about the middle of June, the uniformly low shoreline of

Norton Sound, which in summer is an impassable stretch of mud, is turned

into a fine winter trail. A well-established dog-team trail runs all

around Norton Sound sending many branches inland, up the important rivers

such as the Yukon, Unalakleet, Fish, Nome, and Snake, and cross-country

to the innumerably mining camps in the interior. One main branch cuts

northward across the head of Norton Bay and the neck of Seward Peninsula

to the Kotzebue region.

        ¶ The freeze-up is so complete that tractors,

and possibly trucks, could be used along these same trails, since all

rivers, lakes and well-protected bays are frozen solid enough to support

very heavy weights. Airplanes equipped with skis can also operate from

most coastal and inland points during the winter.

        Vegetation Although generally spoken of as "barren tundra", the

shores of Norton Sound support a variety of vegetation.

Along the streams which enter the Sound, small willows and alder are

abundant. These trees are seldom over twenty feet high, and, because

of the extreme dampness of the terrain in summer, are usually rotten at

006      |      Vol_XII-0724                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

the heart, but they are useful as firewood. They are not large enough,

however, for use as building material. The native women use willow and

alder bark to color dressed rain deers reindeer skins a beautiful red–

brown.

        In the spring the coastal plain is covered with a luxuriant

growth of grasses and flowers. Kentucky blue grass is indigenous to the

region, and wood meadow-grass and blue joint grass thrive. The latter

averages three feet in height, but, under favorable conditions, attains

four and even five feet.

        In the gardens of Nome, probably the most northerly town on

the coast of Norton Sound, lettuce, radishes, cabbage, and turnips, as

well as a great variety of flowers , flourish. It must be remembered that,

although the winters are long and cold, the summer days, throughout this

area, are relatively warm and abnormally long. The vegetation of the Nome

District, for instance, has the advantage of twenty-two hours of sunlight

on the longest summer day.

        Maximum July temperatures at Nome read in the mid-seventies,

and this reading is decreased by only a few degrees in June and August.

With the thawing of the upper permafrost layers in this particular area,

the terrain around Nome is transformed from the snow-highway, described

above, to an endless stretch of mud. With the rise of air temperatures

in June, July, and August, and the gradually lengthening of the days,

all vegetation finds itself in an approximation of hot-house conditions.

It is hardly surprising that growth occurs and is occasionally phenomenal.

        All the early explorers of Norton Sound make particular

mention of the profusion of small fruits and berries available on the shores

of the Sound. These include: red and black currant s , gooseberries, cran–

berries, raspberries, bearberries, twinberries, dewberries, mossberries,

and rose berries.

        ¶ Until very recent time s ailors have depended largely

007      |      Vol_XII-0725                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

upon supplies of this k ind of fresh fruit to prevent scurvy. Captain

James Cook made a landfall in the Unalakleet area south of Cape Denbigh

on September 11, 1778. "At two in the afternoon," writes Ellis, assis–

tant surgeon to the voyage, "boats well manned were sent on shore, for the

purpose of getting wood, of which we saw great plenty upon the beach.

The sides of the hills ... were well clothe d with birch and willows, but

they were of small size; among these were great numbers of red and black

currant trees, with plenty of fruit. The higher parts and summits of the

hills wer e almost entirely covered with crow and whortle-berries, which

afforded a most pleasing and salutary repast to everyone on board...The

boats were soon loaded, but we found great difficulty in getting them

off, on account of the little depth of water, which obliged us to heave

a good deal of our cargoes overboard." Considering the fact that Cook

and his two crews aboard the Resolution and the Discovery had been

sailing since July 12, 1776, when they put out from Plymouth, England,

and that they were destined to continue their voyage well into 1779, it

can well be imagined how hard was the loss of this boatload of fresh fruit

from the shores of Norton Sound.

        Names Cook was the first white man to sail through this Sound.

He discovered it during the voyage in September, 1778,

during the voyage mentioned above, and named it Norton "in honour of Sir

Fletcher Norton (afterwards Lord Frantley), speaker of the House of

Commons." Cook likewise named various prominent features of the Sound

and its coast, including Stuart Island, Shaktolik, just below Cape Den–

bigh, Cape Denbigh itself, Cape Darby, across the entrance to Norton Bay,

and Cape Rodney, northern entrance t p oint to Norton Sound.

        Other early arrivals to this part of Bering Sea were the

Russian fur-traders. St. Michael Bay and Island were discovered and

008      |      Vol_XII-0726                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

named by Captain Michael Tebenkof in 1833. The Russians also explored

the [ ?] lower Yukon in 1837 and 1838. They named, or were the first

to record, Pastol Bay, Tolstoi Point, Egg Island, just off this point,

the Unalakleet River, Rocky Point, and Cape Topkok, in the Bluff District.

        Dr. William Healey Dall, who went to Alaska in 1865 in

the employment of the Western Union Telegraph Company, and who returned

several times subsequently as a member of the U.S. Coast Survey and the U.S.

Geological Survey, is responsible for recording many of the names all

along the coast of Norton Sound. Alfred Hulse Brooks, and Edward Chester

Barnard, both of the U.S. Geological Survey, are responsible for many

others. (For the story of the name "Nome" see the article, Cape Nome.)

        Occupations The chief occupations of the Native inhabitants,

who comprise the majority of the population of these

shores, are trapping, hunting, fishing, fur farming, and reindeer herding,

in addition to such typically Native industries as ivory carving, sled,

[ ?] harness , and boat making, etc. With the exception of these latter

occupations and reindeer herding, the white inhabitants are similarly

employed. In addition, there are certain generally white occupations.

The most important of these, of course, is gold mining. In recent years

there has been an increasing interest in the commercial development of the

king crab, shrimp, cod, halibut, herring, and salmon fishing in the Sound.

        Nome, with an estimated 1939 popu a l ation of 1,500, gives

employment to a wider variety of workers than its size would imply. As

the headquarters for the Se d c ond Judicial District of Alaska, it is the

residence of many Territorial and Federal officials. As the freight

transfer point to other parts of southern Seward Peninsula, it needs

crews for its lighterage services and workers for its warehouses and

storage establishments. As the educational, religious, medical, cultural,

009      |      Vol_XII-0727                                                                                                                  
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA

and business center for northwestern Alaska, it employs a great variety

of people. (See Nome article.)

        With the discovery of pitchblende only one hundred miles

from Nome, in October, 1948, it is reasonable to assume that the

future of that particular section of the coast of Norton Sound may hold

as exciting and unpredictable developments as took place in the same

area at the beginning of the twentieth century.

        Sources: Baker; Twekesbury; USCP, 1947 ed.; VSGB

        Ellis, W. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt. Cook and Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt. Cook and

Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,

and 1780 in search of a North West Passage and 1780 in search of a North West Passage . London,

Robinson, 1782. Vol.II, pp.9-13.

        Dall, William H. Alaska and its resources Alaska and its resources . Boston, 1870.

001      |      Vol_XII-0728                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins NOXAPAGA RIVER, ALASKA

November, 1948

        600 - Text

75 - Bibl

        NOXAPAGA RIVER, central Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is a northern tribu–

tary to the Kuzitrin River (q.v.) in the vicinity of 164° W. Long.

        Brooks reported this river as the Kugrukruk or Kugirukuk in

1900, but Gerdine obtained the Eskimo name by which it is now known

in 1901.

        The Noxapaga is formed by the junction of Berry and Eldorado

Creeks at about 65° 40′ N.Lat., 164° W. Long. It rises in the divide

separating the Noxapaga watershed from the Goodhope River system to

the north. The Noxapaga continues almost directly south down an ever–

widening valley which merges, after eight or ten miles, with the

interior basin known as the Kuzitrin Flats. After bending westward

about midway of its course, the Noxapaga continues returns to its southward

trend and enters the Kuzitrin.

        Considering that the Noxapaga is only about twenty or twenty–

five miles long, it receives a great many tributaries. Travelling

downstream , the western affluents are: Aurora (with its own tributary,

Money Creek), Goose, Turner (which is joined by Boulder Creek), Little

Garfield, and Mascot (which receives Tina Creek. East Fork, which

rises south of Imuruk Lake, is the longest and the only eastern tribu–

tary to the Noxapaga.

        Mining Consequent upon the Kougarok gold rush of 1900, gold

was discovered on several of the streams in the Noxapaga

system. A U.S. Geological Survey map , dated 1913 , shows gold placers

on Goose, Boulder, and Garfield Creeks.

        In 1901, the placers on Boulder Creek yielded $7,000, but,

002      |      Vol_XII-0729                                                                                                                  
NOXAPAGA RIVER, ALASKA

although large nuggets were fairly common and the gold [ ?]

throughout the area was coarse, subsequent years were not as produc–

tive.

        Placers on Garfield Creek were all confined to the upland parts

of its valley, a few miles south of Baldy Mountain, which could can be

reached by trail from the Kougarok River. However, the expense of

getting supplies to Garfield Creek, combined with the shallowness of

the pay streak to reduce activity along it from the six operators in

of 1900 to only one in 1908.

        Up until 1940 , very little work was done in the Noxapaga area,

but, starting with the U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industries U.S. Bureau of Mines report

for that year, the Fox Bar Dredging Co. is mentioned as [ ?] having

been active in the southern part of the Kougarok Valley and in

"scattered camps on streams tributary to Noxapaga River," and that

new dredges seem "to have re s ulted in a larger output of gold than

heretofore." It is unfortunate that the wartime regulation making

gold "nonessential" followed so shortly upon this revival of interest

in the Noxapaga river system. (See Nome and Bluff articles.)

As of this writing (1948), gold mining in Alaska has not recovered

from the effect of this ruling and from the war generally, neither

along the Noxapaga nor anywhere else in the Territory.

        There are no true settlements on the Noxapaga or its tributaries,

although there is a 1,400-foot landing strip in the v icinity of East

Fork. Several winter trails connect this strip with Nome, Solomon,

and other Norton Sound points, with Teller, on Port Clarence, and with

points in the Kougarok and Kotzebue distric t s to the north.

003      |      Vol_XII-0730                                                                                                                  
NOXAPAGA RIVER, ALASKA

        SOURCES

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Wash., D.C., 1906.

        U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper 314 Water-Supply Paper 314 . Washington, D.C., 1913.

        Guide Book of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska Guide Book of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska .

        Brooks, Alfred H. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay

Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.

        Smith, Philip S. Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940 Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940 . Washington,

D.C., 1942. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 753-A)

        U.S.C.P. Alaska. Part II. 1947. U.S.C.P. Alaska. Part II. 1947.

Colby, Merle. Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier . N.Y., 1942.

001      |      Vol_XII-0731                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

29 April 48 NUSHAGAK, ALASKA

        300 wds

        NUSHAGAK, ALASKA (Meshagak) is a native settlement and

post office on Nushagak Point, eastern side of Nushagak Bay (q.v.),

7 or 8 miles north of Clark Point (q.v.). It was established in

August, 1899, and had a population of 41 in 1939. The settlement

has a store, a school, and a Russian church. Like the inhabitants

of other Bristol Bay villages in this area most of the people of

Nushagak turn fisherman during the brief salmon canning season from

mid-June to late July. For the remainder of the year the chief

activities are hunting and trapping. Clothing, general provisions,

and trapping supplies are available from the store in the village,

and, although other game is scarce, reindeer meat is usually

available. In addition, most of the salmon canneries operating

in the settlement maintain stores during the canning season and

operate repair shops which will sometimes take on outside work.

During the season the canneries maintain their own radio stations,

and the mail steamer from Seward makes monthly calls from May to

August each year.

        Nushagak has no wharf so that landing cargo at low water

is difficult. Vessels must approach the shore as close as their

draft permit and then use small boats or barges to complete the

landing. The mud at low tide is deep and sticky, but, because of

the extreme range of the tide, an easy boat landing may be made at

high water.

        The present site of Nushagak is probably the same as that

of a trading post established by the Russians in 1818 or 1819 and

called Alexandrovsk, perhaps in honor of Alexander Baranov, who

ordered the post established. It has been variously reported since

then as Alexander, Alexandrovski, and erroneously as Alexandra.

002      |      Vol_XII-0732                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK, ALASKA

It is now generally known as Nushagak. About 1 1/2 miles to the

north of the settlement is Kanulik, where the Moravian Mission,

Carmel, was established in 1899.

Sources: Baker; Colby; Towkesbury; Sundborg; USCP & Suppl.; VSGB

001      |      Vol_XII-0733                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

24 May 48 NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA

        1500 wds

        NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA, a northern arm of Bristol Bay, is one

of the centers of the red salmon canning industry for which this entire

region is famous. The bay is about 15 miles wide at the entrance between

Etolin Point, the eastern entrance point on the mainland, and Protection

Point, the western entrance point on Nushagak Peninsula. The bay extends

northwestward for about 12 miles to Ekuk Bluff, where it is 7 or 8

miles wide, and then turns northward for about 9 miles to Nushagak where

it is about 3 miles wide. The bay extends for a few more miles in a

northeasterly direction to a point into which the Nushagak River (q.v.)

flows from the east and Wood River (q.v.) flows from the northwest.

Besides these two major tributaries, Nushagak Bay receives Clark Slough,

about midway on the eastern side, and the Snake and Igushik Rivers [ ?]

on the western side. Two islands, one unnamed and the other called

Williams Island partially obstruct the head of Nushagak Bay. The extreme

northwestern tip of the larger, unnamed island is called Picnic Point.

        Nushagak Bay is one of the many Bristol Bay tributaries reported

in 1938 by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to be incompletely surveyed

and dangerous to navigate. The tidal range in this area runs from 15 to

24 feet. Because of the funnel-shaped configuration of the mouths of

these rivers and bays, tidal currents are extremely strong and can

attain a velocity of 6 knots. The depths in these bays and rivers are

never very great, even at high water, so that vast areas of shoals and

mud flats are uncovered at low tide. The shores of Nushagak Bay are

obstructed by shoals and bars, [ ?]

and rip tides are a good indication of shoal water at all times.

002      |      Vol_XII-0734                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA

Strangers to this bay should attempt its ascent only in the daytime on

a rising tide, and they would be well advised to radio ahead for a pilot

from one of the many cannery vessels which operate in the bay. Nushagak Bay

has not been surveyed since 1909 or 1910, and it is suspected that

considerable change in the channels has taken place since that time.

Of the two possible channels only the eastern, beyond Etolin Point, is

currently in use.

        Etolin Point is the southern extrem[e?]ity of a blunt peninsula

which separates Nushagak Bay from Kvichak Bay (q.v.). The point is com–

prised of three bluffs, the middle and highest measuring about 90 feet.

A 150-foot hill a little over a mile s northeast of the point is the

first summit to show when approaching from seaward. Etolin Point was

named by Lütke in 1830 for the Russian explorer Etolin, at one time

governor of the Russian American Company, and, from about 1821 to 1882,

surveyor of the Alaska coast from Bristol Bay to Cape Newenham. For

eighty years Etolin's charts were the only ones covering this area.

        Ekuk Bluff, about 13 miles north of Etolin Point, is a

ridge about 150 feet high, which It carries a light structure marking the

channel over a bar which lies off the bluff. This light structure

should not be confused with the church steeple which is the first mark

to appear on Ekuk Bluff. Although most of the channels in Nushagak

Bay change somewhat from year to year, the channel off Ekuk Bluff, as

marked by this lighted range, was reported in 1938 to have remained

constant for 9 years. The only change noted in that time was that

depths over the bar increased from 17 to 21 feet.

        The small native settlement of Ekuk lies on the spit north

of the bluff. The water inside this spit drains completely off at

low tide. During the canning season , which runs from mid-June to

003      |      Vol_XII-0735                                                                                                                  
NUSHGAK BAY, ALASKA

late July, Libby, McNeill and Libby maintain a cannery and radio station

at Ekuk. The company wharf is 150 feet long and is fitted with a marine

railway. Fresh water is available on the wharf, but the supplies of

gasoline,diesel , and fuel oils are for company use only. This wharf has

a depth along side of 7 feet at high tide. An Eskimo settlement called

Ekuk was recorded by Baker in 1906 as "near the mouth of Nushagak River."

This may be the same as the present t wo ow n of Ekuk. The name was first

assigned by Lütke in 1828, who wrote it Ekouk. It has also been called

Yekuk.

        Clark Point, a few miles north of Ekuk Bluff, is a post office

and settlement with a population estimated at 22 in 1939. The village

has a high water tank and two salmon canneries. The Alaska Packers

Association cannery has a wharf 70 feet long fitted with a 12-ton crane

and a marine railway. Freshwater is available on the wharf. Since the

wharf is dry at low water, supplies must then be brought by lighters to

vessels offshore. The U.S. Fish Commission named Clark Point in 1890,

perhaps in honor of Prof. Samuel Fessenden Clark, of William s College.

        Nushagak (q.v.), one of the larger settlements on the bay, is

about 6 or 7 miles northward from Clark Point.

        Snag Point is a small settlement near the mouth of Wood River

(q.v.) on the west side of Nushagak Bay. There is a cannery about two

miles north of Snag Point, and the Alaska Salmon Co. operates radio station

KZV in this vicinity. The Choggiung Public Utility District, organized

in 1939, proposes to establish a modern sanitary water supply for the

settlement. The same year funds were raised to build a new church. Snag

Point is on the long winter trail running from Lewis Point, on the mouth

of the Nushagak River, and points on the Kvichak River (q.v.) to Dilling–

ham, Owens, Togiak, and other villages to the west.

004      |      Vol_XII-0736                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA

        Dillingham (q.v.), a few miles southward from Snag Point, is

the largest settlement on Nushagak Bay.

        Kanakanak, a few miles south of Dillingham, is a post office

and settlement which had a population of 177 in 1940. Like the inhabitants

of other Bristol Bay villages in this area, the people of Kanakanak turn

← fishermen during the brief salmon canning season from mid-June to

late July. For the remainder of the year the chief activities are hunting

and trapping. The village is on the winter trail connecting with Dilling–

ham and points to the eastward and westward. The hospital, which burned

in 1932, was being rebuilt in 1940. The U.S. Signal Corps operates

radiotelegraph station WXK in Kanakanak, and planes from Anchorage stop

here. In 1938 a United States Deputy Marshal andCommissioner was

stationed in the village. Moser reported this town in approximately its

present position in 1897. The Eleventh Census of 1890 gave the population

as 53, making Kanakanak one of the older substantial settlements of the

area.

        Daly, a few miles south of Kanakanak, is a settlement and

cannery which, in 1939, was operated by the Pacific American Fisheries,

Inc.

        Coffee Point, a few miles south of Daly, was so named by traders

in this area and was recorded by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1891.

Several salteries are grouped around the mouth of the Snake River which

enters Nushagak Bay from the west a few miles south of Coffee Point.

Several more salteries and the small settlement of Igushik are found

at the mouth of the Igushik River about midway down the western side of

Nushagak Bay. Igushik had a population of only 16 in 1939 but appears

on a map dated that same year to be the site of a commercial radiotelegraph

and radiotelephone station. The Igushik River drains from Amanka Lake,

in the foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains, and takes an extremely tortuous,

005      |      Vol_XII-0737                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA

generally southeasterly course to Nushagak Bay. The name, which has been

variously reported ever since Tebenkof first recorded it in 1849, would

appear to be based on one of two similar Eskimo words, the first meaning

crooked , and the other meaning snake . The Igushik River is fed by many

small streams running from the countless tiny lakes which dot the

interior of Nushagak Peninsula.

        For 10 to 20 miles inland the territory around Nushagak Bay is

soft tundra sprinkled with lakes. Since summer overland travel is impossible,

mail and supplies of all kinds must be transported either by air or by water.

In winter, however, the long trail which starts at two points on

Shelikof Strait and runs westward to points on Kuskokwim Bay joins many of

the settlements on Iliamna and Clark Lakes with points on Kvichak and

Nushagak Bays. The ice does not usually leave Nushagak Bay until about

the middle of May, and has been known to obstruct navigation until June 17.

The pack having been completed, cannery vessels leave the bay in August, and

T t he ice probably does not begin to form again until late in the fall.

In recent years the [ ?] salmon companies have substituted streamers for

the sailing vessels previously used. At one time, however, some of

the most famous of the clipper ships were employed in the salmon trade.

        The weather in the Nushagak Bay area is considered better than fart

farther westward. Winds from the east bring rain and fog; light winds

from the southwest bring fair weather, but strong winds from the same

direction bring rain; and winds from the northwest bring fine, clear

weather. There is little fog during the summer, but August and September

are usually stormy.

001      |      Vol_XII-0738                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins Text - 200 wds.

February, 1949 NULUK RIVER, ALASKA

        NULUK RIVER, northwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, was reported

by Gerdine, in 190 1 , as the Nooluk .

        This river heads in mountains of the interior of Seward Peninsula

which extend eastward from the York Mountains and which separate this no r thern

drainage system from that of the Agiapuk, a tributary to Imuruk Basin. The

Nuluk is formed by the confluence of the widely branching North and South

Forks, and then flows i follows a generally northwesterly course for about 35

miles to the lagoon which borders this section of the north coast of Seward

Peninsula. On some early maps this shallow body of water is identified as Arctic

Lagoon, but the most recent maps leave it nameless.

        The mountains in which the Nuluk rises are of Port Clarence lime–

stone, and, about 15 miles from its head, the river has eroded a canyon varying

from 100 to 1,000 feet in depth.

        After examining this river in 1901, Collier did not find that it

was a good stream for any kind of mining endeavors. The coastal gravel extends

up the Nuluk farther than it does on other rivers of the region, but no colors

have been found in them and the unaltered limestone through which the early

course of the river flows does not contain mineralized veins.

        Sources;

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic [ ?] Dictionary of Alaska Geographic [ ?] Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington,1906.

        Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula, Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Professional

Paper Paper No.2)

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0739                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

26 May 48 NUSHAGAK PENINSULA, ALASKA

        200 wds

        NUSHAGAK PENINSULA, in the southern part of Alaska,

separates Nushagak Bay from Kulukak Bay, both northern extensions of

Bristol Bay. The peninsula stretches in a southeasterly direction

from the foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains at about 59° N. Lat., 159°

W. Long. to Cape Constantine at about 58° 23′ N. Lat. This cape was so

named by Ustiugof in 1818. The northeastern section is crossed by the

meandering Igushik River which flows from Amanka Lake at the head of

the peninsula to Nushagak Bay. The peninsula is mostly low, marshy

tundra dotted with countless tiny lakes and cut by numerous creeks

and streams. Tuklom Igloos lie near one of these small lakes. The only

settlement of any size on the peninsula is Igushik at the mouth of the

Igushik River. Protection Point, an extension of the southeastern side

of the peninsula, is the western entrance point to Nushagak Bay. This

point was called Povorotnoi, turn , by Tebenkof in 1849, but was renamed

by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1890. Kulukak Point, a sharp northwestern

extension of Nushagak Peninsula, about 30 miles northwestward from

Cape Constantine, is the eastern entrance point to Kulukak Bay (q.v.).

Sources: USCP & Suppl; VSGB; Baker

° in Sundborg; Colby; Allen

001      |      Vol_XII-0740                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

4 May 48 NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA

        1,000 wds

        NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA (Nushegak, Nouchagak), the largest

tributary to Nushagak Bay (q.v.), a northern arm of Bristol Bay,

is about 220 miles long. The Nushagak, with its largest tributary,

the Mulchatna (q.v.), drains a V-shaped strip of southeastern Alaska

northeast of Bristol Bay, bounded on the east by the foothills of

the Alaska Range north of Lake Clark and on the west by the Kilbuck

Mountains just west of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.). The Nuyakuk River

(q.v.), second largest tributary to the Nushagak drains from Tikchik

and Nuyakuk Lakes which themselves are fed by streams from the Kil–

buck Mountains. Wood River (q.v.), which joins the Nushagak at its

mouth at the head of Nushagak Bay, drains from Lake Aleknagik, another

Tikchik Lake, which also receives tributaries from the Kilbuck

Mountains.

        The Nushagak rises in a group of small mountains about

2800 feet high called the Nushagak Hills at about 60° 35′ N. Lat.,

156° W. Long. from which point it takes a devious, southwesterly

course to the head of Nushagak Bay. The Nushagak has many tributar–

ies along its early course above 60° N. Lat. most of which are in–

dicated by dotted lines, and some of which are as yet unnamed.

The Chichitnok and King Salmon Rivers enter from the west a few

miles from the head; Vukpalik Creek and Harris Creek enter from the

east about 6 and 23 miles below the mouth of the King Salmon.

9 or 10 miles southward from here the Nuyakuk enters from the west, and

about 18 miles south of this confluence the Mulchatna flows in from

the east. From this point to its mouth the Nushagak is fed by many

small streams and creeks including Nunachuak Creek, just below the

mouth of the Mulchatna; Elilakok Creek, a few miles farther down ; Klutuk

002      |      Vol_XII-0741                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA

Creek, about 18 miles farther south; and Kokwok River, 6 or 7 miles

below the Klutuk. Just below 60° N. Lat. the Nushagak swings south–

eastward, then southwestward again, a pattern which is repeated

several miles up-river from its mouth. This part of the river, therefore,

resembles an enormous 3. In addition to the several small

tributaries already given for this section of the Nushagak, there

are numberless unnamed streams, which drain ing from the hundreds of

tiny lakes dotting this part of the coastal lowlands to which flow

into the Nushagak from both sides. Beginning at about 59° 15′ N.Lat.

the river follows two winding courses at once, these sometimes

being connected by short channels and sometimes proceeding for

miles side by side without joining. One such section near the mouth

of the river is called Keefer Cutoff, the southern end of which

receives Portage Creek from the southeast. Just below this cutoff,

at about 58° 55′, the river veers sharply westward from its

southward course, then widens considerably and arches northwestward.

The lower part of the river has, therefore, the appearance of a

massive, blunt hook. Scandinavian Slough connects the alternate

channel west of Keefer Cutoff with the a point on the river proper

several miles nearer its mouth. Little Muklung River enters the

Nushagak from the north very near the mouth, and the mouths of the

Nushagak and Wood Rivers join at the head of Nushagak Bay.

        Like so many other Bristol Bay rivers, the Nushagak

        The Nushagak River system contains countless numbers of

lakes making it an ideal habitat for the red salmon for which this

whole Bristol Bay region is famous. From mid-June to late July

003      |      Vol_XII-0742                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA

companies maintain canneries along the mouth of the river Nushagak

and Wood Rivers and at the head of Nushagak Bay. The Nushagak is

one of the many Bristol Bay rivers reported in 1938 by the U.S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey to be incompletely surveyed and dangerous

to navigate. The tidal range in this area runs from 15 to 24 feet.

Because of the funneleshaped configuration of the mouths of these

rivers and of the bays into which they empty, tidal currents are

extremely strong and can attain a velocity of 6 knots. The depths

in these bays and rivers are never very great, even at high water,

so that vast areas of shoals and mud flats are uncovered at low tide,

leaving only the shallowest of channels between them. Despite these

difficulties, small vessels drawing up to 2 1/2 feet can navigate

the Nushagak River for about 155 miles up from its mouth.

        Settlements Recent maps show no settlements along the Nushagak River

above its confluence with the Nuyakuk. Koliganek, a small, native

village s lies on the southern bank of this junction. Several miles

south of the mouth of the Mulchatna River, but on the west side of

the Nushagak, is Akokpak, another small, native settlement, and on

the east side, at the mouth of Nunachuak Creek is the village of

Nunachuak which had a population of 50 in 1939. The native

settlements of Elilakok, Inakpuk, and Tunravik lie within about 12

miles of Nunachuak, and about an equal distance still farther south

is Ekwok, a village and post office on the west bank of the

Nushagak. Ekwok has a federal school staffed with a teacher and a

community worker. Ekwok This settlement is on the mail route running from

Dillingham (q.v.) to Iliamna and had a population of 68 in 1939.

Recent maps show a shelter cabin at the mouth of Portage Creek at

the southern entrace to Keefer Cutoff. Lewis Point, on the north

004      |      Vol_XII-0743                                                                                                                  
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA

side of the Nushagak about 10 miles from its mouth, is on the

long winter trail which joins points on Iliamna Lake (q.v.) and the [ ?]

Kvichak River with Dillingham, Owens, Goodnews (q.v.) and other Bristol

Bay towns to the west.

        Early Russian explorers and, in 1828, Lütke reported the Nushagak

R iver with recognizable variants of its present name. In 1778,

however, Cook appears to have referred to it as the Bristol.

Schanz recorded it as the Tahlekuk, about 1890, while Baker note d ,

in 1906, that the local fisheries refer red to it as the Main River.

It is now generally known as the Nushagak.

Sources: USCP & suppl., VSGB; Baker; Colby; Sundborg; Tewkesbury

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0744                                                                                                                  
RUBY COLLINS NUYAKUK RIVER, ALASKA

4 May 48

        200 wds

        NUYAKUK RIVER, southeastern Alaska, one of the important

tributaries to the Nushagak River (q.v.), drains from the eastern end

of Tikchik Lake at about 59° 56′ N. Lat., 158° 12′ W. Long., and

takes a narrow, winding southeasterly course to join the long Nushagak

at about 59° 49′ N. Lat., 157° 27′ W. Long. The Nuyakuk is about 28

miles long and is marked by falls and rapids early in its course,

after which it widens and flows less swiftly. Recent maps show no

named tributaries to the Nuyakuk, although it is fed from north and

south all along its course by many streams and creeks rising in the

numberless small lakes which dot this section of the coastal lowlands.

The two permanent settlements on the Nuyakuk are Kaskanak, at its head,

and koliganek, on the south bank of its junction with the Nushagak.

        At one time the Nuyakuk was called the Tikchik River (q.v.)

and was so reported by Baker , in 1906. Some confusion still exists

today. The Nuyakuk was carefully traced but incorrectly indicated

on a U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey World Aeronautical Chart dated

January, 1947. On this map the name Nuyakuk was printed along a

stretch of the Nushagak River, leaving the entire course of the

Nuyakuk unidentified.

        Sources: vsgb

        ° in USCP, Baker, Colby, Greely

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0745                                                                                                                  

        Place with Geography. Taken from Gasser "Agriculture in Alaska"

        Palmer, in the Matanuska Valley, contains a business section

which is growing rapidly; in 1948 a large hotel was being built. There

are churches and civic organizations and a Farmer's Cooperating Association.

An excellent fair is held there annually. As evidence of growth, the

large school building is inadequate to house the children; and the town

is considering incorporating (1947).

001      |      Vol_XII-0746                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins PENNY RIVER, ALASKA

October, 1948 200 wds

        PENNY RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, empties into

Norton Sound about eleven miles west of Nome, at the mouth of the Snake River (q.v )

        The headwaters of the Penny are cut off from the Kigluaik Moun–

tains, in which the Snake River rises, by the broad basin of the upper

Sinuk River (q.v.) and its tributaries.

        The Penny is perhaps fourteen miles long, and, for the first

half of its course , is constricted to a narrow valley by untimbered heights

of over 1,000 feet. Along this part of its course, the Penny receives

Wheel Gulch, Rabbit Creek, and Honey Creek.

        Below this point, the Penny Basin broadns out considerably, until,

for the last few miles, the river follows a meandering, deeply entrenched

course across the coastal plain to Norton Sound.

        Along this lower stretch, the Penny is joined by Willow Creek

and several unnamed tributaries.

        There are no settlements on Penny River now, although, at one

time, there was considerably gold mining activity all along the stream.

The village of Submarine Paystreak is on the shore of Norton Sound half–

way between Nome and the mouth of the Penny River.

Sources: VSGB; USCP & Supplement; Baker

001      |      Vol_XII-0747                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 Text - 200 wds PINGUK RIVER, ALASKA

        PINGUK RIVER, northwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises

northeast of Brooks Mountain, across the divide from California River (q.v.),

and flows northward into a lagoon which lies between Lopp Lagoon and

Shishmaref Inlet. This lagoon appears as Arctic Lagoon on some maps drawn

early in the twentieth century, but is unidentified on more recent maps. The

mouth of the Pinguk is about 30 miles northeast of Cape Prince of Wales.

        Although the early mountainous section of the Pinguk is relatively

straight, its lower course section folows a serpentine course across the gravels of

the coastal plain.

        About ten miles above its mouth, the Pinguk forks. The large

western fork is known as York River. At one time the eastern fork was called

the McKillop River, but it is not identified on recent maps.

        York River rises in the eastern end of Brooks Mountain and flows

northeastward to the Pinguk. In the lower part of its course it occupies

a valley two to three hundred feet deep. Along this valley slate bed rock

is exposed , and the river has also been found to contain tin. (For a general

description of theAlaska tin industry see York Mountains article.)

        Sources:

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

        Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula ,

Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Professional

Paper Paper No.2)

001      |      Vol_XII-0748                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 Text - 660 wds. Bibl - 25 wds PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE, ALASKA

        PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is the

point at which North America most closely approaches Asia. The Cape lies

only 55 miles across Bering Strait from the U.S.S.R.

        This Cape is really a northerly one section of the base of Cape Mountain,

a 2,300-foot peak of comparatively regular outline which occupies much of

this part of Seward Peninsula. To the south and southwest the mountains slope

down to the sea, while the low sand beach, which forms the face of the cape,

extends northward for a few miles and then turns northeastward toward

Shishmaref Inlet (q.v.).

        The small native village of Wales lies on this beach. It has a

post office, a store, a school, and several reindeer corrals. The Kingegan

Mission, named for the original native word for the Cape itself, is now located

there, and the r e is a 1,600-foot landing strip nearby. Tin City (q.v.)

lies a few miles southeast of the Cape.

        Very deep water, up to 120 feet, will be found on approaching the

Cape from the southeast. This depth continues along a northwesterly line

until, about five miles northward, it is several miles offshore. A line of

18-foot shoal water begins very close to the southwestern point of the Cape,

but leave s the shore almost immediately, continuing about one miles offshore until

the Cape makes northeastward. At this point this shoal presumably joins the

long and treacherous Prince of Wales Shoal.

        Many times vessels of the old whaling fleets struck this shoal

ten or fifteen nautical miles offshore. The western face of the shoal is especi–

ally abrupt, depths decreasing rapidly from 120 feet. It is recommended that

all vessels approaching from southward give the shoal a wide berth, and that

they not haul eastward until 40 or more miles beyond the Cape. Southbound

vess el le s must take care not to be caught , by falling too far eastward , between the

25

002      |      Vol_XII-0749                                                                                                                  
PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE

shoal and the northern shore of Seward Peninsula. From Point Hope a course

laid for Cape Dezhneva clears the shoal. Cape Dezhneva is high land and

therefore gives makes a better landfall than the Diomedes, which are usually in fog.

Because the limits of Prince of Wales Shoal are not definitely known, no buoys

have been established to mark it. The remoteness of the locality and the heavy

ice conditions would, in any case, make buoys impracticable.

        Although this cape is said to have been named Gwozdef by Bering,

in 1728, and the Eskimo name Niekta Niekta or Nychta Nychta has also been reported, its

present name , given by Cook on August 9, 1778, is now universally used.

        On July 30, 1816, Kotzebue passed around Cape Prince of Wales

on the trip which was to re s ult in his dscovery of the sound which still

bears his name. He describes the country about the Cape in the following

words: "From Cape Prince of Wales extends a low land to the west, on which we

observed many jurtes and frames built with whalebones, to dry fish on. As we

were only three miles from the shore, we could plainly discern a number of

people standing together in groups, to admire the wonderful large ship, but

without making the least preparation for coming on board. I therefore took

advantage of the wind, and fair weather, and sailed along the coast,which

takes an E.N.E. direction from Cape Prince of Wales, consisting of low land,

but has a far more pleasing appearance than St. Lawrence Island. The whole

low ground is covered with a luxuriant green: there are no trees at all, but

some low bushes; and only a little snow on the summits of the mountains in

the interior of the country. Many habitations, which cover the coast, [ indcate ?]

indicate a numerous population. A baydare which we saw under sail, had by no

means the intention of approaching the ship, but took its course to the north.

I kept as close to the shore as the d pe ep th, which was scarcely five fathoms,

would permit, and therefore I could not have missed any deep bay or opening.

The depth increases slowly and regularly, and as the low land is scarcely

001      |      Vol_XII-0750                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

October, 1948 360 wds RODNEY, CAPE, ALASKA

Rev. Nov., 1948

        RODNEY, CAPE, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, (64° 39′ N.Lat., 166° 25′ W. Long.) the most

westerly point on the southern coast of the peninsula, lies between the

mouth of the Sinuk River and Cape Woolley, at the mouth of Igloo Creek

about ten miles to the north.

        A four-mile stretch of lake-strewn grassland separates Cape Rodney

from the highlands which enclose the lower Sinuk River. The shore is

a low sand beach along which runs a winter trail, leading eastward to Nome

and northward to Port Clarence and Cape Prince of Wales.

        The coast between Cape Rodney and Cape Woolley cannot be approached

close to because of the shallowness of the water. From August 1 to

November 1 each year, Cape Rodney is marked by a light.

        Captain Frederick W. Beechey, who visited this section of the

Alaska coast in August, 1927 1827, gives the following revealing des–

cription of this cape: "Point Rodney is low, and the water being shallow,

it is difficult to land. From the beach to the foot of the mountains there

is a plain about two miles wide, covered with lichens and grass, upon which

several herds of reindeer were feeding ; but the communication is in

places interrupted by narrow lakes, which extend several miles along the

coast. Upon the beach there was a greater abundance of driftwood than we

had noticed on any other part of the coast ; ...there were several trunks which

appeared to have been recently torn up by the roots. Near the spot where we

landed [ t.. a number of ?] were ... a number of posts driven into the ground,

and in the lake we found several artificial ducks, which had been left as

------------------------------------------------

        Sources: Bakers; VSGB; USCP & Supplement

        Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of aVoyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of aVoyage to the Pacific and Beering's

Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . [ Vol.II. ?]

London, Colburn & Bentley, 1831. Vol.II, p.251-252.

002      |      Vol_XII-0751                                                                                                                  
RODNEY, CAPE, ALASKA

        decoys; but we saw no natives. About two miles from the coast the country

rises to peaked hills of great height, covered with perennial snow.

It was calm throughout the greater part of the day, with very fine weather.

The temperature...at noon reached to 55°, which was twenty-one degrees

higher than it had been on the opposite shore [ Asia ] ."

003      |      Vol_XII-0752                                                                                                                  
PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE

        visible when you are in nine fathoms' water, it is not to be wondered at,

that Cook, who kept in this part at the depth of seventeen fathoms, should

not have seen the low land at all."

        Sources:

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906

        Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's

Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 . Translated by H.E. Lloyd.

London, 1821. vol.I.

        U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II. 1947.

        U.S. C. [ ?] G.S. Chart No.9380

        V.S. Guide book for Alaska

001      |      Vol_XII-0753                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

August, 1948 ST.MICHAEL ISLAND

        1,356 wds.

25 wds - Bibe

        ST. MICHAEL ISLAND, off the west coast of Alaska in the

southeastern section of Norton Sound, is cut off from the mainland by

a tidal slough called St. Michael Canal. "This," Dall wrote in 1870,

"has been aptly named the Canal by the Russians, and it divides midway

into two branches which are, it seems to me, equally tortuous, though

they are styled the Straight and the Crooked respectively." The

island is separated from Stuart Island (q.v.) by Stephens Pass, and

is about 17 miles long by 13 miles wide. In 1871 Whymper gave this

description of St. Michael Island: "The island is thick with moss,

covering up, in some places, a bed of clay; berries in summer are

abundant,and can be obtained fresh in winter by digging through their

thick covering of snow. There are no trees whatever ..." Although

generally low, the island has two elevations: 472-foot St. Michael

Mountain, about in the center, and Stephens Hill, on the Stephens Pass

side. Except for these two high points the island is a marsh overgrown

with lichens, mosses, and sparsely growing grass. The shores are

irregular and low. In 1942 four reindeer herds, ranging individually

from 2,517 to 15,179 head, and totalling 32,809 head, were reported

by white owners. Two other herds are known to exist, but no figures

as to their size are available.

        In 1833 Captain Michael Tebenkof discovered St.Michael

Bay and built a fortified trading post on the island, which he called

Michailovskii Redoubt. By 1870 , when Dall visited the post , it was

already being called St. Michael. "The for s t," "he wrote, "is composed

of log buildings with plank roofs, placed in the form of a square,

and with the intervals filled by a palisade about ten feet high, sur–

mounted by a chevaux-de-frise of pointed stakes. This is also continued

round the eaves of the buildings. There are two outlying bastions, pierced

        27 [ ?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0754                                                                                                                  
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND

for cannon and musketry... There is a flag-staff leaning apologetically

as if consciously out of place, and a gallery for the watchman, who is

on duty day and night, with reliefs, and who tolls a bell on the hour

stroke to notify the inmates that he is not asleep...Outside of the

stockade are several other buildings, — a small storehouse used for

furs, a large shed where boats are drawn up in winter, a blacksmith's

shop, and a church. The latter is octagonal in shape, with a small dome,

surmounted by a cross, and a beam bearing a bell at the side of a

small porch which covers the doorway." Whymper had this to say:

"The station is built on the model of a Hudson's Bay Company's fort,

with enclosure of pickets, and with bastions flanking it. Inside are

the [ not ?] store-houses and dwellings of the employes, including the

"casine"...or general barrack, bath and cook-houses. These painted

yellow, and surmounted by red roofs, gave it rather a gay appearance."

A little over twenty years later, after the sale of Alaska to the

United States, De Windt reported: "Were I to ... to live in Alaska ...

I should certainly select St. Michael as a place of residence; for,

although the inhabitants are practically prisoners during nine months

of the year it is a bright clean little place, a contrast to the dirty

slipshod towns of the interior. First and foremost, there are few

mosquitoes, which is in itself an incalculable blessing...and, although

rain and fog are prevalent in autumn, and mid-winter brings down

terrific blizzards from the north, the short wintry days are generally

bright, still, and pleasant. Plenty of sport is obtainable on the

mainland. Caribou, wild-geese, duck, and ptarmigan abound... Fort

St. Michael ... consists chiefly of warehouses and dwellings erected by

the Alaska Commercial Company, which form one long street, neatly paved

with wood, and kept scrupulously clean in wet or dusty weather."

        By 1939 St. Michael had a population of 142 and was still

        29 [ ?]

003      |      Vol_XII-0755                                                                                                                  
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND

the largest settlement on the island. As the transfer point from

deep water boats to Yukon River boats, St. Michael was on c e more

active than it has been since the opening of the White Pass Railway

from Skagway and the Alaska Railroad from Seward, which now carry

most of the freight formerly brought to the Yukon area by water.

In 1938, however, a motorship shuttle service was running between

St. Michael and Kotzebue Sound (q.v.), north of Seward Peninsula.

The St. Michael of today has a Territorial school, with a nurse

from the Bureau of Education in attendance, a post office, a Roman

Catholic Mission, two general stores, two licensed fur dealers,

and a roadhouse. There is a 50 x 900-foot emergency landing field

on a sand pit near the town, and there is radio telephone communication

with some Yukon River points.

        12 Co

004      |      Vol_XII-0756                                                                                                                  
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND

        Stebbins (population 98 in 1939), on the northwestern point

of the island overlooking Stephens Pass, has an Alaska Native

Service school. Early maps call this town Atroic. The only other

settlements on the island are Fort St. Michael, an army post

and radio station, now abandoned, and Tatchek (Techek) near St.

Michael. All these towns on the Island are connected by winter trail

with settlements on the mouth of the Yukon, with Mt. Village and

other points up the Yukon and down the mainland as far as Scammon Bay,

and with Norton Bay and Seward Peninsula villages to the north.

        On the mainland across St. Michael Bay from the northeastern

tip of the island, is the small native village of Healy, and just

northeast of this tip is tiny Whale Island. A line of rocks which

are bare at low water run from St. Michael to W hale Island but northward

and eastward of the island the water deepens rapidly making a good

entrance to St. Mich [ aal ?] ael Bay. Beulah Island lies only about one–

quarter of a mile northwestward from Whale Island. It is small

and rounded and only about 50 feet high. The water between Beulah and

Whale islands is shoal, but Beulah island has bold water off its north–

eastern side.

        Egg Island, about 10 miles northeast of Whale Island,

has been used as a quarantine station. Deep water lies off the

western shore and, although the island is too small to afford much

protection in bad weather, it is the only lee available in this

vicinity in northerly gales.

        Since T here is no harbor in all the St. Michael vicinity for deep

draft vessels, ocean-going vessels which ships must anchor between St. Michael Bay

and Egg Island. Rocks and shoals are a continuous hazard in this

area. Loose rocks along the shores of St. Michael Bay are sometimes

        26 Co

005      |      Vol_XII-0757                                                                                                                  
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND

frozen into the ice in winter and then dropped as it goes out in the

spring. These rocks are particularly dangerous to smaller vessels

anchoring in shoal water close to shore. Although fogs are frequent

farther up Norton Sound, they arer rare at St. Michael, but a south–

ward mirage often distorts landmarks in this area and is one of the

major hazards of the vicinity. Muir gives a good description of the

tricks played by this mirage. "The mirage effects we have witnessed

on the cruise thus far are as striking as any I ever saw on the hot

American desert. Islands and headlands seemed to float in the air,

distorted into the most unreal, fantastic forms imaginable, while the

individual mountains of a chain along the coast appeared to dance at

times up and down with a rhythmic motion, in the tremulous refracting

atmosphere. On the northeast side of Norton Sound I saw two peaks,

each with a flat, black table on top, looming suddenly up and sinking

again alternately, like boys playing see-saw on a plank." Because of

this phenomenon astronomical sights taken near St. Michael can not be

depended upon and may be several miles in error although they seemed

good when recorded. The ice forms in St. Michael Bay sometime in

October or November and persists to the latter part of June.

        19 [ ?]

        Sources:

        USCP & Supplement; VSGB; Colby; Baker; Tewkesbury

Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough . Norman,

Oklahoma, Univ. of Oklahoma press, 1945.

        Muir, John. Cruise of the Corwin. Journal of the Arctic Expedition Cruise of the Corwin. Journal of the Arctic Expedition

of 1881 in search of De Long and the Jeannette of 1881 in search of De Long and the Jeannette . Boston, N.Y.

Houghton, 1917.

001      |      Vol_XII-0758                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

April, 1949 SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA

        Text - 1340 words

Bibl - 25 "

        SELAWIK LAKE ( Salawik Salawik, Silawik Silawik , etc.), a tidewater lake

connecting with Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound and the Polar Sea, indents

the shoreline of northwestern Alaska at about 66° 30′ N.Lat., 161° W. Long.

        This lake is about 27 miles long and about 20 miles wid e at

the greatest. Coming in from Hotham Inlet, Attiunik Point, the southern

entrance point, lies rather high on the western end of the lake. Directly

opposite, at the eastern end, the Selawik River (q.v.) enters the lake.

The mouth to this river is obstructed by numberless tiny islands and

by extensive mud flats rat reaching almost a mile from the shore.

        Depths in the lake vary from 12 to 18 feet, and 12 feet

can be carried to the westernmost branch of the mouth of the Selawik River.

        The only other named tributary to Selawik Lake is the

Mangoak, a much smaller stream than the Selawik, which enters the eastern

end from the south.

        ¶ However, Cantwell speaks of a tributary entering midway

of the north side of the lake. "At a point about one-half the distance

from the mouth of the Selawik River to the southern entrance to the lake a

river runs in from the mountains which separate the Kowak and Selawik Rivers.

Here the country is low and marshy, similar to the Kowak delta. Berries

grow in great abundance along the sides of the bluffs and on the level

tundra land, and game is exceedingly plentiful. I shot during the afternoon

eight ptarmigan, one goose, a loon, and an Arctic hare, and could have shot

many more of each of the birds mentioned had we needed them."

        South of the main mouth of the Selawik , and almost completely

blocked off from Selawik Lake by the Selawik delta and a mass of tiny

islands , is a smaller body of water known as Inland Lake. Stoney found

that this lake was connected with a southern branch of the Selawik and that

it was not over three feet at the greatest, and for the most part, only about

002      |      Vol_XII-0759                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA

one foot deep. "There is every indication," he added, "that this second

l k a ke was formerly part of the Selawik Lake. Selawik Lake itself is very

regular in shape and depth. There is little animal life in it; it

was dredged for hours, but no specimens were found."

        Cantwell, of the U.S.S. Corwin, also explored Selawik Lake in

August, 1884. His report reads in part as follows: "Selawik Lake ... is

nothing more than an extension of Hotham Inlet. In fact it is hard to

determine where the inlet ends and the lake begins on the north side, but on

the opposite side the entrance to the lake is well marked by a sand spit,

[ Attiunik Point ] which projects far out from the land and divides the two

bodies of water very plainly. At night we ran across to this spit, and seek–

ing a sheltered spot, camped. A convenient little harbor here determined

me to leave the launch at this place and to make the trip in the skin boat,

as I was informed that much of the upper portion of Selawik Lake was

shoal."

        ¶ The next day, Cantwell and his two companions continued the r i r

investigation of the lake. "After taking bearings of some prominent peaks

and points around the end of the lake," he writes, "I proceeded along the

south shore, finding from two to three fathoms of water with gradually shoal–

ing water to the beach. The country is the usual high rolling tundra land

of the lower part of the bay and forms a bluff bank to the lake. Along the

front of the bank it is covered with a thick growth of willow and birch,

except where the ice and snow have slipped down from the heights, leaving

a scarred and rugged track behind. A narrow strip of beach composed of white

sand and gravel extends for miles along the eastern side of the lake, and

at intervals long spits extend far out from the shore, so that many little

bays are formed...Toward 5 p.m. we reached a part of the lake where the

shore trends to the northwest, and here we found the water very shoal and

the shores low and swampy. Two hundred yards from the beach a bar extended

to the northwest parallel to the shore and a heavy sea was running on it...

003      |      Vol_XII-0760                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA

We got over the bar comparatively dry and camped on the marsh. The place

was alive with geese and ducks, and Andre killed enough in a very short while

to last us a week. We slept under the boat, and as the wind continued

blowing all night we were not troubled with mosquitoes."

        The following day, August 11, Cantwell happened upon Inland

Lake. "The shores continued low and marshy," he reports, "and at 12 o'clock

I observed a small river running in from the eastward. Upon inquiry I

learned that a large lake could be reached by going up this river, and as I

knew of no such lake was on the charts of this country I resolved to explore

it. We entered the river and found it to be about seventy-five yards wide,

and with two to three fathoms of water. At 2 p.m. we reached a beautiful

little lake about five miles in diameter and almost entirely surrounded by

mountains. Dashing across this lovely little sheet of water we entered a

narrow creek which flows in on the opposite side, and soon after stopped for

dinner at the hut of an Indian living on the banks of a lagoon near by. He

and his family were greatly surprised to see a white man here, but they

treated us very hospitably by giving us some fresh fish and deli c ious salmon

berries, which grew in great abundance on the tundra adjacent to the lake.

At 2 p.m. we left, after giving our host some tobacco, and in an hour's time

emerged on the large lake of which we were in search. The Indians call it

Emogarikchoit Emogarikchoit , or Little Sea Little Sea [ Inland Lake ] , and the river which connects

it with Selawik Lake, Kiactuk Kiactuk , or Fox River Fox River [ the present Throat River ] ."

        ¶ — On the 13th, he reports, "The wind being now fair we sped away along the

edge of the lake until 5 p.m., when I observed a deep indentation on the

shoe, and upon inquiry learned that a small stream connected the lake

at this point with Selawik River about twenty-five miles from its mouth.

Finding that two days would suffice to reach Selawik Lake by this route,

I turned the boat's head in this direction. After an hour's run we reached

004      |      Vol_XII-0761                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA

the farthest side of the little bay, which we found very shoal and the bottom

covered with grass. The place seemed alive with fish, and shoals of them

played around and under our boat without the slightest evidence of fear...

The entrance to the river, which is called the Eegyak or Throat River, is con–

cealed and could be easily passed by one unacquainted with the country.

Natorak piloted us into it, however, and we found ourselves between banks

densely clothed with the characteristic willow trees and grass of the low–

lands hereabout. A slight current favored us, and with a smart breeze which

followed the course of the river we rushed along at the rate of seven

knots. No shoals were seen, and the depth of the water was from three to

five fathoms. In common with all these rivers the course of the Eegyak is

tortuous, and its shores afford but little scope for scenic description.

At about 8 o'clock p.m. we arrived at an Indian settlement situated at the

junction of the main stream with a smaller one flowing off to the left, and

here pitched our camp, having made 35.2 miles during the day. The Indians

were exceedingly kind and anxious to help us. They rushed into the water

waist deep and hauled the boat up with all on board high and dry amidst

great excitement, and after building a fire and getting enough wood to last

us through the night, sat down around us and smiled on us with great good

humor."

005      |      Vol_XII-0762                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Cantwell, John C. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer

Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884 Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884 . Washington, 1889.

Stoney, George M. Naval Explorations in Alaska Naval Explorations in Alaska . Annapolis, Md., 1900.

001      |      Vol_XII-0763                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

April, 1949 SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA

        Text - 950 wds,

        SELAWIK RIVER, chief tributary to Selawik Lake, an inland arm

of Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound, drains the section of northwestern Alaska

between the Hogatza and the Koyukuk Rivers, in the Yukon River system on the

south, and the Kobuk River, on the north.

        The Selawik ri v s es in the Zane Hills at about 66° 30′ N. Lat.,

156° 30′ W. Long. and flows almost directly westward into Selawik Lake. Low

mountains constrict the upper one-third of the Selawik valley, but westward

from about 158° W.Long. [ ?] it expands into a lake-studded lowland which reaches

many miles southward and merges with the Kobuk River valley on the north.

The Selawik is eighty or more miles long and, although the entrance is

blocked by mud flats, a depth of twelve feet can be carried into the most

westerly outlet to the lake.

        Lieutenant G. M. Stoney, one of the earliest white explorers

of this river, reported as follows: "The Selawik River rises in the mountains

south of the upper Putnam [ Kobuk ] and flows west to Selawik Lake. Its valley

is rolling but less so than the Putnam's and is interspersed with more lakes.

The river is not so long as the Putnam or the Notoark [ Noatak ] , and its

course is more winding. The current at the place where the river forks is

.8 knots, and less lower down. Many tributaries enter from both banks; they

are deep but of no great length. The banks of the Selawik are as regular

as canal banks. Two fathoms can be carried up to the fork where there is a

five-fathom hole; beyond, the water of the forks was too shallow for the

'Explorer.'" Later he adds: "On the Selawik River a little spruce grows in

small clusters; more of it is found on oneof the northerly branches. The

principal growth is of willow and alder, the latter attaining considerable

size."

002      |      Vol_XII-0764                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA

        Stoney mentions two of the named tributaries to the Selawik:

the Tagagawik, which enters from the south about 25 miles from the mouth of

the main stream, and the Kugarak, from the north. The Kawichiark, one of the

few of the many other streams in this system whose name appears on recent maps,

is a tributary to the Kugarak.

        The river which connects Inland Lake, S outh of the mouth of

the Selawik, with that river is called Throat River. Cantwell identified this

stream by its native name, Eegyak Eegyak . Describing his August, 1884, trip to

Selawik Lake from the junction of Throat River with the Selawik, Cantwell

wrote: "The banks of the Selawik vary but little from those of the Kowak [ Kobuk ]

in character, with the exception that the undergrowth is heavier. The width of

the river varies from six hundred to a thousand yards, and in some places it

expands into bays a mile wide. From four to six fathoms of water were found

in the channel. From the mouth of the Eegyak the Selawik trends in a north–

westerly direction about six miles and then to the south and west to the lake.

Many small lakes and lagoons were observed near the river, and entering one of

these I discovered an extensive sheet of water lying at the foot of the moun–

tains, about six miles from the river. At 4 p.m. we emerged into a large bay

filled with many islands, and the glistening waters of Selawik Lake could be

seen about four miles ahead. We crossed the bay and at 5.30 p.m. reached the

sand - spit forming the north side of the entrance to the lake. Here we camped,

as there was too much sea in the lake for us to go farther. The wind was storng

from the southwest all day and we made 25.7 miles. Average temperature, 85°."

        At the present time, the only settlements on this river are

Selawik, at its mouth, and Gabolio, several miles upstream.

        Sealawik had a 1939 population of 239, a post office. an

Alaska Native Service school, five general stores, and a Friend's Mission.

There is also a 1,000-foot landing strip.

003      |      Vol_XII-0765                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA

        Gabolio is a much smaller settlement, and was no included

in the 1939 Census.

        The winter trail which runs southward from the Squirrel and

Kobuk Rivers passes through both Selawik and Gabolio and continues for many

miles up the Selawik River. At the Kobuk, this trail meets another which runs

up and down that long river, on to Kotzebue (q.v.), and from there to many

points on Kotzebue Sound and the northwestern cost of Alaska.

004      |      Vol_XII-0766                                                                                                                  
SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Cantwell, John C. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Semer Corwin Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine S t e a mer Corwin

in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. Washington, 1889.

Stoney, George M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.

U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II.

5th (1947)ed. Washington, 1947.

001      |      Vol_XII-0767                                                                                                                  


Ruby Collins

May, 1949 CAPE SEPPINGS, ALASKA

        90wds

        SEPPINGS, CAPE, on the coast of the Polar Sea, northwestern

Alaska, between Point Hope and Cape Krusenstern (q.v.), was named by Beechey

in 1827.

        Several small unnamed streams enter the Polar Sea in the

vicinity of this cape, and there is an Eskimo settlement nearby.

        The mountains behind Cape Seppings approach close to the water,

sloping abruptly down to the sea. The Cape itself is not distinct, many pilots

saying that it is difficult to determine exactly to which point the name

Sappings should be applied.

001      |      Vol_XII-0768                                                                                                                  
7,000

Ruby Collins SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

March, 1949

Revised and typed September, 1949

        SEWARD PENINSULA, an irregular land mass jutting out from western

Alaska, comprises approximately 20,000 square miles of land which, in general

outline, suggests a crudely shaped arrowhead with the point directed westward

toward Cape Nunyagmo, on the Siberian coast. From east to west the Peninsula

measur e s about 200 miles, and varies in width between the 80 miles separating

N orton Sound from Kotzebue Sound and the 150 miles s eparating Cape Nome from

Cape Eapenberg. The main mass of the Peninsula lies between 64° N.Lat. and

the Arctic Circle and between 161° and 168° W.Long.

        Seward Peninsula separates Bering Sea from the Polar Sea . On the south [ ?]

the Peninsula is itself almost cut off from the continent by Norton Bay, a large arm of Bering

Sea, and on the south north it meets by Kotzebue Sound, an indentation of the Polar Sea.

The Peninsula's western extremity, Cape Prince of Wales, is the most westerly

point on the North American continent. This Cape lies only fifty-five miles

across Bering Strait from the Asiatic coast.

        (No attempt will be made in this article to include detailed [ ?] des–

criptions of individual features of the Peninsula; most of these will be des–

cribed separately in their proper alphabetical places in the Encyclopedia.)

        Topographically speaking, the dominant forms of Seward Peninsula

are flat-topped uplands, measuring from 800 to 2,500 feet high, which are

broken by broad valleys and lowland basins. Midway of the southern section,

the Kigluaik, Bendeleben, and Darby Mountains form a broken range along a

crescent axis, while the York Mountains (q.v.), and several unnamed highland

areas form isolated groups in the northern half of the Peninsula. Generally

speaking, the watercourses follow broad, gently-sloping valleys. About [ ?] one–

fourth of the drainage flows northward to the Polar Sea; [ ?] the rest finds

its way southward into Bering Sea or one of its extensions, such as Norton Bay,

Norton Sound, or Golovnin Bay. As compared with the minutely-indented and

002      |      Vol_XII-0769                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

irregular shore line of southern Alaska, the coast of the Peninsula is

remarkably straight, characterized as it is by long, gently-sloping beaches,

which are broken only occasionally by rocky bluffs or deep embayments and inlets.

Shore Line The gradual sopes of the beaches bordering Seward Peninsula continue

below sea level to form a slowly-deepening shoal around much of its

coastline. In only a very few places are depths of sixty feet or more found

within five miles of the shore. Throughout this vicinity, Bering Sea and the

Polar Sea are so shallow that no soundings above 210 feet have been reported

within 100 miles of the coa s t.

        Golovnin Bay, about one hundred miles east of Nome , has a depth of

about eighteen feet at the entrance, but large vessels cannot approach nearer

than three miles of the head of the bay. The Nome roadstead is also very shoal

and open to southerly and southwesterly storms which sweep this section of

Seward Peninsula coast every fall. The only protection from these storms is

about twenty-five miles west of Nome, between Sledge Island and the mainland.

        Por t Clarence, perhaps eighty miles northwest of Nome, is the only

true harbor on the Peninsula. Its nearly circular outline is formed by a long,

low, curving sandspit which e x tends in a northwesterly direction from the main

land. Depths up to fifty-four feet are e found near the entrance, and large

vessels find good anchorage over much of the harbor. Light-draft vessels can

proceed into Grantley Harbor, which extends inland for about fifteen miles,

and which is connected by way of Tuksuk Channel, a narrow, tidal inlet, with

Imuruk Basin. This large body of brackish water in turn leads to the mouth

of the Kuzitrin River which is navigable to light draft vessels for many

miles upstream. This series of waterways opsn opens the heart of the Peninsula to

small vessels.

003      |      Vol_XII-0770                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

        There is no similar chain of waterways on the north shore of

the peninsula. Northeastward from Cape Prince of Wales the shoreline is relative–

ly straight, but there are several shallow lagoons lying between barrier beaches

and the mainland which are connected with the Polar Sea only by narrow, extremely

shaol channels. Shishmaref Inlet, the largest of these lagoons, can, however,

be used as a harbor by [ ?] light-draft vessels.

        At Cape Espenberg the shoreline of the Peninsula veers south–

ward to form the western side of Kotzebue Sound. Goodhope Bay, a southwestern

arm of the Sound, is about thirty miles wide and has depths up to thirty feet,

but, because of its size and the width of its mouth, it offers but little more

protection to seagoing vessels than does the open coast of the Peninsula.

Spafarief Bay, a southeastern arm of Kotzebue Sound, leads northward into

Eschscholtz Bay, but both these are so shoal as to be dangerous to any except

small boats. The only good anchorage in this region will be found off Chamisso

Island, in the entrance to Eschscholt Bay and north of Spafarief Bay, a spot

which is known as Chamisso Anchorage.

        Perhaps the greatest danger to navigation in the waters off

Seward Peninsula is Prince of Wales Shoal which seems to be a ridge of sand

extending for a distance of 35 or 40 miles from the western extremity of Cape

Prince of Wales. Little definite information concerning this sho [ ?] l can be

given. It would appear to be much steeper on the western side than on the

mainland side, and vessels are warned to give it a wide berth when approaching

from either the north or the south. Many of the [ ?] nineteenth century whaling

vessels struck this [ ?] shoal at distances supposed to be fifteen or more miles

from the Cape. A note on recent Coast and Geodetic Survey charts reports that

ships have been known to round the Cape by keeping at all times as close as one

or two miles offshore, but, since neither depths over the shoal nor its exact

position are known, this procedure can be recommended only to small, light

draft vessels.

004      |      Vol_XII-0771                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

        The sand and gravel beaches which girdle the Peninsula are

separated by a series of headlands or promontories. Cape Darby, Rocky Point,

Cape No [ ?] m e, and Cape Rodney are the most conspicuous points on the southern

shore, while Cape Woolley, Cape Douglas, Point Spencer, Cape York, and Cape [ ?]

Prince of Wales, mark the southwestern side of the Peninsula. As we have

already noted, the northwestern shoreline of the Peninsula is remarkably straight,

except for a few nearly land-locked lagoons. There are, consequently, fewer

promontories along this coast, the only named examples being Cape Lowenstern,

the northern entrance point to Shishmaref Inlet, and Cape Espenberg, the southern

entrance point to Kotzebue Sound. Cape Deceit and Elephant Point, in

Eschscholtz Bay, are the only named headlands on the Peninsula side of Kotzebue

Sound . , and its related waterways.

        For about five miles on either side of Cape York limestone

cliffs rise to elevations of 600 feet, but west of these cliffs the beaches

are backed by a narrow coastal plain. At the extreme western tip of the Pen–

insula, 2,300-foot Cape Mountain rises just behind Cape Prince of Wales. The

south and west sides of this mountain fall off to the sea in cliffs several

hundred feet high [ ?] , but the north side descends more gradually.

        Relief Since the drainage system lacks uniformity, the detailed

topography of the Peninsula is irregular. Generally speaking,

however, it may be said that the land forms belong to one of three basic types.

In the order of their importance these are: T he uplands;, the lowlands, and the

mountains. The rock and gravel - floored terraces which occur throughout the

Peninsula might possibly be considered a fourth type, particularly since they

contain the key to the evolution of the topography.

        Broad, flat-topped or rounded hills, which we call the uplands,

cover the greater part of the Peninsula and are its dominating topographic

feature. Locally, these uplands reveal a striking uniformity of altitude,

005      |      Vol_XII-0772                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

although generally speaking they range from a few hundred feet in height,

near tide water, to several thousand feet, in the interior of the Peninsula.

These uplands can be considered a dissected plateau, the summit level marking

a peneplain. Base-levels of lower altitude, remnants of which have been pre–

served as minor plateaus and benches, indicate later epochs of erosion and

exist throughout the Peninsula.

        The lowlands are of three types. Fringing the shore line and

in some places reaching a width of twenty miles or more, are the most extensive

type of lowland, the coastal plain. As these coastal plains merge with the

lower slopes of the uplands the so-called 'tundra' or moss-covered , grasslands

are formed. Basin lowlands form the second type of lowland, and these, like the

coastal plains, merge with the upland slopes. True valleys, the third type,

are characteristically flat-floored with gently sloping sides, but [ ?] less

common valley types are the steep-walled, rocky canyon s, and the typically

U-shaped valley s which occurs in a few of the higher mountain masses formerly

mountain masses. This last type of valley originates in glacial cirques.

        Only one considerable range fulfills the requirements of the

third topographic group, the mountains. There are, however, several isolated

mountain masses which rise well above the general summit level of the uplands.

The mountains of Seward Peninsula are rugged and have sharply - cut drainage

channels. Several of them have been subject to recent glaciation.

        The one true mountain range on the Peninsula, the Kigluaik–

Bendeleben-Darby group, divides the province into two topographic sections.

South and west of this range is an upland ranging from 800 to 3,000 feet in

altitude, and north of the range is another upland with about the same relief.

        The crescent-shaped axis of this chain stretches northeast–

ward from the vicinity of Cape. W oolley to about 163° W. Long., and then bends

southward to Cape Darby, the eastern entrance point to Golovnin Bay. The

006      |      Vol_XII-0773                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

eastern curve of the chain encloses the drainage basin of the Fish River.

The Kigluaik Mountains make up the western end of the chain and contain the

highest peaks, some of which reach an altitude of nearly 5,000 feet. The

Bendeleben Mountains, in the center of the crescent, do not anywhere exceed

3,700 feet, while the most easterly group, the Darby Mountains, do not exceed

3,000 feet. The Kigluaik and Bendeleben ranges are rugged, with sharply-cut

valleys, and both include glacial c i rques. These mountains have been deeply

dissected so that the valley walls are precipitous. Within the mountains the

streams are torrential. The Kigluaik Mountain drainage system is characterized

by remarkably straight valleys and by [ ?] the fact that the largest of these

divide the mountains into irregular masses and subordinate ranges.

        Extensive lowlands nearly everywhere separate the Kigluaik

Mountains from the uplands. On the north, the extensive flat s which surrou n d

Imuruk Basin stretch eastward and around the end of the range to be con–

tinued by the Kurzgamepa valley. On the south the headwaters of the Kruzga–

mepa and Stewart rivers follow broad depressions. The western end of the Ben–

deleben Mountains, containing 3,760-foot Mount Bendeleben, is also isolated in

this manner, but the transition between the mountains and the upland is more

gradual at the eastern end. In the Darby Mountains there is a similarly

gradual transition between mountains and upland.

        The highland mass south of these mountains rises to summits

ranging from 800 to 3,000 feet high. Up to an altitude of about 800 feet the

benches are plainly due to stream erosion, but above this level the benches are

of undertermined origin. These highlands have no well-defined ridge system,

and the rivers follow broad, deep valleys which slope gradually upward to the

divides. The summits although rounded are often marked by rocky knobs, many

of which have fantastic shapes. The preservation of these castellated peaks

indicates absence of regional glaciation. The larger valleys trend, in general,

007      |      Vol_XII-0774                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

north and south although minor tributaries have scalloped their margins.

Despite this trend of the major valleys, the higher uplands descend to the

coastal plain by a series of well-defined east-west terraces.

        Many of the lowlands, which in most cases separate the high–

lands from the sea, are crescent-shaped beaches terminating at either end in

promontories or bluffs whose bases lie in the sea.

        Lowlands separate the Kigluaik and Bendeleben Mountains from

the uplands which make up the northern two-thirds of the peninsula. This

northerly upland is similar to its southern counterpart, except that the peaks

are slightly lower, ranging from 600 to 2,500 feet in height. Here, too, the

peaks are irregular and the uplands are cut by several mountain masses. These

are less rugged and somewhat lower than the southern ranges. The York Mountains,

which form an irregular mass at the extreme western end of the Peninsula, are

the most extensive of the northern mountains, and reach a maximum altitude of

2,918 feet in Brooks Mountains. On the south, east, and west these mountains

fall off to a well-marked plateau, but on the north they slope off gradually to

an upland which in turn merges with the broad coastal plain. The York Mountains

proper are rugged, with steep valleys. Among the highest [ ?] summits there is

evidence of some glaciation.

        In the northeastern, or Fairhaven District, there are several

isolated mountain groups, but these would appear to be elevations of the

plateau rather than true mountains.

        In explanation of the various levels represented by the

topography of Seward Peninsula, Collier writes: "The northern upland, as has

been stated, reaches an altitude of 2,900 feet. Between the summit level and

the lowland there is in many places a series of broad benches, which represent

distinct epochs of erosion...Briefly stated, four epochs of erosion have been

recognized, each of which marks a stage of stability during a general period

008      |      Vol_XII-0775                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

of uplift. The highest and, therefore, oldest of these plateau s is preserved

in benches lying at altitudes of 2,000 to 2,700 feet. This erosion level

has been termed the Nuluk Plateau. A second erosion period, the result of

which has been called the Kugruk Plateau, is marked by a well-preserved bench,

ranging in altitude from 400 to 1,200 feet. The so-called York Plateau gives

evidence of a third local base-level and stands 300 to 700 feet above the sea.

The extensive coastal plain is the result of the fourth and most recent epoch

of erosion. While some if not all of these base-levels are probably represent–

ed throughout the peninsula they have been correlated only in the northwestern

par t ."

        The valleys of the northern part of the Peninsula stretch in

general north and south. The uplands here merge with the broad coastal lowland

skirting the Polar Sea which everywhere here is wider than along the southern

coastline. In addition, benches are fewer here, and the transition from one

level to another is in every respect more gradual.

        Drainage The Bering-Polar Sea watershed follows a sinuous line along

the east-west axis of the Seward Peninsula , sending the waters of

more than two-thirds of the area southward into Bering Sea and the remainder

northward into the Polar Sea.

        From east to west the southern drainage system includes the

Koyuk, Mukluktulik, Kwik, Tubutulik, and Kwiniuk Rivers into Norton Bay, the

waters of the Fish, N iukluk, Casadepaga, and the Klokerblok into Golovnin

Sound, the Daniels, Topkok, Solomon, Bonanza, and Eldorado into Norton Sound east

of Cape Nome, and the Nome, Snake, Penny, Cripple, Sinuk, Feather, and Tisuk

Rivers between Cape Nome and Point Spencer, the southern entrance point to

Port Clarence.

        The Bluestone River drains most of the area between the

Kigluaik Moutains and Port Clarence. Imuruk Basin receives many smaller

009      |      Vol_XII-0776                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

streams, including Canyon, Fall, Pond, Glacier, Snow, and Cobblestone from the

south, as well as the combined waters of the Kruzgamepa, Kuzitrin, and Mary's

Rivers at its eastern end. The Kougarok, one of the major rivers of the

interior of the Peninsula, enters the Kuzitrin from the north about midway of

its course, while the Noxapaga enters farther [ ?] pstream and also from the north.

The Agiapuk, with American River as its major tributary, enters the north side

of Imuruk Basin.

        Between Teller Mission, on the north side of Port Clarence,

and Cape Prince of Wales, at the western tip of the Peninsula, several rivers,

including the California, Don, Lost, King, Kanauguk, Anikovik, Baituk, Ocean,

and Cape flow southward from the York Mountains into Bering Sea.

        Between Cape Princes of Wales and Cape Espenberg, the Mint,

Pinauk, Nuluk, Kugrupaga, Arctic, and Serpentine Rivers flow northwestward

into the Polar Sea, while the Goodhope, Inmachuk, Kugruk, Kiwalik, and Buckland

are the chief streams in the northeastern part of the Peninsula.

        The Buckland is one of the largest rivers in this part of

Alaska, but perhaps only the last thirty or so miles of its course may be said

to lie on be in Seward Peninsula proper. It is about seventy-five miles long overall,

and the its upper quarter of its extent is still unexplored.

        Climate Since it is almost entirely surrounded by water, temperatures

in Seward Peninsula do not rise and fall to such extremes

as do temperatures of interior regions in the same latitude. The proximity

of Bering Sea and the Polar Sea, and their various extensions, also supplies

more moisture to the atmosphere over the Peninsula than will be found farther

east. The e ffects of these seas are only partially reduced by the fact that

both are ice-bound for almost half of each year.

        During quiet winter days temperatures of −40° to −50° will

occur on the Peninsula, but residents do not consider these temperatures danger-

010      |      Vol_XII-0777                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

ous in any way unless they are accompanied by strong northerly or northeasterly

winds. The lowest temperatures occur during January and February, and yet,

during these same two months, sudden thaws and warm rains have been known to open

all streams to flood proportions. These winter thaws are accompanied by open

water in Norton Sound. Very rarely do summer temperatures rise above 80°, and,

in the northern part of the Peninsula, an entire summer may pass without the

mercury having touched 70°. The most common temperatures for July, August, and

September, in these regions, are between 45° and 60°. Minimum temperatures are

32° or lower from about September to the middle of May. The first frost usually

occurs about mid-September, and the last in the middle of June.

        In September, the temperature of Port Clarence averages about 38.9°

The waters of Kotzebue Sound reach 50.9° in August and sink to 38.3° in October.

Precipitation The total annual precipitation for the southern part of

Seward Peninsula varies from about 18 to 20 inches. There

is a fall of perhaps 25 inches in the northern part. By far the greate [ ?] st amount

of this precipitation falls in the form of rain between the months of June and

October, with snow accounting for only about four or five liquid inches. Throughout the winter, however, T t he snow

is quite sufficient , however for sledging , throughout the winter since it is

usually blown into heavy drifts by the northerly and northeasterly winds pre–

vailing during the winter months. To the many streams on the Peninsula, these

well-packed drifts serve as a good source of water for some months after the

first thaw.

        The spring thaw is usually accompanied by floods, the frozen

subsoil making for an extremely swift run-off, but is then often followed by a

five or six weeks' drought. It is during this period that the water from

the melting snow drifts supplies the streams with sufficient flow for the work–

ing of placers. The so-called 'rainy season' begins in July, during which

three or more inches of rain may fall in one month. This season continues

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0778                                                                                                                  

        R. J. COLLINS - Photographer

20 MAIN STREET

MILLER FALLS - MASSACHUSETTS

TELEPHONE 2861

011      |      Vol_XII-0779                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

until early September, when another period of low precipitation begins. Snow

begins to fall in September and increases in frequency through January and

into part of February.

        Throughout the Peninsula, Eexcept in certain spots ar [ ?] ound Nome and in the vicinity of the hot

springs on the Kruzgamepa and the Serpentine Rivers, ground frost, or perma–

frost (q.v.), penetrates to unknown depths. [ ?]

        Except for the tops of the higher hills and mountains, the entire

surface of Seward Peninsula is covered with a layer of moss and grasses which

forms the so-called 'tundra' or grasslands of the arctic regions. This

covering prevents the underlying gravels from thawing and also quickly absorbs

whatever rain falls during the summer. Rain water so absorbed drains slowly

and at a fairly uniform rate into the nearby streams. Streams which are

bordered for most of their course by territory protected with this covering of

moss and grass therefore have a more reliable water supply than those which flow

012      |      Vol_XII-0780                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

directly out of the relatively bare uplands or mountains almost directly into the sea.

        Along the shores of Norton Sound storms from the south and

southeast often accompany the wind and rain of September. These southerly

storms are particularly dangerous to the ports along this coast, since they

tend to raise the level of the water in the Sound, driving it in the form of

a pounding surf up the shallow roadsteads of the south side of Seward Peninsula.

The north and northeast storms of the winter season are little noticed in the

southern parts of the Peninsula but do endanger the settlements on Port Clarence,

and Kotzebue Sound. Usually accompanying such northerly storms is a fall of

very dry snow which the strong winds drive along in clouds and heap into

drifts. Such storms may continue for three or four days, and, although the

actual snowfall may be light, temperatures between −30° and −40° will usually

prevail for the duration of the storm. On the other hand, high winds are some–

times accompanied by moderate temperatures, even on the northern side of the

Peninsula.

        discu [ ?] ✓

        Every stream in this entire region freezes across during the

winter, and the smaller streams will freeze solid. In the southern parts,

streams close over about the end of September and open about the middle of May.

If a stream is not frozen to the bottom, it sometimes breaks through during

the winter and floods its own ice covering. This cover freezes quickly, of

course, but sometimes the process is repeated again and again until an entire

river valley is sheeted with ice.

        partially

        Bering Strait is almost always partially open throughout the

winter, although the sea is usually frozen for a distance of several miles

from the land. After the spring break-up, this ice retrats northward through

the Straits, leaving Nome open to navigation by about the middle of June. Port

Clarence and Kotzebue Sound, being shallow and somewhat protected

013      |      Vol_XII-0781                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

teeted from the movement of the sea ice, do not open up until a few weeks

later.

        Vegetation and The vegetation of Seward Peninsula is arctic in character,

Animal Life stunted both by the coldness of the climate and the shortness

of the growing season. Despite this, many species develop to maturity during

the summer.

        Most abundant of all are the mosses and lichens, which form

[ ?] he covering over most of the Peninsula, and which vary in color from the pure

white and cream of the reindeer moss to the dark green and brown of the pe e a t

moss. In spring and summer this carpet is thickly sprinkled with brightly–

colored flowers, whose variety and abundance always surprise the Outsider.

        In the lowlands , where there is little or no drainage, peat

moss grows to such thickness and holds so much water that travel is wearisome

and sometimes impossible. A trip of nine or ten miles over such a terrain is

a hard day's work for a man, and may be quite impossible for a horse. Summer

trails must keep to the ridges and the stream beds, and, since these may not

always proceed in the desired direction, summer overland travel is considerably

restricted.

        Spruce trees will be are found near Council, on the Niukluk River,

which measure one foot in diameter and fifty feet in height, but a point about

twenty miles west of Council is the westernmost limit of coniferous trees on

the American Continent.

        Farther westward, cottonwoods are found along the rivers and dwarf

alders on the hillsides. Frequently, impenetrable thickets of willow border many

of the streams, making travel along them extremely difficult. These willows are

usually two inches or less thick and five feet or less tall, but they sometimes attain a

thickness of six inches and a height of twenty feet. These willows constitute the fuel supply the fuel

supply for the many mining camps in the western

014      |      Vol_XII-0782                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

part of the Peninsula, and have even been found in sheltered places in the vicinity

of Cape Prince of Wales.

        Where these mosses have do not prevailed, a variety of grasses

will be found which supply very good forage for pack animals. This was the only

forage used by the several Geological Survey parties which spent many summers

on Seward Peninsula early in this century, but their reports mention also that

these grasses did not always have time to mature, so that they supplied very

little nourishment after curing. The concensus was that it was necessary to

import feed for pack animals if they were to be kept over a winter on the

Peninsula.

        During August, several kinds of berries appear. Most impor–

tant of these are the marsh blueberry, similar to the blueberry of the States,

and the salmon berry, also known as the cloud berry and the of marooshka.

        Since the Peninsula summer corresponds to springtime in the

States, flowers are most profuse during July. The abrupt transition to warm

weather, plus the humidity of the soil and the atmosphere approximate a hot–

house environment which produces enormous blossoms altogether disproportionate

to their stunted stocks. Equalling their size is the variety of these

blossoms. Wild forget-me-nots, fireweeds, the white salmon berry, heather,

and the large yellow Alaska poppy are everywhere to be seen. Even on the

relatively bare hilltops, the bluebell and phlox appear, while the short-stemmed

rhododendron, though hardly two inches tall, exhibits its large and showy

blossoms.

        Fish and Salmon, grayling, trout, pike, and whitefish abound in the

Game fresh-water streams during the summer, while smelt and other

salt-water fish are fairly abundant in the waters surrounding the Peninsula.

Throughout the Summer Llarge numbers of Eskimos, many from the interior of the Peninsula, gather at

the mouths of the rivers and at particularly favorable points along the coastline

015      |      Vol_XII-0783                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

to fish, hunt, and trap. The dried meat and fish accumulated in this way

supplement [ ?] the less plentiful resources of the wintertime.

        At one time c C aribou were once numerous, but their numbers have now,

dwindled, despite efforts to raise and breed them, to a fraction of their former their numbers have divindled

strength. considerably. During the winter polar bear are sometime skilled along the coasts,

and a few brown and black bear have been seen. Some game birds, such as the

ptarmigan, snipe, plover, and curlew have decreased in numbers in recent years,

but geese, ducks, sandhill cranes and swans are still plentiful.

        Commerce As will be immediately realized after reading one or more

of the articles on Seward Peninsula towns and regions, the

mineral resources scattered throughout its extent have dictated its development.

Without the gold, tin, and other metals found there, Seward Peninsula would

never have acquired its present commercial importance nor developed its present

population.

        By 1905, after considerable initial confusion, the various

mining districts on Seward Peninsula were definit defined and mapped.

Starting at Norton Bay and working [ ?] westward, then northward and eastward

along the coast to Kotzebue Sound, the districts read in this order: Koyuk, Council,

Cape Nome, Port Clarence, Goodhope, and Fairhaven. Completely surrounded by

these coastwise precincts is the Kugruk district, which fills in the center

of the Peninsula.

        Chief amongst the gold mining towns, of course, is Nome,

site of a major gold rush in the first years of the twentieth century (q.v.). Eastward

from Nome are Solomon and Bluff, once more important and busy than they are

now. The most important settlements in the Port Clarence area are Teller and

Teller Mission, directly opposite each other across the entrance to Grantley

Harbor . while Mary's Igloo, Pilgrim Springs, Shelton, Noxapaga, Davidson's

016      |      Vol_XII-0784                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

Landing, and Dahl are the leading chief [ ?] Kugruk precinct

villages. The tin mining centers of York and Tin City, south of Cape Prince of Wales, and Wales, just

around the point to the north, are the only substantial settlements on the

extreme western tip of the Peninsula, while and Shishmaref, on the bay of the same

name, is the sole village on the northwestern shore. Turning southward at Cape

Espenberg into Kotzebue Sound, one comes to Deering, Kiwalik, Candle, and

Baldwin, all connected in one way or another with the gold mining activities

in the Goodhope and Fairhaven Districts.

        Until the airplane came into daily and casual use in Alaska,

as it [ ?] has today, all these towns were completely cut off from the Outside from

November to June. Mail, freight, and supplies now reach almost all parts of

the Peninsula once a week during the winter, which in some cases improves on

the summer schedule of boat deliveries. Winter dog team trails form a web

over the face of the Peninsula connecting the coast with the interior, the

north with the south. For reasons made obvious above , roads are a comparative

rarity in Seward Peninsula, and those few which do exist keep to the towns

themselves or to lead to the relatively near y -by mining camps.

        The serveral railroads which were built early in the century,

such as the Seward Peninsu al la line out of Nome, and the Council City and Solomon

River line out of Dickson, have fallen into disrepair and relative disuse.

The airplane has only partially replaced them. The former Seward Peninsula

Railroad is now known as the Kougarok Limited, or the Pupmobile, and carries

a miscellaneous assortment of chassis fitted with railroad wheels as far

north as Lanes Landing, on the Kuzitrin.

        One of the worst and oldest of difficulties standing in the

way of commerce with Seward Peninsula is the lack of a breakwater at Nome to

protect that town from the ravages of the fall storms which yearly pound

against the southern shores of the Peninsula. Over the years, this lack has

017      |      Vol_XII-0785                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

cost thousands of dollars and many lives. It is to be hoped that the bill,

urged by Carl J. Lomen, appropriating $1,020,000 for the Nome seawall will pass the

8 1st Congress. The project was authorized by the 80th Congress, but the

appropriation itself was not approved. When it is finally [ ?] legalized, the

seawall will be constructed by U.S. Army engineers.

        Exploration Since Seward Peninsula lies only about 55 miles across Bering

Strait from Siberia, it is not surprising that it was first explored

by the white man from the west, and that it was discovered before any other part of

Alaska. For centuries before this time, the natives of the extremities of the two

continents were probably in regular contact with each other. It is a known fact

that they are of closely allied races.

        It was the Cossack, Semen [ ?] Dezhnev, who, in 1648, sailed eastward

from the mouth of the Kolyma River on the north coast of Siberia and discovered

Bering Strait. In 1711, another Cossack, Popov , was sent to East Cape to induce the

natives there to pay tribute to Russia. He brought back reports of islands to

the eastward of East Cape and rumors of a continent beyond them.

        Under direct orders from Peter the Great, Vitus Bering, a Dane,

organized an exploring expedition in 1828. Bering started out only a few days

before the death of Peter the Great, but the Empress Catherine carried out Peter's

wishes concerning the discovery and annexation of lands far to the east.

        In July, 1728, with two small ships, Bering sailed northeastward

out of Okhotsk. On his way he discovered and named St. Lawrence Island, and then

sailed through the strait which now bears his name. He continued along the

Siberian coast to the point where it bends westward at East Cape, and so, having

proved to his own satisfaction that there was no connection between the two contin–

ents, he returned to Kamchatka. On his way back he named the Diomede Islands.

Probably because of fog and thick weather, he did not see the American continent,

although in fair weather it is visible from several points along the route which

Bering followed.

017a      |      Vol_XII-0786                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

        The first Russian to set foot on the North American continent

in 1729 without realizing that he had succeeded where Bering had failed. [ ?]

Sibarian Coassack, Afanase Shestakov, and Dmitri Pavlutsky , were put in joint

command of an expedition against the Chukchi. These two men agreed upon nothing,

so that Shestakov sailed off with both ships and most of the men to do battle

without his joint commander. Shestakov and his entire company were killed by the

Chukchi, and Pavlutsky, in order to avoid being sent to avenge the defeat, ordered

that the remaining pilots and the geodesist, Gvosdev, set sail in the St. Gabriel ,

to see what lands lay to the east of XX Okhotsk. The chief pilot being ill, O o nly Federow Fedorov, the

assistant pilot to the original Chukchi expedition, was able to set out [ ?] with this

expedition, and he was already so sick as to be of very little help. The

geodesist Gvosdev, therefore, was the true commander of this spontaneous,

unplanned trip. Gvosdev, therefore, was the true commander of this spontaneous,

unplanned trip. Gvosdev's original log book was lost, and his report, written ten

years later, was necessarily vague, but there is every reason to believe that he

reached the mainland of North America and that he probably sailed around part of

Norton Sound. Gvosdev, himself, speaks of the "large country" discovered as an

island, believing apparently that it was one of those reported by the Chukchi

as lying eastward of the Siberian mainland.

        After six more years of preparations, Bering commanded another

expedition of two ships, the St. Peter and the St. Paul . Having lost contact with

the St. Paul two weeks out of port, he went on alone, reached southeastern Alaska

and named Mount St. Elias. Bering was already sic k with scurvy. Waiting only

one day on these unknown shores he ordered the ship about and set sail for home.

Contrary winds and gales met them; the entire party was overcome with scurvy, the

ship wrecked and all survivors cast ashore on what is now known as Bering Island.

Here Bering died. In the spring, however, the survivors built a tiny boat, the

St. Peter , and in this they were able to reach home again.

018      |      Vol_XII-0787                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

        Bering was followed by a number of Russian explorers, but it

was not until Captain James Cook's voyage along Seward Peninsula, in 1778, that

the region was accurately charted. Otto von Kotzebue visited St. Lawrence Island

in 1816 and later explored and mapped the northern coastline of the Peninsula.

In addition to the large sound which bears his name, Kotzebue named many of the important points on this coast, including Shishmaref

Bay, Cape Espenberg, Eschscholtz Bay, Chamisso Island, Cape Deceit, and

Goodhope Bay. as well as the large sound which bears his name.

019      |      Vol_XII-0788                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

        In 1822, the Russian American Company (q.v.), the earliest fur–

trading enterprise in this part of North America, put Captain Khromchenko in

command of an expedition for the exploration of the northwestern part of that

continent. In his ship, the Golovnin , Khromchenko explored Norton Bay and the

bay which bears the name of his ship. Through information received from the natives

around Golovnin Bay, Khromchenko believed that an inland waterway connected that

body of water with Port Cla r ence. Although this error did not appear on any maps

until about forty-five years later, it was copied by cartographers from that time

forward with unfailing persistance.

        Captain F.W. Beechey, R.N., in command of H.M.S. Blossom ,

made the last noteworthy discoveries on and around Seward Peninsula in 1827.

Sent on a supply and relief mission to the Franklin Mackenzie-Coppermine River

overland expedition, he charted the coast between Cape Rodney and Cape Prince

of Wales, discovered and named Grantley Harbor and Port Clarence, the only true port in this part

of the Peninsula. and Grantley Harbor. He also named Point Spencer and Cape

York. His charts have proved to be remarkably accurate and are the basis upon

which all subsequent maps of these regions have been made.

        Less important expeditions include those of Commodore Joseph

Billings, who, in 1791, visited the Diomedes and the coast in the vicinity of

Cape Prince of Wales, and the voyages of Etolin, Vasiliev, and others, who,

in 1830, more thoroughly explored Norton Sound and Golovnin Bay.

        Between 1848 and 1854 this section of the north Pacific was

frequented by the Franklin relief expeditions. searching for Sir John Franklin. Leaders

of these expeditions include Captain Kellett, in the Herald ; Commander Moore,

in the Plover ; Captain Colli n son, in the Enterprise ; Captain M'Clure, in the

Investigator ; and Captain Trollope, in the Rattlesnake . The leaders of many

of these expeditions were also hopeful of finding the long-sought north east west

020      |      Vol_XII-0789                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

passage. To this end several sledge expeditions were completed, including

Kellett's ascent of the Buckland River form Kotzebue Sound.

        In 1865, exploration of Seward Peninsula took a completely

commercial turn. The Western Union Telegraph Company, as an alternate proposal

to the thus-far unsuccessful Atlantic cable, proposed to connect North America

with Europe by running telegraph wires through British Columbia and Alaska,

across Bering Strait to Siberia and thence to St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Paris.

The Sewar e d Peninsula route was to run from the head of Norton Bay to the Fish

River, then up the Niukluk, across to Imuruk Basin, Grantley Harbor, Port

Clarence and so to Cape Prince of Wales.

        Between 1865 and 1867 Baron Otto von Bendeleben surveyed the

✓ discuss route from Golovnin Bay to Port Clarence, established a camp at Grantley Harbor

and strung many miles of telegraph line. The success of the 1867 Atlantic

cable brought these extensive endeavors to a sudden halt.

        Interest in Seward Peninsula waned for many years after the

purchase of Alaska by the United States, but still i I t was a party including

Daniel B. Libby, one of the members of Bendeleben's expedition of 1866, who mad [ ?]

one of the earliest gold strikes on the Peninsula. Since this strike occurred

on Melsing Creek, a tributary to the Niukluk, it may reasonably be assumed

that Bendeleben's hints as to colors of gold having been noted throughout this

region, while ignored by almost everyone, had not been forgotten by Libby.

In this sense, the abortive Western Union Telegraph expedition may be said to have

contributed a great deal to the development of the Peninsula.

        Later gold and tin mining developments in all parts of the

Peninsula will be found discussed in detail under the names of the various

rivers and towns which have become identified with these activities. During

1948, a report was published concerning the founding discovery of uranium within one

hundred miles of Nome. The exact location of these deposits is, of course,

021      |      Vol_XII-0790                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

not known. Other minerals known to exist on the Peninsula are mercury, black

sand, antimony, copper, and silver.

        Other activities than mining are carried on throughout the

Peninsula. Fur farms exist along its northern shores, particularly at Shish–

maref, where George R. Goshaw deals in blue, white, and red fox pelts in

addition to the blue-white platina pelts which he originated. All t T he Eskimos

in [ ?] this part of Alaska are especially famous for the artistry and intri–

cacy of their walrus bone and wood carvings. These items are of particular

interest to the tourists which who throng to Nome every summer. Nome, itself,

[ ?] as the distribution center for all of southern Seward Peninsula, has a well–

developed lighterage and freighting service, as well as extensive storage

warehouses all along its long water-front:

        Perhaps the greatest lack in this entire region, aside from

such communication considerations as the Nome sea-wall and railway connections

with other parts of Alaska and the Outside, is a large-scale, non-seasonal

industry. The numerous dredging and hydraulic placer operations throughout the

Peninsula do not supply this lack, since placer mines of any kind are unworkable

during the winter. If this non-seasonal industry were to be some kind of

mining, it would have to involve the development of the lode deposits which

are known to exist. As it is, the various large mining companies import much

of their skilled labor each summer and these employees return to the States

each fall, so that a large percentage of the money earned in Alaska is spent

Outside. Up to this time no panacea has been found for this condition. The

final solution may possibly lie in the extension of educational facilities

throughout the area so that, in time, the already-existing industries might

rely more on local than on Outside employment.

022      |      Vol_XII-0791                                                                                                                  
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alaska Life , May, 1945.

Collier, A.J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 328)

Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions.

Alaska, in 1900 Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions.

Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, 1901.

Brown, J.W. Abridged History of Alaska Abridged History of Alaska . Seattle, Wash., 1909.

Collier, A.J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 328)

Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

Dall, William H. Alaska and Its Resources Alaska and Its Resources . Boston, 1870.

Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.

Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply

Paper Water-Supply

Paper 314)

Moffit, Fred H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

( W ashington, 1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)

U.S. Coast Pilot . Alaska. Pt.II . Alaska. Pt.II . 1947 edition.

VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska .

Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply

Paper Water-Supply

Paper 314)

Moffit, Fred H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska .

( W ashington, 1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)

001      |      Vol_XII-0792                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 SHESHALEK, ALASKA

        90 wds

        SHESHALEK (67° 02′ N.Lat., 163° 01′ W.Long.) is a small

Eskimo village and reindeer camp on the north side of Kotzebue Sound,

northwestern Alaska, some ten miles west of the mouth of the Noatak River.

        In 1880 this village had a population of 100 natives, but,

since it does not appear in the 1939 Census, it would seem to have decreased

in size since that ti m e.

        The long winter trail running south for southward to Kotzebue and Seward

Peninsula and northward along the arctic coast of Alaska, passes through

Sheshalek.

001      |      Vol_XII-0793                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins Text - 2,525 words

Bibl - 100 wds.

March, 1949 SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

        SHISHMAREF INLET (Chichmareff, Schischmareff, etc.), which

indents the northwestern shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is about

sixteen miles long by eleven miles wide at the greatest. It was so named

by Kotzebue during his explorations of this region in August, 1816. Captain

Lieutenant Glieb Semenovich Shishmaref was with Kotzebue from 1815-1818.

        Narrow, seven mile long Sarichef Island lies directly across the

entrance to this bay. Kotzebue describes the manner in which he discovered

both in an entry , dated July 31. "After we had continued the survey of the

coast during the whole night in clear weather, we cast anchor, at three o'clock

in the morning, in five fathoms' water, two miles from the shore. It

appeared to me, that a bay ran here deeper into the land, which I wished to

explore. At four o'clock in the morning I left the Rurick accompanied by

our naturalists, in two well-armed boats, and landed opposite our anchoring–

place, near some habitations, in the hope of having some communication with

the inhabitants. We went into the jurtes, which are built in a straight line

along the coast, but were at first only welcomed by dogs, which were not at

all discomposed by our presence, but came fawning up to us; they appeared to

me to be of the same race as those used in Kamtschatka, for drawing sledges.

We had already got upon the roof of the jurtes, without meeting with any

people; fre s h traces, however, which we saw every where showed us, that they

were more fearful than their dogs, and had fled at our approach.

        ¶ "We now

examined the interior of their dwellings, and found them cleanly and con–

venient. The entrance at the S.E. side was an opening, three feet high,

supported by wood, which on the outside was prolonged on each side by mud

walls. We entered, first, into an apartment ten feet long, seven broad, and

seven high: the walls and the top were covered with wood. To the left-hand,

in a pit which extended all along the room, lay pieces of black blubber, about

002      |      Vol_XII-0794                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

about a foot square, and beside these lay sieves with long handles. To the

right was a rather narrow pit, two feet and a half deep, and seven long,

[ ?] though not broader than the pit. Now we had a wooden partition before

us, in the middle of which was a round opening one foot and a half in

diameter, through which we were obliged to creep into a spacious anti-room,

the four walls of which were ten feet long, and six feet high; the h eight

increased towards the middle, and at the top was a small four-cornered hole,

covered with a bladder, which served for a window. On the wall opposite the

entrance, broad boards, fastened one foot and a half above the floor, served

for sleeping places, which only took up a third p a rt of the room, and at the

side walls they had placed small ladders quite horizontally, to set up their

utensils. The walls, and top, consisted of small beams, the visible sides of

which were made even. All the i h abitations were built according to this plan,

with the exception of one, where a more numerous family appeared to reside,

as this had two more small side-rooms...

        ¶ "After we had looked about a little, we

found that we were on an island seven miles long, and, in the widest place, a

mile broad. We took a walk across it, from north to south, and saw clearly,

when we were on the opposite coast, that the continent in the east forms a

deep bay, where, on three points, the connection of the land is not to be seen.

We were all rejoiced at this discovery, for though we could not expect an

immediate passage into the Icy Sea, we had the hope of penetrating far into

the country, and there to make important remarks. This island, which lies

directly before the bay, forms with the continent in the N.E. and S.W. a

narrow passage...

        ¶ " After a tour of an hour and a half, we reached the N.E.

passage, which we found to be a mile and a half in breadth; the depth in the

middle of the channel was eight fathoms; the tide was rising, and the current

set into the bay, at the rate of three miles an hour. It was already past

noon, and the sailors, who had been incessantly employed ever since four

003      |      Vol_XII-0795                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

o'clock in the morning, were in want of refreshment; we therefore landed

at the N.E. point, where a fire was lighted, and in half an hour an excellent

soup was made of English patent meat. This meat is well adapted for excursions

in a boat, as it is contained in tin boxes, and therefore extremely portable.

After we had sufficiently refreshed ourselves, we observed two to boats, of the

same kind as those in the Aleutian islands, each with one man in it, approach

us with the greatest rapidity from the opposite shore. They came within fifty

paces, when they left off rowing, observing us with attention, communicating

all their remarks to each other, and at last began to count us.

        "All our endeavours to entice the Americans, by friendship, and by

things which we w s howed them, to come on shore, were useless; they hit their

heads with both their hands, and then fell down, as if dead, probably, to

give us to understa n d, that their lives were not safe in our vicinity. It

should seem that they are not acquainted with fire-arms, because they did not

keep out of gun-shot, though a number of muskets were standing near us. The

clothing of the Americans consisted of the entrails of whales...

        "After they had observed us for a long time, and with much distrust,

they threw two darts towards their habitations, probably a signal agree e d

upon; but we continued our course to the east. The many sandbanks, which are

formed by the current, and the current itself, hindered us much in our

researches, as we could proceed only one mile in three hours; I therefore

gave up my plan for this year, and resolved to proceed in the following year to

a more complete examination in little baydares, which I intended to bring

with me from the Aleutian islands. At present the loss of time was of too

much consequence to me, as the navigation of Beering's Straits continues

only for a short time. This bay received the name of Schischmareff, after

the only officer that served under me. I will not, however, say that this

inl t e t forms a bay, because, perhaps, it only divides the foreland into several

islands. I called the narrow island after our worthy vice-admiral,

004      |      Vol_XII-0796                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

Saritscheff."

        To the eastern entrance point to the Inlet, the mainland point

upon which he and his men refreshed themselves with "English patent meat,"

Kotzebue gave the name Cape Lowenstern.

        In 1901, Collier reported as follows: "The rivers flowing into

Shishmaref Inlet have received considerable attention from prospectors. A

recording office and Shishmaref post-office are located on Sarichef Island,

at the northeastern entrance to Shishmaref Inlet. The writer was informed

by Charles W. Mashburn, the deputy recorder of the district, that there is a

good harbor for small coasting vessels at this place, and that the Serpentine,

the largest river of the district, is navigable for small steamers for at

least 20 miles inland. Kotzebue reported 8 fathoms of water at this entrance.

Shishmaref Inlet is bordered by a wide coastal plain, made up of gravel, from

the margin of which a dissected erosion plain slopes upward to an elevation

of 500 to 1,000 feet. Ear Mountain, K ugruk Mountain, Midnight Mountain, and

Devil Mountain, rising above this plateau, mark the limits of the Shishmaref

drainage. The Serpentine and Arctic rivers are the two most important streams

of the basin."

        The Arctic River rises just south of Ear Mountain, a 2,308-foot

peak, and [ ?] follows a generally northeasterly course to the west

side of Shishmaref Inlet. In its upper section, the Arctic occupies a

broad basin containing a number of small lakes, but below this basin the river

has cut a well-defined canyon. The broad , flat divide , which separates the

upper Arctic River from the Kugrupaga system ( q.v.) immediately to the west,

has what appears to be an abandoned river channel running across it.

Other streams in the Arctic River system, most of which enter from the east,

include: Kreuger, Fox, Nug g et, Sango, and Mission Creeks. For the last five

miles of its twenty-five mile course, the Arctic meanders sluggishly across

the marshy grasslands of the coastal plain.

005      |      Vol_XII-0797                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

        Traveling eastward, the next river to enter the Inlet is the

Sanaguich, first reported by Gerdine, in 1901. This stream rises across a

1,000-foot divide from Portage Creek in the American River system (q.v.).

The Sanaguich continues a fairly straight course [ ?] out of the mountains,

and then wanders across the coastal plain for a total distance of about si x teen

miles. Bonanza Creek, its only named tributary, enters from the east.

        Serpentive River, the largest stream in the area, enters the

eastern end of Shishmaref Inlet. Rising near Midnight Mountain, the Serpentine

follows a sinuous 45-mile course, from which characteristic the stream

receives its name.

        Collier reported as follows on the white man's discovery of this

river: "The river was first explored and named by Charles McLennan, who,

with dog team and Eskimo assistants, made a trip into the region from Shish–

maref Inlet in May, 1900. McLennan was probably the first white man to reach

the hot springs on Spring Creek, a tributary of this river. He staked a

number of claims along this creek, and prepared a m ap of the region, a copy

of which was received in Washington in March, 1901. In September, 1901,

the writer found a small settlement at the hot sprin g s, but no trace of the

claim stakes set up by McLennan the year before remained. A small garden had

been made on some of the ground near one of the springs, and vegetables,

consisting of lettuce and radishes, had been grown without difficulty."

        The Serpentine may be said to originate at the confluence of

Schl i tz and Hot Springs Creeks, or perhaps at the mouth of Bryan Creek, which

enters the main stream just below Hot Springs Creek. Hot Springs rises

in the granite hills north of Midnight Mountain and flows westward to the

Serpentine.

        These three streams and their tributaries comprise a fan-shaped

drainage system, perhaps twenty miles wide at the greatest. Tribuatries

006      |      Vol_XII-0798                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

to Schlitz Creek include Star, Reindeer, Bella, and Mukluk Creeks. Hot

Springs receives many unnamed tributaries, and has the small settlement of

Hot Springs near its head. A winter trail 148 miles long connects this

settlement with Nome.

        Collier gives a good description of the springs from which the

village and stream receive their names: "Along Spring Creek for a distance

of about half a mile," he writes, "there are hot sulphur springs. Two of

these, the upper and lower ones, were visited by the writer. The upper

spring is on the banks of the creek, probably above any except the highest

floods. The spring is in the center of a broad mound, 10 feet in diameter,

and perhaps 2 feet high, bu i lt up from material precipitated from the spring

water. The temperature of the water is about 212°. The lower springs are

below the high-water mark of the creek. The amount of water is not over

1 miners' inch. For some distance around the spring the ground is warm,

making it an ideal place for wintering in that climate."

        Tributaries to Bryan Creek include McKinley, Peter, Irene, and

Dick Creeks. Continuing downstream, the Serpentine receives Rock Creek

[ ?] and North Fork from the east. Only one or two miles below

this confluence a stream which is formed by the junction of Lone Butte and

South Fork enters the Serpentine from the west. Lone Butte is identified

on some early maps as Grayling Creek, and South Fork as Quartz Creek, but they

are now generally known by their present names. Lone Butte Creek has no

named tributaries, but South Fork is joined by Quartz, Teller, and Snowshoe

Creeks. Eldorado Creek enters the Serpentine from the west only a few miles

above its mouth.

        A maze of winter trails and sled roads connect the mining camps

which dot this section of the Port Clarence district. In addition, there

is a 1400-foot landing field at Hot Springs and a smaller 800-foot strip

on Dick Creek.

007      |      Vol_XII-0799                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

        Shishmaref, the only substantial settlement in this region, had

a 1939 population of 257. This village has a post office and receives mail

twice a month during the season of navigation , that is between June 1 and October 31.

T hroughout the winter mail is delivered once a month by dogsled from Nome

via Teller and Wales. During the winter of 1939 , freight and mail were also brought

in once a month by air. In addition, Shishmaref has a general store and a

Native cooperative store, a licensed fur dealer, and a fox ranch. George

R. Goshaw, a pioneer in the field of fur farming, raise s blue, white, red,

and blue-white platina foxes. He originated the beautiful platina fox furs.

An Alaska Native Service School and a Lutheran Church are also located in

the village.

        The former site on the mainland has been abandoned for a position

about midway of the length of Sarichef Island. Because of the close confines

of this sand bar, the settlement has an emergency landing area but no

true landing strip. The overland winter trail north from Teller and across

the Inlet, and the coastwise trail around the point of Seward Peninsula

meet at Shishmaref. Anchorage in depths up to 30 feet will be found in the

Inlet about one mile offshore from the town.

        Shishmaref is predominantly an Eskimo settlement. The Natives,

despite the changes which civilization has brought them, continue to

live through hunting, fishing, and trapping. The Eskimos of this section

are particularly well-known for their needlecraft and ivory carvings. These

artistic products are bartered for staples and all kinds of general supplies

available in Shishmaref.

        Mining As early as 1901, gold had been found on several tributaries to

the Serpentine, including Dick, Bryan, Eldorado, Hogum, and

Reindeer Creeks, but work was slow in getting underway because only enough

water for sluicing a few hours a day was ever available during the summer

008      |      Vol_XII-0800                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

season. By 1905, plans were in progress for the construction of a ditch to

the head of Dick Creek, this being the stream which appeared most heavily

mineralized. A contemporaneous map shows that this dtich was in fact dug

from Dick Creek to the heads of several stream s west of that creek, but, des i p ite

this heavy expenditure of money and effort, the offic ia l report on the

mineral resources of Alaska does not mention Dick Creek again until 1940.

The Serpentine system, therefore, never proved to be a rich gold producer.

(For a general discussion of the Alaska gold mining industry see Nome,

Alaska article.)

009      |      Vol_XII-0801                                                                                                                  
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Colby, Merle. Guide to Alaska. Guide to Alaska. N.Y., 1942.

Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward

Peninsula. Alaska Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward

Peninsula. Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)

Gibson, Arthur. Map of Seward Peninsula. Alaska Map of Seward Peninsula. Alaska . Nome, Alaska, 1908.

Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.

Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's

Straits...in the years 1815-1818 Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's

Straits...in the years 1815-1818 . Translated by H.E. Lloyd.

London, 1821. 3vol.

U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper No.314. Plate I. Washington, 1913.

U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. Aeronautical Chart Aeronautical Chart No.76. 4th ed. 1947.

U.S. Post Office. Post Route Map of Alaska Post Route Map of Alaska . Washington, 1947.

VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska .

001      |      Vol_XII-0802                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

October, 1948 520 wds SINUK RIVER, ALASKA

        SINUK RIVER (Sinook, Sinrock, Synrock), southwestern Seward

Peninsula, Alaska, which empties into Norton Sound twenty-five or thirty

miles west of Nome, is one of the largest rivers of the southern watershed

of the peninsula.

        The Sinuk rises in the Kigluaik Mountains, southwest of Mount

Osborn, and flows parallel to these mountains in a southwesterly direction

for about fifteen miles, then turns southward for another twenty miles

before entering Norton Sound.

        The upper course of the river is closely constricted by mountains

rising to over 2,000 feet. This section receives several short affluents,

including Windy and Charley Creeks. North Star Creek is the main tribu–

tary to Windy Creek.

        Below Charley Creek the Sinuk Basin widens considerably. The

river passes south of Glacier Lake, from which it receives a short

tributary, and continues in a southwesterly [ ?] direction across a wide

valley. Stewart River, main tributary to the Sinuk, enters from the

east a few miles below the Glacier Lake tributary. Thompson, Lost,

Boulder, Fred, Mountain, Josie, Irene (sometimes called Moose), and

Durant Creeks all enter the Stewart from the south. These tributaries

rise in the mountain chain separating the Stewart River system from

that of the Snake and Penny Rivers (q.v.). The northern tributaries

to this section of the Stewart are Quartz, Slate, Short, Silver, Windy, and

Francisco Creeks.

        The main tributaries to the Sinuk below the Stewart are American,

Rulby, Trinity, Coal, Washington, Green, Independence, Boulder, and

Granite Creeks.

        Just below Boulder Creek, the Sinuk enters a discontinuous coastal

mountain chain, receives a tributary from the north formed by the conflu-

002      |      Vol_XII-0803                                                                                                                  
SINUK RIVER

ence of Dry and Camp Creeks, and then enters the coastal plain across

which it carves a torturous, deeply entrenched course to the sound.

        These mountains of the lower Sinuk continue southeast of the river

and crowd to within less than a mile of the coast between the Sinuk and

Cripple Rivers. East of the Sinuk, several short streams flow into

Norton Sound from these mountains, including, Rodney, Sonora, and Quartz

Creeks.

        In July, 1898, H.L. Blake and his party (See Nome article), pros–

pected in the Sinuk area without finding gold in paying quantities. Later

examination tended to co n firm these findings, although it was felt that

some of the deposits,along the upper tributaries to this river, might

be profitably worked if enough water could be brought down from the

Kigluaik Mountains to make hydraulic mining possible. However, beaause

of the far richer deposits in nearby streams, such as Anvil Creek in the

Snake River system, what gold there is along the Sinuk has no received

much attention.

        The only settlement on the river is Sinuk, at the mouth, a small

Eskimo village first recorded by Barnard in 1900.

        Sources: USCP & Supplement; VSGB: Baker.

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of parts of Seward

Peninsula. Alaska. including the Nome. Council, Kougarok, Port

Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Gold Placers of parts of Seward

Peninsula. Alaska. including the Nome. Council, Kougarok, Port

Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908.

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C., 1901.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0804                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

October, 1948 250 wds SLEDGE ISLAND, ALASKA

        SLEDGE ISLAND, ALASKA, about five or six miles off the southwestern

coast of Seward Peninsula and about thirty-six miles west of Cape Nome,

is a comparatively round, rocky, flat-topped island rising 604 feet

above the water. Except for a small rocky slope on the east side and a

short sand spit making off from the northern end of the island, the

shores are steep.

        Sledge Island is only about one mile long by one-half a mile

wide, but still it offers the only protection against southerly storms

for deep-water vessels at a nchor in the Nome roadstead. With strong

southeast winds, the currents between the island and the mainland have

an average velocity of two knots and a maximum velocity of three and

one-half knots setting northwestward. Vessels seeking protection from

southerly storms behind Sledge Island must, therefore, give special

attention to these currents.

        There was once a small native village on the east side of th is e

island, but, although the huts are still there, the island is now visited

only by occasional parties of Eskimo hunters.

        Cook, landing on this island on August 5, 1778, and finding a

sledge on the shore, gave it its present name. The native name, Ayak

( Ajak , Asiak , Aziak , etc.) is mentioned by Beechey, who visited this

vicinity in 1826, and [ ?] noted, that, by a strange coincidence, the native

name also means 'sledge.'

Sources: Baker: VSGB; USCP & Supplement

001      |      Vol_XII-0805                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

October, 1948 SNAKE RIVER, ALASKA

        550 wds

        SNAKE RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is famous

for being the site of the great Nome gold strike in the fall of 1898.

        Like other rivers in this part of the peninsula, the Snake rises

in the Kigluaik Mountains, south of Mount Distin, and flows almost directly

south into Norton Sound.

        The upper third of the Snake Basin is closely constricted by

mountains of 2,000 or more feet, so that the river is torrential and is

joined by several other, equally swift, mountain streams.

        Gold Botton and Grouse Creeks join about sixteen miles from the

coast to form the Snake River, which, soon thereafter, receives the waters

of Last Chance Creek and its main branch, North Fork.

        Below this confluence, the Snake Basin gradually broadens out,

until it is four or five miles wide at a point about seven miles from the

coast. Below this point the river veers to the east and becomes deeply

entrenched in the coastal plain. From north to south, along this lower

third of its course, the Snake is joined by Borg, Blanchford, Divining,

Bangor, Boulder, Balto, Sledge, Alpha, Lindblom, Rock, Glacier, Monument,

Russell, American, Sunset, Anvil, Center, Bourbon, and Dry Creeks. Twin

Mountain Creek enters Boulder a few miles above its confluence with the

Snake. Snow Gulch and Bonanza Gulch are the important gold-bearing

tributaries to Glacier Creek, while Hot Air Bench, an old channel of

Glacier Creek, opposite Snow Gulch, has likewise proved to have rich

deposits.

        Discovery claim on Anvil Creek was, of course, the first strike

in this region and is now judged to be the richest ever made in Alaska.

One nugget valued at $1,100 was found there, and, between the years 1903

and 1908, over $5,000,000 worth of gold was recovered from the placers

002      |      Vol_XII-0806                                                                                                                  
SNAKE RIVER

along tiny, six-mile Anvil Creek. Lindeberg (q.v.) named Anvil Creek

after the peak above which it rises. He called this peak Anvil Mountain,

because of the shape of a rock formation at its summit. Little Creek

enters Anvil a few miles above its mouth.

        Center, Bourbon, and Dry Creeks, all s h ort streams, rise south of

Anvil Mountain and flow southwestward into the Snake. Dry Creek, [ ?]

economically the most important of the three streams, is formed by the

union of Bear Creek, Newton Gulch, and Left Fork.

        Glacier Creek and Little Creek are small villages on the streams

of the same name, while Nome, the largest town on Seward Peninsula, lies

at the mouth of the Snake River.

        The entrance to the Snake River is shallow and marked by shifting

bars, although it has been improved by the contruction of two parallel

400-foot jetties. Ocean-going vessels cannot approach nearer than a mile

or two, and all cargoes must be lightered ashore. Southwesterly storms,

which are frequent during August and September, but which occur at other

times as well, endanger the entire anchorage in this part of Norton

Sound, so that deep-draft vessels must make for tiny Sledge Island (q.v.),

about twenty-four miles west of Nome, which offers the only protection

in southerly weather. During such storms no landing of any kind is possible

at Nome.

        Sources:

        Baker: VSGB: USCP & Supplement

        Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of parts of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port

Clarence. and Goodhope Precincts. Washington, D.C., 1908.

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconna is sances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.

001      |      Vol_XII-0807                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

September, 1948 SOLOMON RIVER REGION

        2,160 wds. 150 wd. - Bibl.

        THE SOLOMON RIVER REGION, which lies between the Bluff and

Nome regions (q.v.), will here be considered to extend from Topkok Head,

a promentory on the southern shore of Seward Peninsula, to the mouth

of the Bonanza River, about 15 miles to the west. Several rivers drain

into this northern section of Norton Sound including Cache Creek, just

west of Ta ylor Lagoon, Pine Creek, and the famous Solomon and Bonanza

Rivers. The coastal plain, which in many ways is similar to the Nome

section, stretches from the shoreline to the foothills and ranges in

width from practically nothing at Topkok Head to 4 or 5 miles in the

Bonanza River section. The so-called 'beach' is really moss-covered tundra

        Insert p.1. Solomon River Region

        Bonanza Creek rises in the highlands several miles

to the west of the headwaters of the Solomon and flows first

southward and then southeastward into a narrow, eastern arm of

Port Safety lagoon which is cut off from Norton Sound by a long

mud flat. A U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey map, dated 1907,

shows Ca l ifornia, Gold Run, and Jackson Creeks joining the

Bonanza from the east. Ohio Creek enters Jackson from the

north, and several other unnamed streams join the main river

from both the east and the west.

        two main tributaries to Big Hurra c h Creek a re Lion and Little Hurrah.

Also from north to south the most important tributaries to the Solomon from the west are

Johns, Shovel, which carries the waters of Adams, Kasson, West, and Mystery

        26 [ ls ?]

001      |      Vol_XII-0808                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

September, 1948 SOLOMON RIVER REGION

        2,160 wds. 150 wd - Bibl

        THE SOLOMON RIVER REGION, which lies between the Bluff and

Nome regions (q.v.), will here be considered to extend from Topkok Head,

a promentory on the southern shore of Seward Peninsula, to the mouth

of the Bonanza River, about 15 miles to the west. Several rivers drain

into this northern section of Norton Sound including Cache Creek, just

west of Ta ylor Lagoon, Pine Creek, and the famous Solomon and Bonanza

Rivers. The coastal plain, which in many ways is similar to the Nome

section, stretches from the shoreline to the foothills and ranges in

width from practically nothing at Topkok Head to 4 or 5 miles in the

Bonanza River section. The so-called 'bech' is really moss-covered tundra

which is frozen solid except for about three months of the year, so that

the placer gold mining activity, for which the region is famous , is subject

to a short season and unusually difficult conditions.

        Good anchorage may be had 2 miles off this shore, but no

lights are visible on shore and the only protection from heavy winds is

to stand out to seaward. According to a 1902 survey, there is a depth

of 3 feet on the bar at the entrance and inside the Solomon River, but

experience is necessary to find the channel. Insert

        Insert Only a low divide separates the headwaters of the Solomon

River from the Casadepaga immediately to the north. Flowing almost

directly south, the Solomon drains an area of about 134 square miles, and

receives several tributaries along its 20-mile [ ?] course. From the east

the most important of these are Coal, which is itself joined about this junction by [ ?]

Victoria and Boise Creeks earlier in its course, East Fork, Big Hurrah, and Quartz Creeks. The

two main tributaries to Big Hurra c h Creek a re Lion and Little Hurrah.

Also from north to south the most important tributaries to the Solomon from the west are

Johns, Shovel, which carries the waters of Adams, Kasson, West, and Mystery

        26 [ ls ?]

002      |      Vol_XII-0809                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

Creeks, and the last two tributaries to the Solomon, Jerome and Manila

Creeks.

        ¶ For the first 15 miles of its course, the Solomon occupies a fairly

broad valley between highlands rising to about 1,600 feet, [ ?] d has a

gradient of about 50 feet to the mile. Arthur J. Collier writes of this

section of the river: "In the floor of this valley the river is entrenched,

leaving a system of gravel terraces from 20 to 50 feet abo ve the water.

Gravel bars from 100 to 500 feet wide, only partially covered at ordinary

stages of the water, fill the river bed." For the remaining 5 miles of its

course, the S olomon crosses the coastal plain in a broad trench and the

gradient drops to 6 or 8 feet to the mile. In a report dated 1908,Collier con [ ?]

tinues: "The river was named by Pierce Thomas, who staked Discovery claim

o i n June, 1899. In the same season the river and its tributaries were

prospected, and in 1900 probably $10,000 worth of gold was mined in this

district. The bed rocks along Solomon River are limestone and schist of

the Nome group. The strikes generally have a north-south direction, but the

dips are low and in some places the rocks lie nearly flat. On the eastern

side of the valley a number of instrusive masses of green igneous rock

have been observed. Veins and stringers of more or less mineralized quartz

are common in the schists, both parallel with the cutting across the

schistosity. Many of them carry gold, and at Big Hurrah Creek a quartz

mine is in successful operation...Although gold has been found along the

Solomon River through its whole length, the placers operated in 1903 and

1904 are all located within 12miles of the coast. The workings are in

benches along the river, where ordinary mining methods are employed, and

in the gravel bars of the river bed itself, where several dredges have

been used...A system of ditches to bring water from the head of the river

and its tributaries to the placers located near the mouth is in construction,

and it is probabl e that about 1,000 miner's inches of water under a head

of from 250 to 400 feet will be available."

        28 [ls?]

003      |      Vol_XII-0810                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

        During the years 1900, 1901, and 1902 there was gold mining

activity on most of the tributaries to the Solomon. Several claims were

being worked above Coal Creek. Big Hurrah Creek had, at that time, produced

more gold than any other tributary to the Solomon, although the methods

used were extremely primitive, since hydraulicing was impossible because

of the low gradient of the stream and the thinness of the deposit. The

largest operation was Big Hurrah Mine , then owned by C.D. Lane ( See Council and Nome) on one of the southern benches of the creek

near the mouth of Little Hurrah. Here a great many specimens of [ ?]

vein quartz containing free gold had been found in the placer gravels. In

1903 three such veins were being developed and several prospect holes and

        Insert 1.

        , so that full attention could be given to the development of the lode.

Bill Stiles expressed the current placer-versus-quarz mining

expectations in the following words: "Since the first year of the placer

excitement quartz miners familiar with conditions in the Nome country have

had an abiding faith that the time will come when the quartz mines in

Northwestern Alaska will produce more gold every year than any annual

product of the placer claims. The advantage of quartz mining is that it

can be conducted in the winter season as well as in the summer time."

These expectations were not, of course, to be fulfilled.

        Creek during this period. Some development was going on i I n the vicinity

of Jerome and Manila Creeks, which enter the Solomon a few miles from

the coast, some development was going on as early as 1900 and continued in a small way for the next few

years. These were considered important at the time because they indicated

that the tundra section of the Solomon might also contain placers of

the gravel-plain type. Very little prospecting had been done along [ Cahe ?]

        37 [ls?]

003a      |      Vol_XII-0811                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

        During the years 1900, 1901, and 1902 there was gold mining

activity on most of the tributaries to the Solomon. Several claims were

being worked above Coal Creek. Big Hurrah Creek had, at that time, produced

more gold than any other tributary to the Solomon, although the methods

used were extremely primitive, since hydraulicing was impossible because

of the low gradient of the stream and the thinness of the deposit. The

largest operation was Big Hurrah Mine , then owned by C.D. Lane ( See Council and Nome) on one of the southern benches of the creek

near the mouth of Little Hurrah. Here a great many specimens of [ ?]

vein quartz containing free gold had been found in the placer gravels. In

1903 three such veins were being developed and several prospect holes and

open cuts had been made west of Little Hurrah, from which it was believed

the lode had been recognized for about 1,000 feet along the stream.

Big Hurrah placer operations were suspended in September, 1903. (Insert 1) On Kasson

Creek the bedrock was massive limestone fissured and broken up into

fragments, with gold-bearing sediments ly ing on this limestone and pene–

trating the fissures to unknown depths. In some places [ ?] mining opera–

tions had penetrated the limestone for 20 or 30 feet and the pay streak

had been discovered to have a width of from 16 to 100 feet. Claims along

Kasson Creek were then all under one control and were being worked as

a unit. Nine claims were being worked on West Creek in 1903 with probably

3 or 4 men on each, and garnet and magnetite were found to be associated with the gold

in the sluice boxes. Three or fo ur outfits were sluicing along Mystery

Creek during this period. Some development was going on i I n the vicinity

of Jerome and Manila Creeks, which enter the Solomon a few miles from

the coast, Some development was going on as early as 1900 and continued in a small way for the next few

years. These were considered important at the time because they indicated

that the tundra section of the Solomon might also contain placers of

the gravel-plain type. Very little prospecting had been done along [ Cahe ?]

        37 [ls?]

004      |      Vol_XII-0812                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

Cache and Pine Creeks to the east although their gravels were said to

be auriferous. In 1907 a U.S. Geological Survey report tells of the

almost complete mechanization of the Big Hurrah Mine and of the dis–

appointment of miners who had expected to find gold in the beach and

tundra gravels of the Solomon district similar to the immensely rich

strikes near Nome. Scores of holes were dug but no pay had been located by

the close of the summer of 1907. In 1910. Philip S. Smith summarized

Solomon River Region gold mining from 1900-1908: "The larger part of the

production has come from Solomon River itself, from its larger western

branch, Shovel Creek, and from its smaller eastern tributary, Big Hurrah

Creek. Numerous smaller streams have, however, yielded placer returns,

but the wok has generally been carried on by camps of only a few men

each, so that although the production per man may have been considerably

more than wa g es, yet the total production has been small as compared with

that of the Nome region. There is hardly a stream in the basin that has

not been prospected and reported to yield colors, but during 1907 in the

entire Solomon River basin probably less than 125 men were employed in

placer mining. Brooks estimated that in 1900 about $10,000 was taken

from Solomon River and its tributaries. In 1904, however, the production

had increased so materially that Brooks estimated it to be about $200,000.

In 1905, according to Moffit, there was no considerable increase in the

production. In 1906, however, a large dredge completed in the previous

year increased the yield of the region, although the amount produced by

the small operators probably fell off. In 1907 the production increased

slightly, but most of the increase was made by the dredge and the production

of the smaller operators was probably less than that of the preceding year.

In 1908 an exceptionally dry season notably hampered mining work, so that

from thirty to sixty days of the usual one-hundred-day season were lost.

        28 [ls?]

005      |      Vol_XII-0813                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

A new dredge was built and operated for part of the season, so a part

of the decrease in other lines of work was made up for in this way." In

another part of the same report he describe s the towns of Solomon and

Dickson. "The mouth of the Solomon River affords as good a location

for a town as any other place in the immediate region, for boats can dis–

charge their freight from lighters on the beach and the broad gravel-floored

valley of Solomon River gives a good pathway into the interior. In con–

sequence, a town bearing the name of Solomon has sprung up there. In

1902 this place was made a post-office and at present has a semiweekly mail

service to and from Nome. Stores have been opened, at which supplies of

all kinds can be purchased. The town has been more or less deserted

lately, and probably not more than fifty people were living there during

1908. The only other town in the area is Dickson, which was named for T.

Warren Dickson, of New York. It is directly opposite Solomon, on the east

bank of the river. Dickson is the coastal terminus of the Council City and

Solomon River Railroad, and all of its industries and inhabita tn nt s are

connected with the railroad. Its entire population does not exceed 50

persons. This settlement was established in 1903."

        By 1905, Solomon was the base of all supplies for the

Solomon River country and had a population of 150, three stores,

four hotels, and "the usual quota of saloons." In the same period the

main offices of the railroad had been set up at Dickson, a town site

had been laid out, and several building s had been constructed in accordance

with it.

        In 1909 hydraulic mining was almost at a standstill because

of the dryness of the season, and only two ditches wee in operation, the

one from East Fork to Big Hurrah Creek, and the one from California to

Mystery Creek. Dredging was not affected by the shortage of water, but

was not carried on very far even so, and the Big Hurrah lode mine was shut

        27 [ls?]

006      |      Vol_XII-0814                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

down except for a few months during the winter. Little sluicing was done

and only three hydraulic plants were in operation in 1913, but the dredging

season was fairly successful. Dredging was the only method in use during

1914, but W. H. Esterbrook, who had taken an option lease on the ground

and equipment of the Seward Dredging Company on the Solomon, installed a

200-horsepower Diesel in his new plant there, which cut fuel consumption

from between 42 and 50 to between 6 and 10 barrels of crude oil a day.

In 1919 four dredges were operat i ng in the Solomon area as opposed to the

five of 1918, but these were still working in 1920. The quartz vein at

Big Hurrah had, [ ?] by this time, been found to be the largest, most

regular, and most continuous of any on Seward Peninsula. This was explained by

S. H. Cathcart to be the result of the character of the country rock of

the Hurrah District, which was slate, rather than the limestone of most

of the peninsula. This slate, being extremely brittle, fractured easily

and broke along sharp,clean lines. However, despite the extent of this

lode deposit the Big Hurrah mine had been idle since 1908.

        Gold mining in Alaska has suffered a gradual decline (See Nome and

Bluff Region article s ) ever since the late 1930's and was brought to a

standstill by World War II, when gold was put on the unessential list.

Since that time because of the high cost of labor and supplies and the fixed

price of gold on the market, it has not paid the small producer to take the

metal out of the ground, and even such giant enterprises as the Juneau

mine have been forced to shut down. By 1946 the town of Dickson had

disapp a eared, probably as a result of the bana abandonment of the

Solomon to Council Council City and Solomon River Railroad, and Solomon

itself had a population of 106, one general store, and a fourth class

post office. The gold claims of the district were held by E. W. Quigley,

R. O. Robert, and Lee Brothers Dredging Co. However, the town does have

        28 [ls?]

007      |      Vol_XII-0815                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

an Alaska Native Service School and a 5,200-foot landing strip. The

winter trail which skirts the southern shores of Seward Peninsula passes

through Solomon and sends one branch up the river and across the divide

to the Casadepaga, and another northeastward to Council. But Solomon

must now be thought of as a town in partial abeyance, waiting for the

future of Alaska gold mining to be decided — a future which at this writing

is anything but clear.

        6 [ls?]

008      |      Vol_XII-0816                                                                                                                  
SOLOMON RIVER REGION

        References

        Tewkesbury

        Colby

        U.S.C.P. & Supplement

        V.S.G.B.

        Wickersham, James. ... Bibliography of Alaskan Literature. 1724-1924 Bibliography of Alaskan Literature. 1724-1924 .

ordova, Alaska, Cordova Daily Times Print (c1927)

(Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines.

Miscellaneous Publication Miscellaneous Publication . Vol.1)

        Smith, Philip S. ... Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon

and Casadepaga Quadrangles. Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon

and Casadepaga Quadrangles. Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Washingt n, D.C., G.P.O., 1910. (U.S. Geological Su vey.

Bulletin Bulletin 433)

        Collier, Arthur J., (an [ ?] others) ... Gold placers of parts of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska. Gold placers of parts of Seward

Peninsula, Alaska. (Washington, G.P.O., 1908. (U.S.

Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 328)

        U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins Bulletins , 284, 3 4 5, 379, 442, 592, 622, 714, 722.

Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1906-1922.

        U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 314. Washington, D.C.,

G.P.O., 1913.

        Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions. Alaska, in 1900 Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and

Norton Bay Regions. Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C.,

G.P.O., 1901.

        Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula, a book of information about

northwestern Alaska. Nome and Seward Peninsula, a book of information about

northwestern Alaska. Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan press,

c1905.

        Stiles, Bill. "Quartz Mining in Northwestern Alaska." In: ALASKA–

YUKON MAGAZINE, Vol.VII, No.6, March, 1909, PP.474-475.

001      |      Vol_XII-0817                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

March, 1949 SPAFARIEF BAY, ALASKA

        Text-400 words

        SPAFARIEF BAY, an arm of Kotzebue Sound, indents the northern

shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Kotzebue named this bay in August, 18 [ ?] 6,

during a survey of Eschscholtz Bay, by way of which he hoped to discover the

northeast passage. It was more closely examined by Beechey. in September,

1826, who reported: "On the 8th, Spafarief Bay, which had been but little

explored by Captain Kotzebue, underwent a satisfactory ex a mination, and was

found to terminate in a small creek navigable a very short distance, and that

by boats only. Its whole extent inland is about three miles, when it separates

into a number of small branches communicating with several lakes, which, in

the spring, no doubt, discharge a large quantity of fre s h water into the sound,

though at this dry season of the year they were of inconsiderable size. A

little to the northward of the creek there is a pointed hill just 640 feet

high by measurement, from whence we surveyed the surrounding country, and found

that this side of the sound also was covered with a deep swampy moss. The

summit of this hill, and indeed of all the others that were ascended in the

sound, was the only part destitute of this covering.

        "The beach was strewed with a great quantity of drift wood, some

of which was in a very perfect state, and appeared to have been recently split

with wedges by the natives, who had carried away large portions of the trunks

to make their bows, arrows, and fishing implements. They were all pine-trees

except one, which by the bark appeared to be a silver birch."

        Spafarief Bay lies between Cape Deceit, a few miles west of the

mouth of the Kiwalik River (q.v.) and Chamisso Island (q.v.), and leads directly

into Eschscholtz Bay. It is nowhere deeper than thirty feet and is fringed by

a shoal.

        A winter trail leads directly northward out of Kiwalik, at the

mouth of that river, across the bay to Kotzebue (q.v.), on Baldwin Peninsula.

        Except in the immediate vicinity of Ki w q alik, the bay is

002      |      Vol_XII-0818                                                                                                                  
SPAEARIEF BAY, ALASKA

surrounded by steep banks of the coastal plain gravels which apparently

are laid down in a submerged valley and since raised to their present elevation.

The highest point on the eastern side of the bay reaches an elevation of

660 feet (Beechey to the contrary), but most of the banks are considerably

below this level.

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska.2 Geographic Dictionary of Alaska.2 d ed. Washington, 1906.

        Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ... in

the years 1825. 26. 27. 28. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ... in

the years 1825. 26. 27. 28. London, 1831. 2v.

        Moffit, F.H. F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,

1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No. 247)

        U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Pt.II. Alaska. Pt.II.

001      |      Vol_XII-0819                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

[ ?] October, 1948 SPENCER, POINT, ALASKA

Revised: November, 1948

        610 words Text

        25 words Bio

        SPENCER, POINT, ALASKA (65° 17′ N.Lat., 166° 50′ W.Long.), western

S [ ?] ward Peninsula, is the southern entrance point to Port Clarence, Bering

Sea. Point Spencer lies about twenty airline miles northwest of Cape

Douglas (q.v.), at the end of a tapering sand spit. This spit extends north–

westward from the mainland, but bends about midway slightly east of north,

thus forming the western side of Port Clarence. The base of the spit is

dotted with lakes, as is the slightly widened tip, just below the Point.

        Captain Frederick William Beechey gives a good description of the

Point: "The south e rn side of Port Clarence is a low diluvial formation,

covered with grass, and inter e sected by narrow channels and lakes; it

projects from a range of cliffs which appear to have been once upon

the coast, and sweeping round, terminates in a low shingly point (Point

Spencer). In one place this point is so narrow and low, that in a heavy gale

of wind, the sea must almost inundate it; to the northward, however, it

becomes wider and higher, and, by the remains of some yourts upon it, has

at one time been the residence of Esquimaux. Like the land just described, it

is interesected with lakes, some of which rise and fall with the tide, and

is covered, though scantily, with a coarse grass, elymus , among which we found

a species of artemesia, probably new. Near Point Spencer the beach has been

forced up by some extraordinary pressure into ridges, of which the outer

one, ten or twelve feet above the sea, is the highest. Upon and about these

ridges there is a great quantity of drift timber, but more on the inner side

of the point than the outer. Some has been deposited upon the point before

the ridges of sand were formed, and is now mouldering away with the effect of

time, while other logs are less decayed, and that which is lodged on the

outer part is in good preservation, and serves the natives for bows and fishing

staves."

002      |      Vol_XII-0820                                                                                                                  
SPENCER, POINT, ALASKA

        On the Bering Sea side of the Spit there is a wide shoal which

extends s ou thward past Cape Douglas and Cape Woolley to Cape Rodney (q.v.).

However, this shoal is widest southwest of Point Spencer, where there is

also a ledge with a reported least depth of one and three-quarter fathom,

so that, when approaching from this direction, deep water vessels must give

the point a berth of at least five miles.

        The entrance to Port Clarence, between Point Spencer and Point Jackson

on the north shore, is about four or five miles wide, and is clear of all

dangers. Depths in the entrance run between twenty-eight and thirty-six

feet. There is a sheltered anchorage just inside Point Spencer, but south

of this point, a shoal makes into the bay with depths of only fifteen feet

a mile off from the spit.

        Point Spencer itself is bold, with d p e pths up to forty-two feet as close

as one-quarter of a mile, and it is marked by a light from August 1 to

November 1. Although this light is shown from a white wooden house about

fifteen feet above the water, several poles at Point Spencer are more con–

spicuous than the light in the daytime.

        Point Spencer was named by Beechey in September, 1827, "in compliment

to the Honourable Captain Robert Spencer," of the Royal Navy. With his usual

modesty, Beechey remarks: "As we receded from Point Spencer, the difficulty

of distinguishing it even at a short distance accounted for this excellent

port [ Port Clarence ] having been overlooked by Cook, who anchored within

a very few miles of its entrance."

        Sources:

        USCP; Baker; VSGB; C&GS Chart 9302; Aeronautical Chart 76

        Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...

in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28

Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...

in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . London, 1831. Vol.II.

001      |      Vol_XII-0821                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA

        1,080 words

        SQUIRREL RIVER, in northwestern Alaska, is one of the chief

northern tributaries to the Kobuk (q.v.), one of the largest waterways in

this part of the Territory.

        The Squirrel rises in the divide between its watershed and that

of the Noatak (q.v.), and drains an the area between the western end of the Baird Mount

Mountains and Hotham Inlet. It receives its largest t ri butaries from the Baird

Mountains, and on the north, and flows in a generally southwesterly direction

to the Kobuk, entering that river about sixty-eight miles upstream from

Hotham Inlet.

        Travelling downstream, the important northern tributaries are

Omanha, Timber, Klery, Central, and Canyon Creeks. Timber Creek is joined

by Spruce and Cross Creeks; Klery by Snyder, Gold Run, Crooked, Martin, Rocky,

Jack, Bear, Boldrin, and Peluk Creeks; and Canyon by the waters of Jay, Otter,

and Mink Creeks.

        The Squirrel-Noatak divide is hardly over 1,000 feet high, but

the mountains in which the major tributaries to the Squirrel rise reach

elevations of three or four thousand feet. On the highest peaks rocks weathered

to fantastic shapes are the prominent landmarks for the surrounding country

side. The mountains to the south of the early course of the river are only

about one thousand feet in height at the greatest, but the short chain [ ?]

bordering the southern end of the river contains 2,675-foot Deviation Peak and

another unnamed point 2,800 feet high.

        The entire course of this river is above the Arctic Circle

so that the open season is limited to only about two months of every year.

Because Kotzebue Sound is extremely shallow and somewhat protected from the

main movement of the pack northward in the spring, it is not open to naviga–

tion until sometime in July. By the middle of September the rivers are

already frozen again. Because of the considerable elevation of the terrain

002      |      Vol_XII-0822                                                                                                                  
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA

surrounding much of the Squirrel River system, ice begins to form on the sides

of the stream as early as mid-August and the surrounding mountains are covered

with snow far down their sides slopes. (For a more detailed description

of the climatology of this part of Alaska, see Kobuk River article.)

Vegetation & A fringe of dark green spruce, perhaps one hundred yards in

Game width, edges the larger streams in the Squirrel River system.

All timber in this area is more or less stunted, the spruce. averaging about

one foot in diameter and tapering rapidly at the top. There is a much

smaller growth of birch along the Squirrel than is found on the Kobuk, but

the willow and alder, which grow by the smaller streams, are useful for fuel.

Much of the Squirrel basin is treeless, the only vegetation being mosses and a kind of

heavy rank grass. and mosses Even during the summertime this grass is not an

ideal fodder for pack animals, since [ ?] it con–

tains a large percentage of water and relatively little nourishment. This

grass wilts at once and looses all its usefulness at the slightest touch of

frost.

        Smith, writing in 1909, remarks that there was very little game

in the vicinity of the diggings on Timber, Klery, Central, and Canyon Creeks.

He suspected, however, that bear and caribou might be found in the more remote

parts of the upper Squirrel system. On the other hand, ptarmigan and water

birds were abundant near the mines, although they proved so wary as to be

unreliable as an exclusive source of food. Salmon swarmed in the lower

channels and branches of the Squirrel and great numbers of grayling were

usually available in the smaller streams.

        Mining During the 1909 season, the U.S. Geological Survey visi [ ?] ed

the Squirrel River region. Although gold had by that time

been found on eight or ten tributaries to the main river, work was then in

progress only on Klery Creek. About fifty men had located in the area,

003      |      Vol_XII-0823                                                                                                                  
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA

of which one-third or more were on one claim. In his 1909 report, Smith

warned that capital had not yet taken hold in the region, that there was

little opportunity to work for wages, and that most of the camps were run

on a partnership basis. Until such time as a well-financed company entered

the d istrict, making it possible to spend a few unproductive seasons in pre–

paring the ground, Smith did not feel that there was much hope for the Squirrel

River mining ventures.

        Klery Creek, Smith pointed out, exemplified the unjustness of

the existing staking regulations. Of the sixty-four claims above, and the twenty

below Discovery Claim on that stream, work had been done on only about ten

locations. As had already been demonstrated at Nome and repeatedly throughout

the Territory, this system of absentee claim staking with no requirements

concerning the working of the ground, could close an entire area to all new–

comers while the original claimants waited for one of their own group to risk

the time and money developing his section of the field.

        In his summary of the Squirrel River prospects, Smith points

out that the rigor of region and the climate and the shortness of the working season

militate against the development of a large camp anywhere along the river,

just as it discouraged the stampeding of a large group of incompetents to the

district. On the other hand, he indicated that the similarity of the already

existing placers to those in the more productive parts of Seward Peninsula,

pointed to a possibl e bright future for the Squirrel district. This hope

would have been considera b ly strengthened had any rich lode deposits been

found there, so that there might have been some hope of continuous mining

the year around.

        As late as 1944, the difficulty of transporting men and

equipment to the Squirrel region and getting to work within the short span

of one season was still hindering the development of the area. Recent reports,

004      |      Vol_XII-0824                                                                                                                  
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA

however, speak of a well-equipped and well-informed group of young men

entering the region during the summer of 1947 and succeeding in beginning

to mine on Klery Creek within a few weeks of their arrival there. Much of

their supplies and machinery was brought in by air. This may be the first

turn in the tide of mining prospects for the entire district.

        Kiana, a short distance above the junction of the Squirrel

and the Kobuk, is the only settlement nearby. Kiana has two landing strips

and is the supply and transfer point for all the mining camps on the

Squirrel.

005      |      Vol_XII-0825                                                                                                                  
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA

       

References

        Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Washington, 1906. 2d ed.

        Smith, P.S. Squirrel River Placers Squirrel River Placers . (Brooks, A.H., and others. Mineral

Resources of Alaska....1910. Mineral

Resources of Alaska....1910. Washington, 1911. pp.306-319)

        Stewart, R.L. Prospecting in Alaska. Prospecting in Alaska. Juneau, Alaska, 1944.

001      |      Vol_XII-0826                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

August, 1948

        300 wds

15wds-Bibl

STUART ISLAND

        STUART ISLAND, Norton Sound, less than a mile off the

west coast of Alaska, is separated from the mainland by Stephens Pass.

The Island is about 10 miles from east to west, and about 5 miles from

north to south. On September 18, 1778, Captain James Cook returned to

this section of Ala the Alaskan coast in an attempt to follow it south–

ward from Norton Bay, but the shoals of Stephens Pass deterred him.

Later he learned that these shoals continued down the coast for

hundreds of miles, and he changed his course and sailed for Unalaska.

He writes in part: "The land in this place was moderately high, the

westernmost point (Stuart Island) making in a bluff. At one half

past ten, the Resolution hailed the Discovery to take the lead, and make

for an opening (Stephens Pass) between the mainland and the island which

was called Stewart's Island, and our boats were sent ahead to sound;

but some time after, they made the signal of 4 and 3 fathoms and a

half and consequently we hawled our wind to the westward."

        The shores of Stuart Island are irregular. The north

shore from North Point to Observation Point and down to Stephens Pass

is one continuous bluff about 170 feet high, but the southern and western

shores are considerably lower. Stuart Mountain in the northeastern part

of the island is 483 feet high and there is one other 265-foot hill in

the northwestern section. Most maps show the island cut in half from

north to south by a tidal slough. A line of detached rocks extends

from the western tip of the island and the shoals which discouraged

Captain Cook still extend about 3 miles off the southeastern point

toward Stephens Pass. Recent maps show no settlements of any kind on

the island.

        25 [ls?]

        Sources:

        USCP: VSGB: Cook, Capt. James. Authentic Narrative of a Voyage per- Authentic Narrative of a Voyage per-

formed by Capt. Cook and Capt. Clerke in His Majesty's Ships Resolution and formed by Capt. Cook and Capt. Clerke in His Majesty's Ships Resolution and

Discovery during the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 Discovery during the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 . Lond. Robinson 1782. 2v. (V.2)

001      |      Vol_XII-0827                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 TALIKOOT, ALASKA

        25 wds

        TALIKOOT (67° 06′ N. Lat., 163° 34′ W.Long.) is a small Eskimo

village a few miles south of Cape Krusenstern, the northern entrance point to

Kotzebue Sound, northwestern Alaska.

001      |      Vol_XII-0828                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 CAPE THOMPSON, ALASKA

        220 wds

        THOMPSON, CAPE (68° 08′ N.Lat., 166° 02′ W.Long.), north–

western Alaska, projects into the Polar Sea a few miles southeast of Point

Hope (q.v.).

        Beechey, the famous British explorer, named this cape in

August of 1826 "after Mr. Deas Thomson, one of the Commissioners of the Navy."

Although the name appears as "Thomson" in the text, Beechey spelled it

"Thompson" on his map, and it has been recorded as such ever since.

        Cape Thompson, like its neighbor to the south, Cape Seppings,

is not distinct, making it difficult to decide to which exact point the name

should be applied. In the vicinity of the Cape for a distance of six of more

miles, the mountains drop abruptly into the water in a series of cliffs about

five hundred feet high. A rugged mountain face about midway of this series

of cliffs is probably Cape Thompson. From the small stream in the ravine

just south of this point fresh water may be obtained, and directly off this

watering place is an anchorage in thirty feet with sandy bottom. At almost

all other points along this line of cliffs, the bottom is rocky.

        The mountains forming Cape Thompson continue northward to

Cape Lisburne, while the coast itself curves westward and northwestward to

Point Hope.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0829                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

5 May 48 TIKCHIK LAKES, ALASKA

        THE TIKCHIK LAKES, southeastern Alaska, form a chain of

12 small lakes, which extends north and south along or slightly to

the east of 159° W. Long. between 60° 30′ and 59° 18′ N. Lat. The

long a xis of these lakes runs east and west or, as in a few cases,

slightly southeast-northwest, and the lakes lie almost directly under

each other starting with the most northerly, Nishlik Lake, and con–

tinuing [ ?] southward to Lake Nunavaugaluk. The major tributaries

to these lakes, excluding the rivers which connect them with each

other, rise in the Kilbuck Mountains which extend north and south

just west of the lakes. These mountains form the western divide for

the Nushagak River system to which the Tikchik Lakes contribute by way

of the rivers which rise in them and flow eastward to the Nushagak

or its tributaries.

        Nishlik Lake, the most northerly and one of the smallest

of the Tikchik Lakes, is 6 or 7 miles long by 1 to 2 miles wide. It

is fed by streams from the Kilbuck Mountains and is the source of

the Tikchik River which drains from the southeastern end of the lake.

        Upunuk Lake, a few miles south of Nishlike Lake, is the

second most northerly of the Tikchik Lakes. It is about 9 miles in

its greatest length by 5 miles in its greatest width, and is also fed

by streams from the Kilbuck Mountains. A small unnamed stream

drains from the eastern end of this lake and joins the Tikchik River

about 7 miles east of Upunuk Lake.

        Chikuminuk Lake, next in line to the south, is irregular in

shape. It is about 15 miles long by 13 miles wide at the greatest

points. The longer of two northern arms of the lake reaches to

within 1 or 2 miles of the south shore of Upunuk Lake. Chikuminuk 25 [ls?]

003      |      Vol_XII-0830                                                                                                                  
TIKCHIK LAKES

river and its tributaries connect Nishlik and Upunuk Lakes with

Tikchik Lake, which in turn is connected with Nuyakuk, Chauekuktuli,

and Chikuminuk Lakes. A few minor streams and creeks flow into

Tikchik River from the small lakes to the east and west of its

southerly, 40-mile course. About 15 miles from its head the Tikchik

passes through Tikchik Canyon, and the last few miles of its course

pass to the westward of a 2760-foot height called Tikchik Mountain.

        Tikchik Lake is about 9 miles long by 4 miles wide at the

greatest points. Its only settlement according to recent maps is

Kaskanak on the north shore of the head of the Nuyakuk River. Schanz

reported this lake under its present name in 1890. Baker noted, in

1906, that the older name was Nushagak Lake, although it has appeared

consistently as Tikchik Lake on recent maps. There would appear to

be a confusion, as well, as to the name of the river which drains from

the eastern end of the lake. Early sources call this the Tikchik

River, but it now generally referred to as the Nuyakuk.

        Lake Kulik, the eighth most southerly of the Tikchik Lakes,

is about 17 miles long by 2 miles wide at the greatest Ppoints

A short stretch of falls and rapids connects it with Grant Lake. [ ?]

small lake to the Northeast. Northeast of Grant Lake is Agenuk Moun–

tain, a prominent elevation in this part of the Nushagak Basin.

        Lake Kulik is fed by streams flowing from the Kilbuck Mountains and

from Eagle Mountain which separates it from Nuyakuk Lake. Rapids

connect Lake Kulik with tiny Mikshalk Lake, to the south, which is

itself connected with Lake Beverly by Peace River. Lake Kulik has

been variously reported. Tikhmenief called it Kullik, in 1861, and

Raymond, in 1869, recorded it as Lake Koulakh.

        27 ls

004      |      Vol_XII-0831                                                                                                                  
TIKCHIK LAKES

        Lake Beverly, the next most southerly of the Tikchik Lakes,

lies northwest-southeast across 158° 40′ W. Long. It is about 15

miles long and about 5 miles wide at the greatest points. The western

end is divided into Golden Horn and Silver Horn. These extensions

are about 6 and 3 miles long respectively. Golden Horn is fed by a

stream flowing from a small lake in Rainbow Basin southeast of Mt.

Waskey in the Kilbuck Mountains. Silver Horn receives several

small streams rising in Akulu k tok Mountain which separates this

part of Lake Beverly from Lake Nerka, the next Tikchik Lake to the

south. Lake Beverly is fed all along its northern shore by streams

rising in the highlands which separate it from Lake Kulik and by

streams and creeks draining from the system of small lakes which lies

east of these highlands. A short sketch of rapids called Agulukpak R iver drain s from the

southeastern end of Lake Beverly, connect ing it with Lake Nerka, which,

at this point, lies only about a mile s to the south.

        The two eastern extensions of Lake Nerka are separated by

a broad peninsula, 5 to 6 miles wide, on which stand the Prog

Moutains. Lynx Lake, sends which lies at the foot of these moun–

tains, sends a small tributary into the southern arm of Lake Nerka.

Anvil Bay reaches a few miles into the northern side of the penin–

sula. Elbow Point, at the tip of the peninsula, lies on the main

body of Lake Nerka Lake which is about 3 miles square. The northwestern

end of the lake again divides into two parts, one called Amukuk Arm,

the other and more southerly called Little Togiak Lake. Between

these lies Lake Elva which sends a tributary into the main body

of the lake. The general shape of Lake Nerka resembles a wishbone

with the prongs extending eastward. The lake is fed by streams

rising in the Kilbuck Mountains and in the highlands which separate 27 ls

005      |      Vol_XII-0832                                                                                                                  
TIKCHIK LAKES

Nerka from the other Tikchik Lake. Lake Bumyok Ridge which

extends into the southeastern arm of Nerka is bounded on the south

by River Bay. From Jack Knife Mountain, which separates this part

of Lake Nerka from Lake Aleknagik, several streams flow into

Fenno Creek, a tributary to River Bay. The Agulowak River connects

this bay with Lake Aleknagik, about 3 miles to the south.

        Lake Aleknagik extends northwest-southeast for about

24 miles and is about 3 miles wide at the greatest point. It re–

ceives several streams from Sunshine Valley, to the northwest,

Youth and Ice Creeks from the south, and feeds Wood River (q.v.),

which drains from the extreme eastern end of the lake southeast ward

into Nushagak Bay (q.v.). Marsh Mountain and the Muklung Hills,

prominent features of this part of the Nushagak Basin, lie north–

east of the Lake Aleknagik. Many variants of the name Aleknagik

have been recorded since it first appeared in Sarichef's atlas of

1826. This would appear to be the same lake which Sheldon Jackson

called Abaknakik and described as dotted with pine-covered islands.

Aleknagik, at the head of Wood River, is a fast-growing settlement

with a reported population of 78, in 1939, during which same year

a new Territorial school was built. The village has a church,

general store, logging camp, and sawmill. Mail is delivered from

Dillingham all months of the year except October.

        Lake Nunavaugaluk, the most southerly of the twelve

Tikchik Lakes, is about 14 miles long on its northwest-southeast

axis and about 4 miles wide at the greatest point. Lake Nunavaugaluk

is fed by streams and creeks rising in the foothills of the Kil–

buck Mountains which surround it on all sides. A map, dated

January, 1947, indicates two cabins on the lake, one on each side

of the head of Snake River, which drains from its southeastern end. 28 ls

006      |      Vol_XII-0833                                                                                                                  
TIKCHIK LAKES

Although marked by rapids at its head, the Snake River later takes

a tortuous, meandering course, repeatedly reversing direction, to

empty into Nushagak Bay. Near its head it receives Otter Creek, and

about 8 miles from its mouth it is joined by the Weary River which

is also marked with sloughs and meanders. The channel leading to

the mouth of the Wood River is only 8 feet deep at high water and is

therefore unnavigable to any except the smallest fishing boats.

Since it rises in a lake, however, the Snake is an acceptable spawning ground for the ned salmon and as such is important to the

red salmon canneries which operate in Nushagak and all other arms of

Bristol Bay from mid-June to late July. The Snake River catch

is taken to the canning centers of Nushagak, Dillingham, and Snag

Point near the head of Nushagak Bay.

        All the Tikchik Lakes contribute to the success of the

salmon industry in this part of Alaska, since the red salmon chooses

for a habitat only those river systems which contain lakes.

        The six most northerly Tikchik Lakes: Nishlik Upunuk, Chi k m uninuk,

Chauekuktuli, Nuyakuk, and Tikchik, for m a lake system which

feeds the Nuyakuk River, one of the chief tributaries to the

Nushagak, the largest river in the area. The next five Tikchik

Lakes: Grant, Kulik, Beverly, Nerka, and Aleknagik, fee d the

Wood River, third largest tributary to Nushagak Bay, and also very

important to the salmon industry. Nunavaugaluk, the last Tikchik

Lake, gives rise to the Snake River, which, although it is not navi–

gable to cannery vessels, plays its own part in the industry, as

we have already seen.

        24 ls

001      |      Vol_XII-0834                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949 TIKIZAT, ALASKA

        80 wds

        TIKIZAT, on the coast of the Polar Sea, northwestern Alaska,

is an Eskimo village a f ew miles north of Cape Krusenstern, the northern

entrance point to Kotzebue Sound.

        According to Pe t rof this settlement had a population of seventy–

five or more in 1880, but, since it does not appear on the [ ?] 1939 Census,

it would seem to have decreased in size since that time.

        The long winter trail which connects this part of Alaska with

Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula, to the south, and with other coastal settlements,

to the north, passes through Tikizat.

002      |      Vol_XII-0835                                                                                                                  
TIKCHIK LAKES

is fed by streams flowing down from the Kilbuck Mountains and is

the source of the Allen River which joins the southeastenrn end of

this lake with Lake Chauekuktuli [ ?] immediately to the south. The

Allen River is 7 or 8 miles long and is interrupted by rapids all

along its course. The Kilbuck Mountains just westward of these two

lakes reach heights of 4800 feet., and Tthe territory between the lakes is

also mountainous. Ongutvak Mountain lies just northwest of the

point at which the Allen River enters Lake Chauekuktuli, the fourth

Tikchik Lake.

        Chauekuktuli is a long, narrow, bow-shaped lake about

20 miles long by 1 to 2 miles wide. It is fed from the north by

Allen River, and by streams flowing from the Kilbuck Mountains to the

west and from the highlands to the north and south. The extreme

western end of Lake Chauekuktuli is called Shadow Bay which fills a

narrow valley bounded on the south by Konarut Mountain. The Red

Hills separate th e i s end of the lake from Portage Arm, an extension of

Nuyakuk Lake, the next of the Tikchik Lakes. Mirrow Bay, a south–

western arm of Nuyakuk Lake is separated from Portage Arm by a

group of peaks from which several small streams flow into both branches

of Nuyakuk Lake. This, the fifth and perhaps the largest of the Tik–

chik Lakes, is about 21 miles long by 5 miles wide at the greatest

points. At its southeastern end a narrow channel connects Nuyakuk

with Tikchik Lake, headwaters for the Nuyakuk River (q.v.), one of the major

tributaries to the Nushagak (q.v.).

        Since it is east of Nuyakuk, Tikchik Lake does not cross

159° W. Long., but rather lies just south of 60° N. Lat. across 158° 20′

W. Lat. Tikchik Lake is fed from the north by Tikchik River. This

river should not be confused with the one formerly called the Tikchik,

but new known generally as the Nuyakuk which drains from the eastern

        25 ls

001      |      Vol_XII-0836                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949 TIN CITY, ALASKA

        160 wds-Text

25 wds-Bibl

        TIN CITY, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska (65° 34′ N. Lat.,

167° 54′ W. Long.), is a small mining community at the mouth of Cape Creek on

south side of Cape Prince of Wales.

        Like York (q.v.), Tin City has grown and shrunk with the uncertain

fortunes of the tin mine r s of the York region. (For a general description of

the Alaska tin industry see York Mountains article.) From time to time tin mills

of varying sizes have been set up in Tin City, but they were all idle at the

time of this writing, (1949).

        The post office established here in 1905 was later closed.

Teller is now the nearest post office, and, between November 1 and May 31 Tin

City receives mail once a month. During the season of navigation, June 1 to

October 31, mail is brought to the mail boat stops at Teller twice a month.

        Despite the great hopes for this mining settlement early in

the century , it dwindled so considerably in later years that it was not reported

separately in the 1939 U.S. Census.

002      |      Vol_XII-0837                                                                                                                  
TIN CITY, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissance Map of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington Reconnaissance Map of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington .

1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper No.314)

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Post Route Map of Alaska. June 1, 1947.

Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index . Juneau, Alaska, 1947.

VS Guidebook for Alaska.

001      |      Vol_XII-0838                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

26 May 48 TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA

       

800 wds

        TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA, a northwestern arm of Bristol Bay, has

been called Tugiak or Togaik Bay, and was first named by Tebenkof in

1849. Togiak Bay indents a section of Alaska coast between Cape

Constantine, Nushagak Peninsula, and Cape Newenham, which has never

been surveyed, but shoal water is reported to exist throughout the bay.

Between the two entrance points, Right Hand Point on the east and Tongue

Point on the west, the bay is about 30 miles wide. It extends about

14 miles in a northeasterly direction to its head where the native

settlement of Togiak lies at the mouth of the Togiak River. This village

had a population of 70 in 1936 and an Eskimo school maintained by the Office

of Indian Affairs. In 1880 Petrof reported two villages in this

vicinity: Togiak on the eastern side of the bay, and Togiagamute,

Togiak People , at the head of the bay. Recent maps show only Togiak

on the eastern side of the mouth of the Togiak River, although the 1939

Census reported a population of only 10 for this settlement, and a

population of 46 for another called Togiak Bay. Togiak is on the long

winter trail which connects points on Lake Clark, Iliamna Lake, the Alaska

Peninsula, and Nushagak Bay with Goodnews and other settlements to the

west.

        In addition to its main tributary, Togiak River, the bay

receives several smaller streams rising in the lakes which dot the

tundra country east and west of the bay, and from in the mountains

which flank both sides of Togiak Basin.

        The eastern entrance to Togiak Bay is partially blocked

by the Walrus Islands which are comprised of three islands and three

rocks, all above water, and extending about 16 miles east and west

and 8 or 9 miles north and south. Round Island, the most easterly of

002      |      Vol_XII-0839                                                                                                                  
TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA

this group, is a little under 2 miles long and 1 mile wide. Crooked

Island lies about 9 miles northwestward from Round Island and is about

6 miles long by 2 miles wide at the greatest points. High Island, a few

miles northwestward from Crooked Island, is only about 4 miles long and

2 miles wide. Two isolated rocks, The Twins, lie south of Crooked

Island, and Black Rock lies northeast of T he Twins. The Walrus

Islands rise to heights of 100 to 900 feet and are partially surrounded

by bluffs similar to those along the eastern side of Togiak Bay. Summit

Island lies only a few miles south of a small peninsula just below

Owens on the eastern side of Togiak Bay. Westward from the Walrus Islands

is mountainous Hagemeister Island which partially obstructs the western

entrance to the bay. Depths of these island run from 36 to 48 feet,

with ever-decreasing depths down to 6 feet and ever-increasing shoals

as one approaches the head of Togiak Bay.

        Hagemeister Island lies extends northeast-southwest a few miles south–

ward from Tongue Point. The Russians named this island after Capt.

Leontius Vasilevich Hagemeister who, between 1816 and 1830, made three

voyages to the Russian American Colonies and around the world in

the Neva , the Kutuzof , and the Krotkoi . The island is about 20 miles

long by 8 miles wide at [ ?] the greatest points and is separated from

the mainland by Hagemeister Strait. The southwestern and central sections

of the island are dotted with highlands from which flow several small

streams. Shoal water surrounds this island extending northeastward into

Togiak Bay and westward Shaiak Island, a tiny islet covering

less than one square mile s in the southern entrance to Hagemeister

Strait. In 1826 Sarichef called this Morzhevoi, walrus , Island

but it is now generally known as Shaiak.

        Hagemeister Strait varies from about 4 to 9 miles in width 26

003      |      Vol_XII-0840                                                                                                                  
TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA [ ?]

and is constricted at its southern entrance by shoals and at its

northern entrace entrance by Tongue Point. The Albatross , a U.S. Bureau of Fisheries

steamer, found good anchorage under Tongue Point and depths up to 18

feet a few miles south of Hagemeister Island. Because of the narrow

entrance to both ends of the strait, tidal currents are very strong in

the channel. Several small streams flow into Hagemeister Strait from

the lake-and highland-dotted tundra of the mainland. peninsula which

separates this northwestern reach of Bristol Bay from Kuskokwin Bay (q.v.).

Cape Peirce, the southwestern entrance point to Hagemeister Strait,

lies a few miles south of the mouth of the Slug River which enters

Bristol Bay about 14 miles eastward from Cape Newenham.

Unpaginated      |      Vol_XII-0841                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

26 May 48 TOGIAK LAKE, ALASKA

        300 wds

        TOGIAK LAKE, southern Alaska, lies in a narrow valley in the

foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains about midway between 59° and 60°

N. Lat. and 159° and 160° W. Long. The mountains which surround the

lake rise to about 2,000 feet. Many small streams flow from these

mountains and the valleys between them into all sides of Togiak lake.

The main body of the lake is about 11 miles long by 2 to 3 miles wide,

but numerous small inlets reach away from the lake into other mountain

valleys.

        Togiak River drains from the southern end of Togiak Lake and

follows the ever-widening valley in a generally southwesterly direction

for about 45 miles to the head of Togiak Bay. A few miles below its head

the Togiak swings westward across the valley, but after about 10 miles,

veers southwestward again. Just above this turn lies Kashiagamut, a

native settlement with a population of 33 in 1939. About 10 miles

below the turn lies Gechiagam i ut and about 2 miles farther south is

Ekilik. These three Eskimo villages are all on the west side of the

river. Beginning with at a point between Gechiagam i ut and Ekilik

the Togiak follows two channels which are separated in one place by

about 4 miles of tundra, but , about 5 miles from the mouth , the two

courses veer toward each other so that they enter the head of Togiak

Bay at almost the same point. The Eskimo settlement, Togiak, lies

on the mouth of the more easterly branch of the river.

        The name Togiak as applied in this part of southern Alaska

first appeared in Sarichef's atlas of 1826. Tebenkof recorded this

name for the lake, the river, the town, and the bay in 1849 although

he used the spelling Tugiak. It is now standardized as Togiak.

        25

001      |      Vol_XII-0842                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

August, 1948

        1,752 wds

25 wds bibl

UNALAKLEET AREA

        The Unalakleet Area, western Alaska, bordering the eastern

end of Norton Sound, will be considered to extend from Healy, the

small mainland village across St. Michael Bay from St. Michael,

northward to Cape Denbigh, the southern entrance point to Norton Bay.

        A marsh , which extends 5 to 10 miles inland , surrounds Healy.

On the southwestern fringes of this marsh Crater Mountain rises to

633 feet, and south from the southeast ern edge of the marsh about

8 miles inland from Healy, The Sisters, 1 , 327, 1 , 371, and 1 , 595 feet

high respectively, look down upon the marsh. The coastline continues

eastward for about 13 miles to Kiktaguk. The marsh also extends along

this section of the shoreline but is stopped south of Kiktaguk by a

320-foot hill and by Toik Hill, 520 feet high, southeast of the town.

Kiktaguk is on a small narrow spit which forms the western side of Kiktaguk

Bay, a small, shallow extension of Norton Sound with an entrance

opening northward. The 1,298-foot elevation southeast of the bay

extends northward into rolling hills which follow the coastline around

to the northeast and which then sink into marshes in the vicinity of Golsovia,

Black Point, and Tolstoi Point, about 11 and 15 miles (airline) northeast

of Kiktaguk. Moderate highlands sweep back to the shoreline again

above Tolstoi Point for the 8 miles to Cascade Creek, after which there is

comes another stretch of marshland. This marsh reaches to and beyond

Unalakleet, at the mouth of the river by the same name , about 8 miles

north of Cascade Creek.

        This entire stretch of coastline from Healy to Unalakleet

and beyond is bordered by 1 to 2 miles of extremely shoal water

nowhere exceeding 18 feet, and by a secondary shoal extending offshore. 25 ls

002      |      Vol_XII-0843                                                                                                                  
UNALAKLEET AREA

sometimes 4 miles of 30 feet or less which sometimes extends as

far as 4 miles offshore. Depths decrease with remarkable regularity

throughout this vicinity so that dangers are never come upon suddenly

although the extreme shallowness of the coastwise waters makes it

impossible for ocean-going vessels to take shelter anywhere near

this shore. Although there are no outlying dangers, a reef extends

about 1/2 mile from the shore a few miles south of Black Point and

shoal waters extend 1 1/2 miles out from the mouth of the Unalakleet

River. Only light draft vessels can make their way through these

shoals.

        Unalakleet, the pivotal native settlement in this region,

is a fishing, trapping, and reindeer-herding settlement, village which had

a population of 329 in 1939. The estimated 1948 population of too jumped to 1200 during the summer's fishing season. That particular summer was also an especially fine one for growing vegetables, so that the many visitors and transients in the village enjoyed an abundance of fresh food. Unalakleet The town lies is the site of a Swedish

Luther an convent church and its affiliated Children's Home, which

was completed in December, 1947. The new orphanage was dedicated as

a "shelter for the homeless and sanctuary for those who may have no

father or mother." The 40x60-foot building has a concrete basement

equipped with a laundry and a steam furnace, an assembly room, class–

rooms, and staff quarters on the first floor, rooms for the children

on the second floor, and expansion room in the attic. Unalakleet

also has an Alaska Native Service School which had a 1947 enrollment

of 132 pupils and an attendant U.S. Government nurse. The town also

has two general stores, a license d fur-dealer, a roadhouse,

several r e indeer corrals, and commercial truck gardens. In 1942,

about ten white owners reported reindeer herds ranging in size from

250 to 15,000 head and totaling over 32,000 head. All these owners

lived in Unalakleet and grazed their herds in the neighboring vicinity.

There is a telephone connection with Nulato and radio-telegraph 27 ls

003      |      Vol_XII-0844                                                                                                                  
UNALAKLEET AREA

connection with Nome. The landing field has runways 250x150 feet

and 200x1500 feet. Both wheel and float landings can be made at

Unalakleet in the summer. The village was established by the

Russians after an epidemic almost wiped out the old settlement of

Unalakleet which lay just across the river from the present site

of the town. Part of the old blockhouse which the Russians built

at that time is still standing.

        In mid-1947 it was reported that the people of Unalakleet,

all most of whom are Eskimos, had obtained a Government loan with which

they had established a cooperative store. They were hoping at that

time to build a cannery, sawmill, a housing development, and a

recreation center. They also hoped to start mining the coal which

is locally available. A cannery would make it possible for them to

preserve garden produce and fish by other methods than drying, and

the sawmill and coal mine would help to relieve the accute fuel

shortage which now inconveniences them. Recent maps show a coal mine

a few miles south of the town.

        The Unalakleet River, which is famous for its salmon and

trout, rises in the divide which separates the rivers of this part

of Alaska from the Yukon River system. It flows for about 50 miles

in a generally southwesterly direction directly into Norton Sound.

Small boats can navi [ ?] te a considerable distance up-river and there is

a winter trail which connects all points on the Unalakleet with

Kaltag on the Yukon. The head of boat navigation on the Unalakleet

is about 30 miles from Kaltag. Although there are no settlements

on the river other than its namesake at the mouth, there are several

shelter cabins along the stream with intriguing names. Traveling

down river these are: Twenty-Two Mile Shelter Cabin; Ten Mile Cabin; 26 ls

004      |      Vol_XII-0845                                                                                                                  
UNALAKLEET AREA

Old Woman Cabin; and Whaleback Cabin.

        The long winter trail, which borders skirts Norton Sound from

Scammon Bay northward, continues on north of Unalakleet past

Iguik Roadhouse, Egavik, Foothills Roadhouse, and Shaktolik , at the

mouth of the Shaktolik River. Egavik and Shaktolik, with populations

of 23 and 128 respectively, are the only towns in this group to be

reported in the 1939 Census.

        The Shaktolik River rises northeast of Christmas Mountain,

swings westward, then southwestward, and finally almost directly

westward to flow into Norton Sound, about 36 miles north of the mouth

of the Unalakleet River. A low divide separates the headwaters of

the Shaktolik from those of the [ ?] Gisasa, a tributary to the

Koyukuk. In the early 1940's three white owners reported herds of

reindeer totalling over 26,000 head in the ranges surrounding the

headwaters of the Shaktolik. Two more herds totalling close to

16,000 head were reported during the same year near Egavik.

        Above Shaktolik the coastline curves northwestward and

then westward with many irregularities around to Cape Denbigh which

continues the curve and extends southwestward into Norton Sound.

This cape is a fairly high rounded hill which is joined to the

mainland by a low narrow neck of land. There is good anchorage

eastward of the cape. Captain James Cook was one of the first

white men to realize that this point of land was not an island.

He wrote: "At eight [on September 11, 1778] the south end of the land we anchored under

last night (which was generaly taken for an island, but which we

now found was joined to the main by a ne c k of low land) bore N.45 1/2

deg. W...Th [ ?] s, which made in a bluff cape, was called Cape Denbigh." 25 ls

005      |      Vol_XII-0846                                                                                                                  
UNALAKLEET AREA

The next day Cook sailed southward from Cape Denbigh and anchored

off the mouth of the Shaktolik River. As we have seen, the hills

alternately approach and retreat from this stretch of the shores

of Norton Sound. Cook writes: "The land at the bottom of the bay was

in some parts composed of very low land, in others it was of a con–

siderable elevation; the whole has assumed a brown hue, occasioned by

the plants, &c. which, at this season of the year, were decaying very

fast. At two in the afternoon, boats well manned were sent on shore,

for the purpose of cutting wood, of which we saw great plenty upon the

beach. The sides of the hills, which were of a very gradual ascent,

were well clothed with birch and willows, but they were small in size;

among these were great numbers of red and black currant trees, with

plenty of fruit. The higher parts and summits of the hills were almost

entirely covered with crow and whortle-berries, which afforded a most

pleasing and salutary repast to everyone on board. Upon different parts

of the beach, under the hills, were several huts, but in a very ruinous

condition; from their appearace, we supposed them to be erected merely

for the temporary employment of fishing: they were built of drift-wood;

the roofs, which were almost flat, with a hole in the middle for the

evacuation of smoke, were supported by four stout posts ... The

entrances to them all were sheltered from the S.E. winds, and, upon that

part of the shore which was exposed to it, there were no huts, which

renders it probable that those winds prevail and blow violently during

some seasons of the year. The boats were soon loaded, but we found

great difficulty in getting them off, on account of the little depth

of water, which obliged us to heave a good deal of our cargoes overboard.

The head of the bay is entirely surrounded by a flat which runs some

distance from the shore, and even at three and four miles distance there

is only four and four fathoms and a half. It was near nine before the 27 ls

006      |      Vol_XII-0847                                                                                                                  
UNALAKLEET AREA

boats got on board, and, during their absence, many of the

inhabitants had been alongside, of whom were purchased dried fish,

berries of several kinds, bows and arrows, and other articles in the

curiosity way. They appeared very plump and full of flesh, had orna–

ments in a hole on each side their under-lip, and had those bladder–

like jackets over their other apparel which consisted principally of

the skins of martins and the spotted field-mice; their hair was

short and black, and their canoes were like those of the natives of

Unalaschka."

        Cook and his crew saw all this on September 11, 1778.

Then, as now, the shallowness of the water bordering these shores

made for difficulty in launching even such small boats as his when

loaded. [ ?] These shoals, the surrounding

marshes, and the inland mountains have more or less cut this part of

Alaska off from the rest of the world ever since. It is to be hoped

that the coming of the airplane will do much to open communication

with the people of the Unalakleet area.

        15 ls

        Sources:

        USCP & SUPPL.: VSGB; Baker; Tewkesbury; Colby

Cook, Capt. James. Ellis, w. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt.

Cook and Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778 Cook and Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778 ,

1779, and 1780 in search of a North West Passage 1779, and 1780 in search of a North West Passage . London,

Robinson, 1782. Vol.II, pp. 9-13

001      |      Vol_XII-0848                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

10 May 48 WOOD RIVER, ALASKA

        400 wds

        WOOD RIVER, Alaska, Bristol Bay region, drains from Lake

Aleknagik, one of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.), and takes a generally

southwesterly course to join the Nushagak River (q.v.) at the head

of Nushagak Bay (q.v.). [ ?] Wood River is about 15 miles long and

varies in width from 50 yards at the head to 600 yards at the mouth.

The thriving community of Aleknagik at the western end of Lake

Aleknagik near the head of the river, and a cannery a few miles north

of Snag Point, Nushagak Bay, is situated on the same side of the

river near its mouth. The Alaska Salmon Co. sometimes operates

this cannery. The cannery maintains stores of gasoline, diesel, and

fuel oils for its own use and operates a radio station during the

canning seasion which runs from mid-June to late July. The tender–

way has a maximum draft of 8 to 9 feet at high tide and is capable

of hauling 75 gross tons. The mud flats in front of the cannery

wharf are bare at low tide. The cannery lies on the winter trail

which joins Lewis Point on the mouth of the Nushagak River with Dil–

lingham, Togiak, Goodnews (q.v.), and other settlements to the west.

        Wood River is one of the many Bristol Bay rivers reported

in 1938 by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to be incompletely

surveyed and dangerous to navigate. The tidal range in this area

runs from 15 to 24 feet. Because of the funnel-shaped configuration

of the mouths of these rivers and of the bays into which they empty,

tidal currents are extremely strong and can attain a velocity of 6

knots. The depths in these bays and rivers are never very great, even

at high water, so that vast areas of shoals and flats are uncovered

at low tide, leaving only the shallowest of channels between them.

Despite these difficulties small vessels with drafts up to 3 1/2 feet

002      |      Vol_XII-0849                                                                                                                  
WOOD RIVER, ALASKA

        can navigate 15 miles up the river at low tide. Not more than

2 1/2 feet can be carried from here to Aleknagik Lake at low tide,

but 4 feet can be carried to the lake at high tide.

        Wood River was first recorded under that name by the

U.S. Fish Commission in 1890. This was apparently the name by which

the river was locally known at that time. Early Russian explorers

had reported it as the Aliagnagik, under which name it appeared in

Sarichef's atlas of 1826. Tebenkof called it the Aleknagek, in

1849, but it is now generally known as Wood River.

VSGB; USCP & Suppl; Baker ° in Colby

001      |      Vol_XII-0850                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

October, 1948

        375 wds

WOOLLEY, CAPE, ALASKA

        WOOLLEY, CAPE (Wolley, Wooly) (64° 48′ N.Lat., 166° 30′

W.Long.), southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is a low head of land

extending into Bering Sea and forming the southern entrance point to a

wide-mouthed shallow lagoon indenting the west side of the peninsula below

Port Clarence. The northern entrance point to this bay is Cape Douglas,

about fifteen airline miles northwest of Cape Woolley.

        The lowest, western foothills of the Kigluaik Mountains here

approach to within four or five miles of the shore, and from these

mountains several small streams flow down into the bay. Traveling north–

ward from Cape Woolley to Cape Douglas along the winter trail which runs

along the coast here , these streams are crossed in the following order:

Igloo, Fairview, Feather, Crete, Tisuk, Cora, Agre, Last Chance, and,

finally, a stream formed by the union of Peluk and Spruce Creek, which

rises in the highlands a few miles ea [ ?] t of Cape Douglas.

        Stuart Creek runs into Fairview; Livin g ston, Johnston,

Blume, Willis, and Thistle enter the Feather; and [ ?] McAdam, Granite,

Eldorado, Wesley, Seattle, and Dome join the Tisuk.

        From just north of Igloo Creek to the mouth of the

Peluk-Spruce stream a low, narrow sand spit cuts the mouths of all these

streams off from Bering sea.

        The shore is a low sand beach. The shoal, which extends

northward from Cape Rodney (q.v.), widens considerably above Cape Woolley

and continues to widen above Cape Douglas, until, in the vicinity of

Point Spencer (q.v.), it extends several miles out to sea. Because of

this shoal this coast can nowhere be approached close to by ocean-going

vessels, and it is suggested that they give the shore between Cape

Douglas and Point Spencer a berth of over five miles.

002      |      Vol_XII-0851                                                                                                                  
WOOLLEY, CAPE, ALASKA

        The only habitation in this area is Shea Roadhouse, at

the mouth of the Feather River.

        At Cape Douglas, the winter trail previously mentioned

turns east of north and runs first overland and then across the east side

of Port Clarence to Teller (q.v.). Another branch of this trail runs

up the Tisuk and so overland to Teller. There are a few gold mining

camps on this branch of the trail.

        Sources:

        USCP; VSGB; Baker; U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.328. Washington,

1908.

001      |      Vol_XII-0852                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

May, 1949

        120 wds

WULIK RIVER, ALASKA

        WULIK RIVER, northwestern Alaska, debouches into the Polar Sea

at a point about midway between Cape Krusenstern and Cape Hope (q.v.). Both

Stoney and the U.S. Coast Survey recorded this river as the Woleek , in the late

nineteenth century, but the present form of the name is now generally accepted.

        The Wulik rises on the south side of the De Long Mountains,

passes south of Mount J arvis, and then continues in a generally southwesterly

direction for a total of about forty miles.

        There are no settlements along this stream, the nearest town

being Kivalina (q.v.), across the entrance to Corwin Lagoon from the mouth

of the Wulik.

001      |      Vol_XII-0853                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

February, 1949

        240 wds-Text

50 wds-Bibl

YORK, ALASKA

        YORK, ALASKA (65° 30′ N.Lat., 167° 37′ W.Long.) a few miles

west of Cape York, lies at the mouth of the Anikovik River (q.v.), western

Seward Peninsula. It is about 45 miles from Port Clarence, the nearest

harbor, and about 85 miles from Nome. Like that of Nome, the York roadstead

is completely unprotected from the southerly storms which sweep this coast

[ d ?] e very fall.

        In 1900, because of the recent discovery of tin in the nearby streams,

and mountains, York, as the distribution point for the entire York region,

was a busy and important settlement. By 1905, however, with the depletion of

some of the tin placers and the difficulties encountered in developing the

tin industry in this region, York had dwindled to the status of a village

of only a half-dozen inhabitants. Since that time, the town has grown and

shrunk with the uneven fortunes of the tin miners. (For a general discussion

of the Alaska tin industry see York Mountains article.) A 1922 report on

the town reads: "York, once a flourishing tent town, now consists of half

a dozen cabins, and the is permanently inhabited by one family of three

persons."

        The post office opened here in 1900 was discontinued in 1902.

Mail for York now goes to Teller (q.v.), on Grantley Harbor. A western branch

of the long winter trail which borders Norton Sound extends westward from

Teller through York and on to Tin City at the very tip of Seward Peninsula.

A fork of this trail turns northward at York and runs to the foothills

of Potato Mountain.

002      |      Vol_XII-0854                                                                                                                  
YORK ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.

Brooks, A.H. Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900.

Washington, 1901.

Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.

Steidtmann, Edward. Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska . Washington,

1922. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 733)

Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska ... 1947. Seattle, Wash., 1947.

VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska

Aeronautical Chart No.76

001      |      Vol_XII-0855                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

9 February 1949

YORK, CAPE, ALASKA

        1400 wds

        YORK, CAPE, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, faces Bering Strait

about ten miles southeast of Cape Prince of Wales.

        Captain F. W. Beechey named this point on August of 1824, during

his extensive voyage in search of Sir John Franklin. He writes in part:

"To the southward of Cape Prince of Wales the coast trends nearly due east,

and assumes a totally different character to that which leads to Schismareff

Inlet, being bounded by steep rocky cliffs, and broken by deep valleys, while

the other is low and swampy ground. The river called by the natives

Youp-nut (the present Anikovik) must lie in one of these valleys; and in all

probability it is in that which opens out near a bold promontory, to which

I have given the name of York, in honor of his late Royal Highness. On

nearing that part of the coast we found the water more shallow than usual."

        Cape York is high, rocky, and nearly vertical, cut by several

ravines, and backed by the York Mountains, which rise to well over 2,000

feet only a few miles from the shore. The cliff is about te n miles long,

and there is no distinct promontory or point which can be defined as the

cape proper.

        Depths of not less than thirty-six feet will be found at a distance

of about two miles offshore, although the water shoals slightly westward and

southeastward of the Cape.

        A shallow bight extends from Cape York to a point south of Cape

Prince of Wales and Cape Mountain. A shelving, shingle beach, usually not

more than 100 or 200 yards wide, edges this bight, back of which rises the

escarpment of the York Plateau. This plateau averages about 600 feet above

sea level and extends northward across the Peninsula to its northern side.

        Brooks notes: "The southward drainage of the region is by a number

of streams which have trenched sharply into the plateau surface...The smaller 25

002      |      Vol_XII-0856                                                                                                                  
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA

tributaries of the main drainage system flow in small but typical canyons.

The remarkable evenness and level character of the plateau is very striking;

by avoiding the large waterways and making detours around the smaller canyons,

a horse and wagon can be driven anywhere on the plateau surface as on a good

[ ?] roadway." From east to west, the individual streams making up this

southward drainage system are: Kanauguk, Anikovik (q.v.), Kigezruk, Baituk,

Ocean, Lagoon, and Cape Creeks. The longest of these is the Anikovik.

        York (q.v.), Pelazuk, and Tin City (q.v.) are the only settlements

along this stretch of coast. Pelazuk is a small native village between

Baitu and Ocean Creeks. York, at the mout h of the An i kovik, and Tin City,

at the mouth of Cape Creek, are more important towns and are written up

separately.

        Mining Since a year or two before the opening of the twentieth

century, there has been considerable mining in this area.

Brooks explains the progressive changes in the na i ming of what

is now known as the Port Clarence Mining District, which includes the area

described above: "This region is usually known to the prospector as the York

district. The part that was organized in 1899 was named the Kanaugok district.

In the winter of 1900, another portion of the Kanaugok was reorganized under

the name Arctic district. By decision of the judge of the United States

district court of Alaska, second division, both these districts are included

in the Port Clarence recording district."

        The bed-rock geology of this region is granite, limestone, slate,

and greenstone. Brooks, writing in 1900, had the following prognosis as

to the future of gold mining here: "The gold of the York region, as far as

could be determined, is derived from mineralized portions of the slates

which have already been described. The York district proper, in which gold

has been found, will probably not exceed 30 or 40 square miles. It is possible , 26

003      |      Vol_XII-0857                                                                                                                  
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA

however, that gold exists in the northern portion of the region. In fact,

colors have been found on some of the rivers flowing into the Arctic."

        Brooks was the first to find evidences of stream tin on Buhner

Creek (See Anikovik River) and on the Anikovik itsel f . With his usual

caution, he adds: "The above occurrence is of considerable interest, but its

commercial value is dependent on finding the cassiterite in larger quan–

tities. In any event it is worth while to call the attention of the pros–

pectors and miners to the desirability of being on the lookout for stream

tin, and, if possible, of tracing it to its source in the bed rock. From

the description of the occurrence which has been given it is plain that its

source can not be far distant."

        He is not sanguine as to the future of gold mining in this area

because the miners of the region have told him that the gold, although it is

coarse, is spotted. From his own observation he knows that most of the

developments then existant have been made in the bed rock, that the creek

valleys are comparatively s hallow, that very little bed rock has yet been

eroded, particularly near the head of the streams where normally one would

expect the richest deposits. He continues, "The climatic conditions have

also affected the concentration of the gold to a limited degree. During

the early summer months the creeks of the York district are low and their

erosive power is correspondingly small. In late summer and early fall

violent rain storms are frequent, and as a result of the peculiar topograph–

ic conditions the water runs off almost as rapidly as it falls. The

streams consequently have swift currents and cut away their channels very

rapidly. The gravel and debris which have been deposited in the smaller

streams during the low stages of the water are borne away rapidly without

much sorting and the gold is carried into those larger drainage channels 26

004      |      Vol_XII-0858                                                                                                                  
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA

the developments of which seem to be richer than the gulches lying near the

source of the gold. The stream-tin deposits on Buhner Creek do not seem

to have been affected as much by these floods as the alluvial gold. This

is probably because the grains of stream tin are larger and not so liable

to be removed by a rise of the water."

        Writing in 1908, Collier confirms Brooks' earlier conclusions:

"The Port Clarence limestone is not a gold-bearing formation and the areas

in which it forms the country rock should not attract the placer miner. Along

the margins of some of the granite masses cutting this limestone, mineral–

ization has taken place in the form of veins carrying cassiterite, galena,

etc...It was probably in 1898 that the first prospectors visited this region,

but they confined their attention to the Agiapuk basin, where they found no

workable placers. In the following year auriferous gravels were discovered

in Buhner Creek, a tributary of Anikovik River, in what was then organized

as the York recording district. A little gold has been taken out in the York

region, but it has now been practically abandoned as a gold placer district,

thought it is growing in importance as a tin producer. Practically all the

gold-producing creeks are confined to the Blue s tone and Agiapuk basins,

except a few tributary to Grantely Harbor. The district has not been a large

producer, the entire output up to 1903 being estimated at $200,000.

With the introduction of better mining methods, no doubt many mining enter–

prises now abandoned will be revived and can be made to yield an adequate [ ?]

return."

        In 1903 Collier, himself, and Hess found lode tin in the York

region, which verified the reports made by prospectors ever since 1900.

For the next few years there was much activity in the York tin district, 25

005      |      Vol_XII-0859                                                                                                                  
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA

although most of it was of a prospecting nature.

        The future of Alaska tin mining could not have been foretold by any

of these early prospectors and geologists. Despite the disruption of the

world's tin supply by two world wars, and despite the fact that the United

States has always been the world's largest tin consumer, most of the tin

on Seward Peninsula is still in the ground. (For a general discussion

of this problem see Tin City York Mountains article.) 6

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

U.S. Coast Pilot

Brooks, Alfred H. [ ?] Reconnaisances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay

Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Reconnaisances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay

Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, 1901.

Collier, Arthur J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska.

Washington, 1908.

001      |      Vol_XII-0860                                                                                                                  
Ruby Collins

January, 1949

YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        Rewritten & retyped Sept.1949

        YORK MOUNTAINS, a steep and rugged range in western Seward Peninsula,

Alaska, rise sharply to over 2,000 feet above the narrow coastal plain fringing

Cape York.

        The mountains follow an east-northeast axis. On the south, in the region

of Cape York, they plunge into Bering Sea in cliffs 400 to 600 feet high. [ ?]

[ ?] Capping these cliffs is a terrace one to four miles wide. Eastward from

this point, in the vicinity of Don and Caiifornia Rivers, the mountains retreat

from the coast, leaving a plain in some places six miles wide, across which the

two rivers flow to the sea. Westward of Cape York the mountains give way to the

York Plateau, a rolling moss-covered plain ranging from 200 to 600 feet high,

which extends northward toward the Polar Sea. Potato Mountain, 1,400 feet, in its

northern extremity, is the only prominent peak on the plateau. At the extreme

western tip of Seward Peninsula, rising suddenly from the water's edge to 2,250 feet,

is the isolated mass known as Cape Mountain. From the tip of the Peninsula the

York Mountains stretch northeastward in line with, but from 2 to 10 miles distant

from the shore of the Polar Sea. Ear Mountain, an isolated peak south of Shish–

maref Inlet, is separated from the northern fringes of the York Mountains by

twenty or more miles of grass-covered plain.

        Brooks Mountain, 2,918 feet, about fourteen miles northeast of Cape York,

is the highest peak in the entire range.

        Because of the width of the coastal plain, the northern drainage system

is characterized by sluggish, meandering streams and numberless lakes. Only in

the vicinity of Don and California Rivers is there a correspondingly wide coastal

marsh to the south of the range. Elsewhere, because of the steepness of the slopes,

the frozen ground, and the total absence of vegetation, rainfall disappears almost

immediately as run-off. The Don and California marsh is bordered by a shallow

lagoon separated from Port Clarence by a twelve-mile barrier beach.

002      |      Vol_XII-0861                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        Probably two-thirds of the York Mountain area is drain s ed northward into

Lopp Lagoon, just north of Cape Prince of Wales, and into the unnamed lagoon

immediately north of Lopp Lagoon. All the streams rising in Ear Mountain find

their way with into that unnamed lagoon or into Shishmareff Inlet, north of it.

Although this northern drainage system contains many streams, none of them is large. All

can be forded easily, even at the mouth, and the great majority of them are only

a few feet deep and wide. After entering the flat, marshy grasslands of the

coastal plain, these streams become sluggish and tortuous.

        Ice and drifted hard-packed snow accumulate in the gullies and ravines

of the upper courses during the winter. Most of this snow disappears from the

lowland and exposed ridges with the arrival of spring, supplying water for the

usual spring run-off, to which the placer miner looks forward so eagerly.

Sheltered ravines will retain isolated snow and ice masses, which provide a con–

stant supply of water to the streams throughout the dry season at the end of the

summer. This supply is not always sufficient for mining.

        The streams which enter Lopp Lagoon and which comprise the major portion

of the northern drainage of the York Mountains are Manna, Potato, and Lynx Creek s , and

Mint River. The longer Pinguik River rises east of Brooks Mountain, but its

main tributary, York Creek, flows almost directly northward from the northern

flanks of the peak.

        The main streams of the southern drainage system of this region are the

California and Don Rivers (q.v.), rising to the east of Brooks Mountain, and Lost

River, which rises about 5 miles south of that peak. The main tributaries to Lost

River are Cassiterite and Tin Creeks. Proceding westward along the coast, the

King and Kanauguk River enter Bering Strait just east and just west of Cape York,

respectively. A few miles beyond the Kanauguk is the Anikovik River (q.v.),

which rises with headwaters in the southern watershed of Potato Mountain and York Settlement at its mouth. Important tributaries

to the Anikovik are Buck, Sutter and Gold Creeks. York settlement lies at the

003      |      Vol_XII-0862                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

mouth of the Anikovik. As one continues northwestward toward Tin City and

Cape Prince of Wales, this most w e sterly tip extension of Alaska narrows , so that the

rivers are considerably shorter. From east to west these are: Kigezruk, Baituk,

Ocean, and Cape Creeks. Tin City lies at the mouth of Cape Creek.

        The York Mountains are largely made up of Port Clarence limestones, 2000

or more feet thick. They have been f olded in a broad way only and are plainly

bedded. Basal beds are flaggy and somewhat schistose, but with higher altitudes

the strata become more massive. Invertebrate fossils and impressions of fucoid

stems have been found in this limestone.

        Climate As might be expected from its position [ ?] only about 50 miles south

of the Arctic Circle, the climate of the York Mountains region is

arctic, and, because of the proximity of the Bering Sea and the Polar Sea s , marine

in character. Strong winds from the north or the south usually prevail, with fre–

quent fogs and considerable rain in the spring and early summer. Total precipita–

tion is probably about 24 inches, with a season of about 100 days during which

it falls in the form of rain. Except for three or four weeks during July and

August, freezing temperatures will occur at some time during each twenty-four

h our period. Woolen clothing is required the year around. however. The winter

is long and the snowfall heavy. Temperatures as low as −40° and −50° F. have

been recorded, but these in no manner approach the extremely low readings

recorded for the interior of Alaska where the temperature is not regulated by

large , surrounding bodies of water. Permafrost exists throughout the York

Mountains region so that the unconsolidated gravels underlying the marshes and

grasslands of the coastal plains must be thawed before they can be mined.

        Vegetation Storms often leave driftwood on the beaches of this region.

and Timber Since the only trees are the tiny scrub willows along the

streams, this driftwood is the only source of construction timber. The scrub

willows can be used for fuel, but do not prove really desirable even for this

purpose.

004      |      Vol_XII-0863                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        During July and August the coastal plains and are larger valleys are covered

with a heavy growth of grass which is suitable for grazing. The moss, which is

equally abundant, is eaten n by reindeer but not by other animals.

        The higher sections of Brooks, Ear, Cape, and Potato Mountains are almost

barren of vegetation. The main mass of the York Mountains north of Cape York

and the lower limestone hills eastward of Brooks Mountain are the most deficient

in willows and grass. Where slate appears there is a good supply of both.

        Animal Ptarmigan, snipe, plover, curlew, and rabbits [ ?] were once

Life numerous numerous by have been greatly reduced in recent years. The few

bear which that once roamed over these mountains supplying prospectors with a good

source of me [ ?] t have almost completely disappeared. Geese, ducks, sandhill

cranes, swans, and other seafowl are still plentiful. The streams flowing

through the heart of the York Mountains contain scarcely any vegetable life, and

are therefore poorly supplied with fish, but fairly large numbers of grayling and

trout will be found in the peripheral streams of the area.

        Communication A continuation of the long winter trail which follows the coast

of Norton Sound continues along the north shore of Grantley Harbor

and so northwestward past Cape York to Cape Prince of Wales, and the n northeastward

along the shores of the Polar Sea to Shishmaref Inlet. A branch of this trail

turns northward at the mouth of Lost River and continues in this direction for

several miles into the heart of the York Mountains. Another such branch turns

northward at York and runs almost to Potato Mountain. There is now a 1500–

foot landing strip at the mouth of Lost River.

        Population Although York and Tin City were once thriving communities, they are

and Industries now almost dederted. Their revival will depend on the renewal

of work on the surrounding tin placer and lode deposits. Teller, on the south

shore of Grantley Harbor, is the post office for this region.

        Some tin mining is still being don e , but the only other industry is

005      |      Vol_XII-0864                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

summer fishing for salmon and the white whale, and, in the inland waters, for

herring. In the winter the natives hunt walrus, seal, and polar bear, and do some

trapping, but the returns from these activities are small when compared with

those catches in other parts of the Peninsula.

        History of Mining As early as the fall of 1899, prospectors, who

in the York Mountains had left the crowded Nome fields, found placer gold

in the Anikovik basin. In September of the next year, A.H. Brooks, while engaged

in a U.S. Geological Survey of the Cape Nome gold region, took ten days off to

visit the York Region. Here he found the miners complaining that some heavy

minerals were clogging their sluice boxes. Brooks discovered that a part of this

heavy concentrate from the Anikovik and one of its tributaries, Buhner Creek,

was stream tin. Upon his return, Brooks published a short article calling atten–

tion to this discovery, and he sent copies of the article to all miners in the

York district. The publicity given this find attracted a great many new prospec–

tors to the region, so that by the fall of 1901, stream tin had also been discover–

ed in Buck Creek, about twenty miles north of York. During the summer of 1901,

Collier completed his geologic mapping of the entire area. In 1903 Collier

returned to the region and, while trying to help three prospectors to identify

their samples, discovered lode tin in the vicinity of Lost River (q.v.).

        Later, Collier learned that development work was going forward on the lode

tin deposits which had subsequently been discovered near Cassiterite Creek, a

tributary to Lost River. Lode desposits similar to those of the Los t River

region had also been discovered on Brooks Mountain. Only traces of tin were found

on Ear Mountain, and, although the Cape Mountain deposits were located, they

were difficult to trace and to develop because of the heavy mantle of talus and

residual soil which overlay them.

        Stream tin mining was going went forward on Buck Creek and York River. It

was reported that about sixty tons of stream tin, averaging 40-50 40% to

006      |      Vol_XII-0865                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

50% ore, had already been recovered from Buck Creek.

        After his 1905 visit to the Lost River area, Hess reported hopefully on the

future of the lode deposits there, although Hhe anticipated "frequent delays and [ ?]

inconveniences from storms, floods, lack of water, freezes, and other hindrances"

in the mining of stream tin and expected that these could be most easily avoided

by concentrating on the lode deposits. And yet, many of the tunnels run through

the Lost River [ ?] area filled with water so that all work was stopped until

the winter freeze-up.

        At about this same time large masses of pure cassiterite were found on the

north and northeast sides of Cape Mountain. Other fine pieces were found near

Cape Prince of Wales, the largest weighing between 20 and 30 pounds.

        By now Tthe Bartells Tin Mining Company building in Tin City contained an assay

office, storerooms, engine room and living rooms quarters, all under one roof. At the time of

Hess's 1905 visit, the company had strung a mile of bare copper wire over the

mountain to furnish power for the electric drills already in use in the tunnels

on Cape Mountain. The company was also building a stamp mill and digging a

well in order to obtain water for winter mining.

        The United States Alaska Tin Mining Company also had a cabin and a few

small warehouses as well as a 10-stamp mill one-quarter of a mile back from the

beach. This company had a claim 1750 feet up on the north side of Cape Mountain. at an altitude

of about 1750 feet. Despite this height, the fifteen-foot shaft sunk on this

claim had filled with water so that Hess could not examine it.

        Hess discovered that the older shafts in this area were covered with a

one-inch coating of bristling, feathery ice crystals. This frost was said

to form only during the summer when warm, moist air entering the tunnels met

the colder air [ ?] below the opening. Near the entrances, surface

water dripping from the tunnel roofs formed icy stalactites and stalagmites which,

unless pruned at regular intervals, g rew together to form gradually thickening

007      |      Vol_XII-0866                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

pillars of ice, effectively blocking all entrance to the tunnel.

        It was only the expectation of large profits that kept the Lost River

and Cape Mountain miners at work under such difficult and discouraging conditions.

        In this connection, Hess estimated that, considering that York region wages

averaged $5.00 a day plus board, and that the cost of materials and machinery

was high and their transportation to the sites expensive, tin from the mining of tin in the York

district probably cost over $6.60 per ton. with t in was then selling at about [ ?]

$0.23 per pound. and A llowing for such as sinking fund s, and prospecting, costs,

legitimate profit, etc., Hess estimated that Alaska tin miners could not work

claims supplying less than 2 1/2% ore, with any assurance of a reasonable profit. profit.

        Buck Creek placers, the only ones to produces in 1905, yielded 91 tons of

ore that averaged 65% metallic tin. Bad weather had slowed 1905 activities,

but hopes for the district were very high.

        Business firms and some individuals sent at least seven parties of

'experts' to examine the placer deposits on Buck Creek. These experts dug holes

where bed rock could not possibly be reached except with steam pumps or bed-rock

drains, neither of which they had. Signs of crosscuts were almost wholly

wanting in the section where these experts were working, and yet they made long

reports as to the depth and value of the gravels. All this useless work cost

the investors well over $50,000.

        Stream tin was reliably reported to exist in Grouse and Red Fox Creeks,

in the Buck Creek region, and in several streams flowing from the northeast and

east sides of Ear Mountain.

        In 1911, when the York Dredging Co. had a dredge on Buck Creek, Seward

Peninsula tin mining production began its climb to the peak which was reached

five or six years later, and which was not duplicated for many years to come.

        H.M. Eakin's reported in 1914 that the dredge on Buck Creek had seen three

years of successful operation. In 1914, two Anikovik River dredges were

008      |      Vol_XII-0867                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

installed for the joint recovery of gold and tin, and lode tin mining continued.

The ground held by the Cape Mountain company had been patented, and the property

allowed to stand idle. Up to 1914, the Lost River mine was developed only in a

small way. After 1914, Lost River claims came under new management and were the

site of increased activity.

        Included in Eakin's report is the following chart showing the production

of tin in Alaska from 1902 to 1914:

Year	Tons of Metallic Tin	Value
1902	15	$ 8,000
1903	25	14,000
1904	14	8,000
1905	6	4,000
1906	34	38,640
1907	22	16,752
1908	25	15,180
1909	11	7,638
1910	10	8,325
1911	61	52,798
1912	130	96,000
1913	69	44,103
1914	104	66,560

        There were still no tin smelters in the United States and the size of the

Alaska shipments did not warr a nt their construction. As a result , all Alaska

tin was shipped abroad for reduction. Very early shipments went to Swansea,

Wales, but later the major part of the production was sent to Singapore. This

necessity put an extra financial burden on the young Alaska tin mining companies.

        Three dredges were in operation for all or part of the 1914 season;

a tract of tin placer ground was being prepared for the installation of an

additional dredge; and the Lost River lode mine and mill were being worked.

About 40 men were employed directly in mining operations throughout the area —

20 on Buck Creek, 5 on Lost River, and 15 on the Anikovik. The two Anikovik

dredges operated for both tin and gold throughout the season, and about 25 more men were temporarily employed in the construction of a new dredge. [ ?] During the

winter of that year, three men mined on Lost River.

009      |      Vol_XII-0868                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        Placer tin was being produced from Buck Creek and its tributary

Sutter Creek, and from the Anikovik, where the first important production of

both tin and placer gold was made in 1914. (These placers were valuable

chiefly for their gold content, but sufficient tin was present to make a

valuable by-product.) The Cassiterite Creek tin placers were already exhausted.

        A U.S. Geological Survey report on operations during 1916, written by

J.B. Mertie, Jr., says that an option was a ssumed on the Lost River tin mine by

W.W. Johnson and associates, who further prospected and developed the mine during

that summer. Development work was in progress on the O'Brien Lode farther down

Lost River. The Empire Tin Mining Co. was said to have 33 claims on Cape

Mountain, about two or three miles from Tin City. No recent development work

was reported for these claims and the stamping mill at Tin City was not in use.

The Percy lode, farther up Cape Mountain, owned by Ludlow Botts, had seen only

assessment work for several years. The United States Alaska Tin Mining Co mpany . also owned

property on Cape Mountain, but the company's 10-stamp mill in Tin City was not in

operation, and its tunnel was closed. Denny Brothers had done some development

work on its claims on Potato Mountain, and had recently opened a tunnel and a

shaft. As can be easily seen, however, the original impetus and enthusiasm for

tin mining in Seward Peninsula was losing much of its drive. As will be under–

stood from the explanation given below, the International Tin Committee was having

its effect on the new industry.

        With the entry of the United States into World War I, the government

once again became interested in tin, since the country was in critical need of

a source of this metal nearer than the Asiatic deposits. The U.S. Geological

Survey made a brief reconnaissance of portions of the York region in 1917

and reported that the Lost River lode mines appeared to offer the greatest hope

of an increased production of tin within the continental United States.

        The Survey added, however, that, although these claims were sufficiently developed

010      |      Vol_XII-0869                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

to warrant the installation of a small mill, the results of a thorough

sampling of the ores and an examination of the costs of production in this

area, indicated that the [ ?] immediate output was not likely to

supply more than a small percentage of the country's needs. Du e to the

strangling effect of cartel agreements between the world's great tin producers,

the United States tin industry was still too little developed to assist [ ?]

in the national crisis.

        Harrington reported that the Ear Mountain deposits, 12 miles from the

shoal-locked shores of Shishmaref Inlet, were more difficult of access than

those at Lost River. Even light-draft steamers, he declared, had to be

unloaded at least one and one-half miles from the entrance to the lagoon. For

this reason, in order to make Ear Mountain tin mining profitable, a higher

grade of ore would have to be found there than had been found on the south

side of Seward Peninsula. Harrington intimated that Potato Mountain might offer

better prospects, but warned that much more development of the district would

have to be made before the possibilities there could be estimated. "Under

present conditions," he added, "it would take at least two or three years

before any production could be made."

        By this time, there were 1255 feet of tunnels and winzes on the Cape

Mountain property formerly owned by the Bartels Tin Mining Co. In 1917, this

property was reported to be owned by Fred Hinton, of Teller. It had, however,

been idle since 1914. After examining this district, Harrington felt that, although

the claims might contain some bodies of good tin, the development work had

been too slight to outline them and no exact statement as to the potentialities

of the property could be made.

        The United States Alaska Tin Mining Co mpany property on Cape Mountain had also

been idle for several years at the time of this survey, so that Harrington

was once again forced to conclude that no statement as to possibilities of

production could be made and that no appreciable amount of production could

011      |      Vol_XII-0870                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

be expected in the near future.

        Concerning placer tin mining in general, Harrington concludes: "Placer

mining in 1917 was limited to the vicinity of Buck Creek. About 300 tons a year

appears to be the limit of production for this area, and this production will

be limited to a period of not over five years; after that time there will be

production of only a few tons annually from sluicing operations. Placers may be

developed in the vicinity of Ear Mountain, but the production in this vicinity will

be small. On Lost River a few tons of residual placer tin may be recovered when

water is available for sluicing. Anikovik River has a greater area of stream

gravels which may be dredged than any of the other placers (but)...the possibilities

of the stream can not be stated."

        The official 1919 Alaska tin mining report was equivocal; no new deposits

of placer tin had been discovered in the York district in recent years, and this

form of tin mining might be discontinued, whereas the lode deposits, such as those

at Lost River, offered some hope for the sur revival of the industry. It was

felt that the wide distribution of known deposits was a good indication that

more would be found in the future. There was no indication that the tin output

would decrease in the near future, but a large increase in production would

depend on the development of, as yet unlocated, deposits . not yet located.

        By 1920, the Grouse Creek placers were reported to be worked out. The

American Tin Mining Co. operated only one dredge on Buck Creek, as compared with

two the previous year, and the total production for the York District dropped

from 112,000 pounds, valued at $73,400, in 1919, to 32,000 pounds, valued at

$16,112, in 1920.

        To offset the failure of the Grouse Creek property, tin-bearing gravels

had been prospected on Potato Creek, on Goodwin Creek, and on its tributary

Percy Creek, all of which flow northward into the [ ?]

012      |      Vol_XII-0871                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

Polar Sea, and similar gravels had been examined on Cape Creek, which flows

southward into Bering Sea. Brooks considered this to be a hopeful sign, particu–

larly since some of these new claims were reported to be on good dredging ground,

and the owners planned to install dredges on some of them.

        Seward Peninsula tin production rose from 1.9 and 1.4 tons of metal in

1922 and 1923, respectively, to 7 tons, in 1924. Although this was a very

small output, compared to the 139 tons produced in 1916, the Geological Survey

optimistically took it is a sign of possible recovery of Alaska tin mining.

        The following table gives a good idea of the rise and fall of the tin

production curve:

Year	Ore (Tons)	Metal (Tons)	Value
1915	167	102	$78,846
1916	232	139	121,000
1917	171	100	123,300
1918	104.5	68	118,000
1919	86	56	73,400
1920	26	16	16,112
1921	7	4	2,400
1922	2.3	1.4	912
1923	3	1.9	1,623
1924	11	7	7,028

        In view of the fact that the 1924 production was less than half that for

1902, the first year in which tin was produced in Alaska, Brook's appraisal of

its significance might seem unfounded. Brooks probably felt a personal interest

in the welfare of this industry which he did so much to found. As it turned out,

the price of tin continued to improve, and 13.8 and 8 tons of the metal were

produced in 1925 and 1926 respectively. Production then jumped to 26.7 tons

in 1927. Although this was still far below the 1911-1919 figures, it served to

justify Brook's faith in the industry.

        By this time, the York district had a competitor in the tin business, as

Smith makes clear in his 1927 report. "Tin The tin produced in 1927...did not

come from lodes but from placer deposits, principally in the York district, of

Seward Peninsula, and the Hot [ ?] Springs district, of the Yukon Valley. In

013      |      Vol_XII-0872                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

the York district the placer tin, or cassiterite, is mined principally for

itself, though some placer gold is also found with it. In the Hot Springs dis–

trict the tin ore is a by-product obtained from deposits that are mined primarily

for their gold. In the York district the tin ore was mined by two small camps,

the larger of which is on Goodwin Gulch...The tin ore shipped from the York region

is said to have had a content of 72 per cent of metallic tin; that from the Hot

Springs district carried about 65 per cent."

        Alaska produced 37.5 tons of tin ore in 1927, which contained 26.7 tons

of metallic tin and were valued at $34,000. Practically all of this tin was

shipped to Singapore for reduction, and only a few hundred pounds remained unsold

at the end of the year.

        1928 again saw an increase in the tin produced. The output was 58.6

tons, which con t ained 41 tons of metallic tin. With the metal priced at 50.46

cent s a pound (down almost 14 cents from the previous year), the value was

$41,000. Although all this tin came from placer deposits, the new vitality

of the industry induced the National Tin Mining Co. to ship considerable equip–

ment into the district, and to plan the reopening of the old Crim-Randt-O' Brien

properties. The company planned to employ eight or ten miners throughout the

year and to speed the development of the most promising lodes. This was the

only lode mining for tin ore then being undertaken on the North American

continent.

        These bright prospects were short-lived. In 1929, not only did the pro–

duction of tin drop slightly (51.6 tons of ore containing 38.6 tons of metallic

tin), but the price of the tin also dropped so that the value of these

shipments was

only $35,000. However, as had been true during all previous years, all but a

few hundred pounds were sold by the end of the year.

        Developments for 1930 were even less happy. Alaska tin production fell

off both in quantity [ ?] and value and amounted to only about one-tenth of the annual

production for the period from 1912 to 1917, when the industry was at its height.

014      |      Vol_XII-0873                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

The drop in price--from the 45 cents a pound of in 1929 to the 31.7 cents of in 1930 —

discouraged active development. The 1930 output was all derived from placers, and

the ore reported repres e nts concentrates of from 68 to 72 per cent of metallic

tin. The output of tin ore was about 21 tons, containing a metallic tin

content of 14.7 tons. Of these about 25 tons had been produced in previous years

whereas 17 of the tons produced during 1930 were not sold by the end of that year.

Little new prospecting was done for tin in Alaska during 1930, and the Geological

Survey anticipated no revival of interest in the metal until the price should

improve.

        As the following table shows, tin production dropped again in 1931, and

disappeared in 1932:

Year	Ore (Tons)	Metal (Tons)	Value
1925	22.2	13.8	$15,980
1926	12.85	8	10,400
1927	37.5	26.7	34,000
1928	58.6	41	41,000
1929	51.6	38.6	35,000
1930	21	14.7	9,300
1931	5.6	4.1	2,000
1932	--	--	--
1933	--	2.9	2,300
1934	--	4.14	4,300
1935	--	49.14	4,300
1936	--	113	105,000

        The incredible jump between 1934 and 1935 was the result of the activities

of a new company, the American Tin Fields, Inc., in the vicinity of Tin City.

This was the first attempt at full-scale mechanization of the Alaska tin

industry. American Tin Fields, Inc. built a good road to its placers which were

perhaps a mile inland from the coast. Power shovels, enormous grizzlys and

a well-planned series of sluice boxes were at work at the mines. Large trucks

then carried the concentrates to the mill, which had been built close to the

shore so as to have a constant and abundant supply of water.

        Much of the placer ground in this area ran from 20 to 30 pounds of

tin ore to the cubic yard of material. With tin selling for 50 cents a pound

015      |      Vol_XII-0874                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

and the ore containing a bout 75% metallic tin, the prospects for profit with

these new methods were extremely bright. There were some disadvantages: the

region was practically treeless, so that all fuel had to be imported; the

weather was bad , and the working season short. On the other hand this part of

Seward Peninsu a l ar was accessible to vessels of medium draft; few of the tin–

b earing areas were far from the sea; and the limestone bed rock allowed the

inexpensive construction of very good r oads. In addition to all this, the flying

time out of Nome was only one hour. There was also the possibility that extensive

placer operations would disclose lode deposits in this same area, and, if this

happened, tin mining on a large and economical scale could progress the year

around.

        Tin production increased steadily through 1936 and 1937, but then dropped

off again, as the following table shows:

Year	Ore (Tons)	Metal (Pounds)	Value
1937	--	372,000	$202,300
1938	--	210,640	89,100
1939	--	74,080	37,300
1940	--	104,000	52,000

        The main tin mining activity in all of Seward Peninsula was still on the

property of the American Tin Fields, Inc., near Tin City.

        The increasing importance of the United States as a consumer of tin,

and the notable success of this operator in producing by far the largest amount

of tin of any mines in North America, again aroused official interest in the

value of Alaska tin fields. In 1939, the Geological Survey se nt a party, headed

by J.B. Mertie, Jr., to begin an intensive field investigation of the tin

deposits of Seward Peninsula. In 1939, the work was closely restricted to the area around Cape and Potato Mountains. Samples were taken and maps made so

that the most specific information might be available as to the

occurrences of

tin there. In 1940, Mertie led another party to study the placer and lode

deposits in the vicinity of Lost River. Additional field work was planned,

016      |      Vol_XII-0875                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

which would ultimately cover all Alaska tin fields. These official investiga–

tions were made in the hope that reliable and definite information on the tin

resources there might serve to interest both companies and individuals in the

possibilities of tin mining in Alaska.

        World War II, which almost immediately put the Japanese in possession of

Malaya and the Netherland East Indies, the world's chief sources of tin, again

threw the United States back upon tin supplies from Bolivia, the Belgian Congo,

and her own tin fields. Once again, the Geological Survey and the Territorial

Department of Mines renewed the investigation of Alaska's tin deposits.

        The U.S. Bureau of Mines made a careful estimate of overburden, concentra–

tion of ore, and production costs in the Potato Mountain and Buck Creek areas.

The expensive drilling required to estimate the value of lode deposits, which

drilling had previously been avoided, was now expedited. Old underground work–

ings were sampled and twenty-two new diamond-drill holes were put down in the

Lost River area alone. The region was found to be one where a tin-bearing

intrusive granite underlay a series of limestones or slate, and in places in the

granite itself. Lode tin, in relatively high concentration, was found at

150 to 200 feet bel l o w the surface. These were easy mining depths. An estimated

4,000,000 tons of low-grade ore were also found to be available at Lost River.

Bain concludes: "The combination of high-and low-grade ore would seem

distinctly to warrant an attempt at commercial production in the district."

        However, Alaska tin mining dropped from 46.8 l ong tons in 1921 to 2.8 and .1 long tons in 1942 and 1943. Once again [ ?] immediate

need for an enormous supply of tin, plus wartime labor shortages, combined with

the international situation to defy the development of the industry. With the

opening of the government-owned Longhorn Smelter in Texas City, Texas, in 1942,

017      |      Vol_XII-0876                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

the United States turned from any attempt to mine tin to the smelting of

available supplies from Bolivia and the Congo.

        The struggle to develop tin mining in Alaska has met with unequal odds,

difficulties, and hindrances from the very beginning. We have discussed the

natural and geographic difficulties pertaining to the industry and seen how, in

the mid-1930's, they were substantially overcome. The greatest and finally

insurmountable obstacle, that pertaining to international trade and cartel

agreements, has not yet been discussed.

        As early as 1903, one year after tin was first produced in Alaska, the

United Kingdom opened its attack on the new industry by making it impractical for

the United States to smelt this ore within her own borders. At about this same

time, the United States Steel Corporation, then the largest producer of tin plate

in the United States, supported the construction of a tin smelter at Bayonne,

New Jersey. In 1903, the United Kingdom applied export duty--to the amount of

40% and valorem--on all British Malaya shipments of tin concentrates to ports

outside the British Empire. Not counting Bolivia, British Malaya then lead

the world in the production of tin concentrates. Bolivian concentrates could

not be treated economically without an admixture of purer concentrates from the

far East, but British Malaya production lacked this characteristic and had was to have been

treated in the Bayonne plant. Since exports from Alaska were not yet sufficient to

keep this smelter going, and the British Malaya mines could not afford the new 40%

duty on their exports, the first United States smelter failed even before it

had gone into production.

        From 1903 until 1914, as we have previously noted, the bulk of Alaska

tin concentrates were sent to Singapore smelters. The first World War, however,

interfered with the shipment, particularly of Bolivian ores, to United Kingdom

smelters. Th [ k ?] i s circumstance induced the second attempt to build up a smelting

industry in the United States. In partnership with an English concern, the

018      |      Vol_XII-0877                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

National Lead Company built a smelting plant at Jamaica Bay, Long Island.

The American Smelting and Refining Company built another smelter at Perth Amboy,

New Jersey. These two concerns continued in business until the end of the

war, but then British vested interests moved against them. British smelters

first reduced by more than 50% their charge for smelting Bolivian ores.

Then the preferential export duties already existing for ores from British

Malaya were extended to Nigeria ores. The British tin smelters were able to

do these things primarily because their coal and labor costs were much lower than

in the United States smelters. By 1923 or 1924, the United States was once

again driven out of the tin smelting industry.

        However Meanwhile , other changes were taking place in the world-wide picture

of the tin industry. From the beginning of the century to about 1917, world

tin production and consumption increased at a uniform rate. Tin prices also

rose gradually from about 26 to about 46 cents a pound. The average annual

price was about 35 cents a pound.

        The shipping shortage occasioned by the first World War, however, diverted

large amounts of Bolivian ores to the United States and cut off supplies of the

metal from southeastern Asia. Tin prices soared. The 1918 average was

86.8 cents per pound, with a peak of 110 cents.

        The shipping situation improved only slightly during 1919, whereas the

post-war boom increased the demand for large amounts of tin. Prices stayed up

through the early part of 1920. Meanwhile, enorm l o us stockpiles of tin accumu–

lated in the East. By the time the shipping facilities had increased suffici–

ently to carry them to consuming countries, those countries were experiencing

a business slump, which had set in about the middle of 1920. The combination

of enormously increased supplies and a suddenly decreased demand deflated the

tin market. Tin price s collapsed.

019      |      Vol_XII-0878                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        The causes for these developments were several: tin consumption had

been reduced both by the general depression and by the great coal strike in the

United Kingdom; European consumption did not begin to approach the pre-war

level; and large tin stocks which had accumulated during the shipping shortage

overhung the market. The several tin producers of the world met this problem

in different ways. Many small companies were forced to shut down; those with

large financial resources either stock-piled their production, rather than sell

it at the existing low prices, or cut labor costs to the bone and continued to

sell their tin. Knorr remarks that this drastic reduction of labor costs, which

in all cases repres n e nted [ ?] a large proportion of total costs, was very

important. "During 1921," he writes, "wages in British Malay a generally fell by

from 15 to 20 per cent. "During this same period, coolies, working in Chinese-owne d .

mines, received minute wages and sometimes worked for board and lodging.

        Faced with this competition, Alaska miners stopped work. Until modern,

large-scale, heavily-financed, and well-managed developments entered the

industry there was little hope of its survival.

        The governments of the large tin producers of the world now entered the tin

b u siness. The government of the Federated Malay States (FMS) purchased ore

concentrates and held them until the price reached $119 (Straits) per picul

(133 1/3 pounds). These government stocks were gradually m a rketed during the

second half of 1919 During 1920 and 192 0 1 similar techniques were used, but

it soon became evident th a t they were not sufficient to sustain the price of tin.

Under the terms of the Bandoeng Agreement, the British and Netherland governments

agreed to hold existing stocks of tin off the ma r ket until the price rose to

£240 per ton. By December, 1923, the price stood at £239. The Bandoeng

holdings were completely liquidated by the end of 1924 without interfering with [ ?]

that price. However, this gradual feeding of backstocks into the tin market in

the early 1920's conealed the fact that the production capacity of the existing

020      |      Vol_XII-0879                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

mines no longer equalled world demand. It was this fact, not the fact of the

Bandoeng Agreement, which caused the tin boom of the middle 1920's.

        In 1925 and 1926, world tin consumption exceeded world production and

stocks were considerably depleted. Some consumers faced a "tin famine," but by

1927 production had been increased, and it continued to improve. World produc–

tion had averaged 139,000 tons in 1923-26. From 1927 to 1929 it averaged 176,000 t

tons. After 1927, production exceeded average requirements, stockpiles

accumulated once more, and tin prices dropped.

        The Tin Producers Association (TPA), established in July, 1929, was res–

trictionist from the beginning. It curtailed hours of work, and, for varying

lengths of time, shut down production entirely. Cooperation with the TPA was

uneven and spotty. Some small producers, went out of business because of the fall

in the price of tin, but the large producers, although they may have shut down

their plants for a time, used that time for necessary repairs which would

inevitably increase production when they started up again. In 1930, world tin

production dropped 17,000 tons below the 1929 figure, and yet this was less than

half of the curtailment intended by the TPA and was far more than offset by a

further contraction of world tin consumption. Knorr concludes: "By the fall of

1930, therefore, there was a decidedly strong drift toward support of govern–

ment intervention for compulsory output curtailment."

        The results of certain secret megotiations between the governments of

British Malaya, Nigeria, the Netherland Indies, and Bolivia and the tin pro–

ducers were announced on February 28, 1931. The restriction agreement called the

International Tin Control Scheme (ITCS) became effective on March 1, 1931.

        The ITCS was, as Knorr puts it, "an international producers' scheme with

compulsory legislative backing." No consuming country had any part in it and all

member producers were forced to submit to whatever controls and pol c i cies were

dictated by the ITCS.

021      |      Vol_XII-0880                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        In 1931, Thailand entered the ITCS. The five member countries then con–

trolled 90.5% of the world output of tin. The International Tin Committee (ITC)

planned to hold up the price by maintaining tin stocks at a prearranged minimum.

The participating countries were given quotas and promised to distribute their

production evenly throughout the year.

        World consumption of tin fell again in 1931. This was, in great part, due

to the curtailment of the United States production of tin plate and automobiles,

which in turn was a direct result of the depression. The Alaska tin industry,

caught in this slump, started on the decline which reduced it to complete

idleness in 1932. On the international level, it was obvious that the restrict–

tions imposed by the ITC were not sufficiently severe to sustain the price of tin.

In August, 1931, the member governments of the ITC promised to continue restric–

tion for three more years, and the International Tin Pool was formed.

        The ITP met in Paris, on December 17, 1931 , and agreed to raise the minimum

selling price of tin to £165 per ton. A monthly release of 10% was to be

allowed only after the price reached £198 per ton. By going off the gold

[ ?] standard, the United Kingdom had inflated sterling prices. This was the

chief reason for the increase in the pivotal price of tin. The ITP had accumu–

lated about 21,000 tons of tin by the end of 1932, and, although total back

stocks amounted to 60,000 tons, the industry was restored to some confidence.

        In 1932, the United States used even less tin than tin than during the previous

year, but by restricting production to the lowest figure since 1907, the ITC was

able to force consumption to exceed production for the first time since 1926.

In 1933, consumption, particularly in the United States, rose sharply as also

did the price of tin.

        The activities of the ITP during this period have not yet been revealed,

but, by November, all but 8,000 tons of its holdings had been sold at prices

well above £200 per ton. These stocks had all been acquired when tin was selling

022      |      Vol_XII-0881                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

for considerably less the £140 per ton. This was definitely a large-producer's

market. Small or new operators, such as those in Alaska, could never hope to

face the combined and organized competition of the five largest tin-producing

countries of the world.

        In July, 1934, the governments of British Malaya, the Netherland Indies,

Nigeria, and Bolivia entered into an agreement to establish a buffer stock of

tin. This, unlike the ITP, was an official institution, and was described as

an adjunct of the ITCS. This put consumer interests even more at the mercy of the

ITC; trading interests opposed the plan because it would curtail speculation

on the tin market; and even some tin producers, particularly the FMS who

explicitly rejected it, disliked the proposal. Smaller producers quite

naturally disapproved of it, because it made permanent control of tin production

much more possible than had the temporary ITP. The most suspicious element in

the [ ?] plan was that it was proposed at a time when tin prices were already

very high, so that there was, as Knorr expresses it, "a strong suggestion...

that the controllers planned to stabilize prices at an extremely elevated level."

        Early in 1934 it became obvious that the ITC was attempting to peg the

price of tin at around £240 per ton. Production was severely curtailed, so that,

even at this price, tin was less profitable when produced at 50% capacity or

less, th [ ?] rate assigned by to many of the largest mines, than it had previously

been at a lower price with full production. By 1935 world consumption had over–

taken even the resources of the new pool, and tin was short on the market.

The ITC claimed to have acted in good faith, but it was severely criticized

by traders and consumers alike, as well as by certain producers who were unable

to revise their production schedules speedily enough to meet the demand. In

1936 production, under lightened restrictions, surpassed world consumption for

the first time since 1931, but, in the course of the year tin was again short

on the market due to the inability of certain countries, particularly Bolivia,

to meet their quotas.

023      |      Vol_XII-0882                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

        England and Portugal did not join the third tin agreemtn w agreement

which was consumated in July, 1936. The quotas of British Malaya, the Nether–

land Indies, Nigeria, and Bolivia remained unchanged in the original agreement,

but were somewhat increased later. For the first time consumers were given rep–

resentation in the Committee meetings and the right to "tender advice to the

Committee regarding world stocks and consumption," but this right did not extend

to production and prices. However, with permission of all voting Committee

members, decisions might be arrived at by correspondence, in which case there

was no meeting at which non-voting members could express any opinion, no matter

how restricted.

        This new scheme was scheduled to run for five years, or, until December

31, 1941. Although the longer term put the tin indust l r y on a more stable basis,

and certain improvements had been made in the agreement, the control scheme

remained a producer's arrangement so that consumers could only expect the price

of tin to remain unreasonably high. Moreover, the new agreement actually

discriminated against low-cost producers, so that even the natural lowering

effects of efficient management were negated by its terms.

        A detailed discussion of the ineffectual efforts to control supply and

prices under the new agreement cannot be given here. The reader is referred to

Knorr's Tin Under Control, from which much of the above information above and below as well as that

which follows has been obtained.

        1940 found the world at war and the United States government buying enor–

mous quantities of tin direct from the ITC, at a minimum price of 50 cents per

pound. After further negotiation, the ITC agreed to raise export quotas from

80% to 130% for the second half of the year. Because of the air bomboa

bombardment threat to British smelters, and also because of the uncertainty

of p e ace in the Pacific, the Metals Reserve Company contracted to buy ore from

several Bolivian companies, and the United States government decided to

024      |      Vol_XII-0883                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

construct a tin smelter. Texas City, Texas, was chosen for the location of

this smelter because of its good port, terminal and warehouse facil l it ies, and

because of the availability of cheap gas for fuel. The plant was estimated to

cost $3,500,000 and to be able to handle 50,000 tons of tin concentrates and

to produce 18,000 tons of tin a year. The $150,000,000 allocated for the pur–

chase of a tin stockpile would, if completely spent, produce 150,000 tons of the

metal. The ITC was concerned as to the effect this consumer's pool might have

on the tin market and insisted on certain terms for its disposal, conditions of

national emergency aside. Despite these terms, as Knorr points out, "it

appeared at the time that the stock constituted some kind of potential consumers'

pool of truly impressive magnitude. It would put the United States in a

favorable position for bargaining with the ITC about its restriction policy

and for preventing the engineering of exhorbitantly high prices, at least for

a considerable period of time."

        During 1941, the capacity of the Texas City smelter, now known as the

Longhorn smelter, was increased to 52,000 tons of metal per year, and the United

States government entered into agreements with the Netherlands Indies and the

Chinese government for the acquisition of additional amounts of tin ore. With

the outbreak of war in the Pacific, Japan came quickly into ctonrol of the tin

resources of China, French Inco-China, Thailand, Burma, British Malaya, and the

Netherland Indies, but domestic stocks held in the United States totalled

116,000 tons, in addition to 25,000 tons of tin concentrates at Texas City.

        The ITCS was scheduled to expire on in December, 1941. Although

N n egotiations for its renewal continued throughout that year, although the need for a

restriction on the production of tin had long since passed. was non-existent. Quotas still stood

at 130% of standard tonnages, and countries were unable to meet them. Finally,

on September 9, 1942, an Agreement for the International Control of the

Production and Export of Tin was signed by the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,

025      |      Vol_XII-0884                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

Bolivia, and Belgium. With the exception of Thailand and French Indo-China,

these were the parties of the old ITCS. The new agreement repeated the terms

of the ITCS and was put into force retroactively to January 1, 1942, and was to

remain in force until December 31, 1946. Although this body had only formal

existence, it [ ?] reinstituted the control machinery

of the old scheme without major change. Representatives of consuming countries

were increased from two to three, but once again they were given no voting rights.

        By 1945, the United States government's Longhorn plant was the largest

single operating smelter in the world , and T t he United States had definitely turned

from any attempt to encourage tin mining on the North American continent.

Nighman, of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, reported no production of tin in Alaska

during 1945. He emphasized the fact that effor s t s to extract

Alaska tin had

failed again and again, and pointed out that the total yield since 1903 was not

enough to supply the country's needs even for a single month "even at the

extremely low level of use set up in 1943."

        One of the many reasons for this change of attitude is was the fact that the

Atlantic Charter stipulated against international cartel agreements and that

"the British Government stated late in 1942 that the tin-restriction scheme,

like other commodity-regulation schemes, would be subject to postwar review."

Nighman continues: "The American policy, which has the support of the British

Government, has been set forth by the United States Department of State,

proposing the formation of an International Trade Organization...In place of

international commodity arrangements, intergovernmental commodity agreements

would be made under specified conditions. Membership would be open to any

country, but it was especially recommended that consuming countries lacking the

materials in question should have an equal voice with their administration...

The various provisions are not to apply however to effectuate 'an equitable

distribution of commodities in short supply.' The conference should create

026      |      Vol_XII-0885                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

an Industrial and Mineral Unit that 'should promote by technical assistance,

and other appropriate means the expansion of production and trade...with regard

to minerals and other primary commodities' that are not under the jurisdiction

of the Food and Agriculture Organization. Insofar as tin is concerned, it is

likely to remain in the 'short supply' class for a brief period, in which

instance the Combined Tin Committee may continue to function. If that condition

were to persist, the Industrial and Mineral Unit might take a hand. In any

case the ITC would have a sharply constricted field in which to operate."

        It would appear from this announcement that, so far as tin is concerned,

the United States has decided to allign itself with the 'consumer' nations.

It is therefore unlikely that there will be any further official efforts to

develop the high-cost deposits in the York Mountains of Seward Peninsula.

027      |      Vol_XII-0886                                                                                                                  
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA

---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, Marcus. Geographic dictionary of Alaska Geographic dictionary of Alaska , 2d ed., Washington, D.C., G.P.O.,

1906. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin No.299.

Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's minerals as a basis for industry. Alaska's minerals as a basis for industry. Washington, D.C.,

G.P.O., 1946. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Information Circular Information Circular 7379.

Brooks, A.H., and others. Mineral Resources of Alaska Mineral Resources of Alaska , 1913, 1914, 1916, 19191,

1920. Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1914-22. U.S. Geological Survey,

Bulletins Bulletins 592, 622, 662, 714, 722.

Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the northwestern portion of Seward Peninsula, Reconnaissance of the northwestern portion of Seward Peninsula,

Alaska , Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1902. U.S. Geological Survey,

Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2.

----. Gold placers of parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold placers of parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska , Washington, D.C., G.P.O.,

1908. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin No.328.

----. Recent developments of Alaska tin deposits. Recent developments of Alaska tin deposits. Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1905.

U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 259.

Chapin, Theodore. Mining on Seward Peninsula, Alaska, Mining on Seward Peninsula, Alaska, Washington, D.C., G.P.O.,

1913. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 592.

Eakin, H.M. Tin mining in Alaska, Tin mining in Alaska, Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1915. U.S. Geological

Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 622.

Harrington, G.L. Mineral resources of Seward Peninsula, Mineral resources of Seward Peninsula, Washington,

D.C., G.P.O.,

1919. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 692.

Hess, F.L. York tin region, York tin region, Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1906. U.S. Geological

Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 284.

Knorr, K.E. Tin under control Tin under control , Stanford University, Calif., Food Research

Institute, Stanford University, 1945.

Mertie, J.B., Jr. Lode and placer mining on Seward Peninsula, Alaska, Lode and placer mining on Seward Peninsula, Alaska, Washington,

D.C., G.P.O., 1917. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 662.

Smith, P.S., and others. Mineral Resources of Alaska, Mineral Resources of Alaska, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929,

Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1929-32. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin

797, 810, 813, 824.

----. Mineral industry of Alaska Mineral industry of Alaska , 1936, Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1938.

U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 897-A.

Steidtmann, Edward, and Cathcart, S.H. Geology of the York Tin deposits, Alaska Geology of the York Tin deposits, Alaska ,

Washington, D.C.,G.P.O., 1922. U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin Bulletin 733.

U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals yearbooks Minerals yearbooks , 1945, Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1947.