Svalbard: Geography: Encyclopedia Arctica 14: Greenland, Svalbard, Etc. Geography and General
Svalbard: Geography
Spitsbergen
AUTHOR: R.N. Rudmose Brown 6,350 words
Spitsbergen
Spitsbergen 2
foldings as found in Western Scandinavia and Scot a land. These Caledonian foldings were at one time reduced to a peneplain and then upheaved and [: ] disturbed again in Tertiary times. To the east of this mountainous belt the scenery changes except in the extreme north. The old peneplain of Palaeo– zoic rocks was overlain by later formations. Devonian and Carboniferous rocks ^ are ^ succeeded farther south by Juras ^ s ^ ic, Cretaceous and later rocks that have suffered little disturbance in the Tertiary elevation except that dykes and sills of basalt were emitted and heavy faulting gave rise to many valleys and fjords subsequently further eroded by ice and water action. The central and eastern mountains, including those of EDGEÖYA and Barentsö l ^ y ^ a ^ , ^ are generally flat-topped and reach about 600 or 700 m. in altitude.Spitsbergen 3
firm surfaces affording natural highways. On the other hand many are covered with glacial debris and studded with swamps, bays and shallow lakes. Mineral Resources . Coal occurs in Spitsbergen in several geological formations beginning with Devonian. Several of the Björnöya seams are of this age but they are thin, much faulted and of poor quality. Lower Carboniferous or Culm seams are mo ^ r ^ e important. At Björnöya the Culm coal is poor but around isfjorden especially in Billfjorden (Klaas Billen Bay) the seems are thicker. They are being worked by a Soviet mining organization at Pyramiden or Mimerdalen on the west of Billefjorden. At and below sea level they occur in Bönsow Land on the east of the f h jord. The Upper Carboniferous rocks contain no coal. The total reserves of Lower Carboniferous coal in Spitsbergen have [: ] been estimated at over a thousand million tons. One seam of Cretaceous coal, formerly described as Jurassic, occurs. It has been mined in Adventfjorden but is of poor quality and is now abandoned. Reserves [: ] are equal to those of Culm coal and far more accessible. Tertiary coal is the most important and is the coal on which Spitsbergen's export depends. It is or has been worked in various places in Isfjorden, K i ^ o ^ ngsfjorden and Braganzavägen by various compani ^ e ^ s of several nationalities. The Kongsfjorden (Ny Aalesund) field is very restricted and is now [: ] abandoned. Elsewhere the main seam is above sea level and is relatively easily reached. Most [: ] is good co ø king coal. Reserves are estimated at five thousand million tons.Spitsbergen
enormous quantities occurs in the Permo-Carboniferous [: ] rocks of central Spitsbergen. No deposits in Europe are of greater extent or purity. Asbes– tos of poor quality occurs. There is marble of va l ^ r ^ ed and pleasing colors in Kongsfjorden (Kings Bay.)Spitsbergen
of warmth due to the Svalbard drift and the passage of associated "lows ^ " ^ from ^ ✓ ^ the Atlantic, modify the extremity of Arctic conditions. It may be termed an example of a marine Arctic climate, found also in Björnöya, the northern parts of Novaya Zemlya and the outer coastal regions of Greenland, in which it may freeze in every month and in every month a thaw may occur. Pressure tends to the higher in summer th n ^ a ^ n in winter but is seldom markedly high and the ice areas are not sufficiently large to establish anywhere a permanent high pressure area. Winds are strong, especially in the west with the passage of "lows ^ , ^ " but calms often occur especially in the east, and are not uncommon in ^ ✓ ^ the west. Thunderstorms are very rare. Visibility, when there is daylight, is generally good but is poor when Atlantic weather occurs. A fog belt tends to hover off the margin of the pack ^ ^ ice on the west and southeast and occasion- ^ ✓ ^ ally in summer envelops all the higher ground in the western part of the main– land and also persists around Björnoöya. Precipitation at sea level is low, about 300 mm. in the west and a little more than half that amount in the east. Most of the precipitation falls as snow: rain or snow may fall in July and August. In those months there is generally no snow on the lower ground and [: ] glacier surfaces show bare ice. In other months ^ the ^ whole country is more or less snow covered.Spitsbergen
Island) since 1923. Records of about one year or more are available from a large number of other places, including Ebeltofthamna in Krossfjorden (Cross Bay) where there was a German observatory from 1910 to 1914. The Swedish contri– bution to the International Polar Year of 1882-83 was an observatory at Kapp Thordsen and the Second International Polar Year of 1932-33 observatories at Sveagruva (Braganzavägen) and on the summit of Nordenskjöldfjellet at 1,050 m. Vegetation Plant life is not continuous even on the lower ground but is rarely altogether absent on ice-free sites. The general vegetation is one of ^ ✓ ^ very open tundra with no trees or shrubs but occasional patches of luxuriant herbaceous growth especially in the vicinity of the bird rookeries. In July and August there is a wide range of plants in flower, saxifrages, buttercups, lousewort, potentillas, avens, etc. There are hillsides purple [: ] with saxi– frages and marshes gay with white cotton grass. Even on the most exposed ground the Arctic poppy flourishes. [: ] There are about 150 species of flowering Plants. Practically all the genera and most of the species are found also in Great Britain. About 80% of the plants are circumpolar in distribution. Plants of economic value are few, the rare fruits of the crowberry ( Empetrum ^ Empetrum ^ ^ ✓ ^ nigrum ^ nigrum ^ ) and the mountain raspberry ( Rubus chamaemorus ^ Rubus chamaemorus ^ ), scurvy grass and ^ ✓ ^ wood sorrel as ^ provide ^ antiscorbutics and a natural pasture which in places supports ^ ✓ ^ reindeer and introduced musk oxen and a few ponies. No plant supplies fuel but the transacrctic current brings great quantities of Siberian drift wood ^ ✓ ^ to many beaches. Mosses and L ^ l ^ ichens are numerous. The flora of both flower- ^ ✓ ^ ing plants and [: ] cryptograms decreases in number of [: ] species and luxuriance of [: ] growth towards the east. Lack of soil and brevity of summer pr ^ e ^ clued all ^ ✓ ^ cultivation of root or grain crops.Spitsbergen
Animal Life The reindeer or caribou used to be numerous especially in central and northern districts and in EDGEÖYA. It is a special Spitsbergen variety allied to the variety found in Ellesmere Island. Excessive hunting has much reduced numbers: its slaughter is now forbi g dden. The musk o [: ] or ovibos which belongs to Arctic Canada was introduced to Spitsbergen in 1929 and by 1936 the numbers had doubled. The Arctic hare has also been introduced from Greenland. The Arctic fox, in the two varieties, white and blue, and very rarely the black variety ^ , ^ occur in [: ] rapidly decreasing numbers. Until ^ ✓ ^ thirty years ago foxes swarmed near most bird cliffs: now they have been trapped almost to extinction for the sake of the ^ ir ^ valuable winter coats. The ^ ✓ ^ fox is protected from April to [: ] October. The polar bear is a winter visitor to many coasts but rarely is seen on the west or in the ^ ^ interior since its ^ ✓ ^ home is on the pack ^ ^ ice. The winter skin has some value. Between [: ] ^ ✓ ^ 100 and 200 are still trapped or shot every ^ ^ winter in Spitsbergen. Since it ^ ✓ ^ cannot be hunted in its principal haunts - the drifting pack - ^ ^ ice - the ^ ✓ ^ polar bear is saved from extermination. The wolf, lemming and lynx do not occur.Spitsbergen
harp, saddleback or ground seal, the ringed seal or snadd ^ snadd ^ , the bearded seal or storkobbe ^ storkobbe , ^ and the bladder-nose or hooded seal. None is fur bearing but all ^ ✓ ^ have value for oil; the large bearded seal is preferred by the sealers.Spitsbergen
hunting is more difficult and demands a special technique but the flesh of young seals is specially palatable. Off the coasts excellent fish abound and in a few streams char can be caught.Spitsbergen
Dutch Chart, which came later, was that of Giles and Rep published in 1710. The whaling was solely a summer occupation; shore stations were deserted during the winter. The largest of these was the Dutch station of Smeerenberg on Amsterdam Island in the northwest. Founded in 1617, it had by 1633 a summer population of over a thousand with dwelling huts, storehouses, shops, etc. Only a few foundations and the adjoining graveyard now remain. The whalers and sealers never went inland and being summer visitors never saw the foxes and reindeer in their winter coats, so had no inducement to hunt land animals.Spitsbergen
such export winterers as the Russians and lived in primitive shacks built of driftwood and packing cases; their rate of mortality was high. The use of poisoned bait was added to more legitimate methods of hunting though forbidden by the Norwegian government; but the occupation remained lucrative enough, esp- ^ ✓ ^ ecially on the eastern coasts, to support fifty or sixty parties which was too many for the continuance of the game stocks, until Norway took over control of the island and narrowly limited the occupation by license duties and game laws. While none of the Russian trappers added anything to the map of Spitsbergen, several of the Norwegians did exploration of value and made other observations. E. Carlsen in 1863 made the first authentic circumnavigation of Spitsbergen and S. Tobieson in 1865-66 made the first meteorological records on Bear Island. Many Norwegian and Spitsbergen skippers have been pilots and ice masters on exploring vessels of all nations. Without their skill far less would have been achieved.Spitsbergen
up to H. W. Ahlmann in the present day revealed the main features of the structure and geology. One of the least fortunate was S. A. Andreé who in 1897 was lost in attempting to fly a balloon over the Pole from King's Bay. The mystery of his fate was not solved until 1930 when G. Horn found the remains of men and camp on White Island (Kvitöya or Giles Land).Spitsbergen
on glaciers. Lastly A.R. Glen's Oxford Expedition of 1935 to 1936 practically finished the map and the ground work of exploration. North East Land was the scene of one of the few disasters inSpitsbergen exploration. In 1912 the Ger– man Schroeder Stranz expedition aimed to explore the island. The leader and three companions were lost in an attempt to sledge to the north coast, and the remainder of the party made an ignominious retreat from Mossel Bay.Spitsbergen
Spitsbergen
Polit ^ i ^ cal History The polit ^ i ^ cal history of Spitsbergen is long and tangled. ^ ✓ ^ Barents on his discovery of Spitsbergen in 1596 set up a post with the Dutch arms, an indication of claim, but Holland was not interested at the time. In 1613 King James gave the Muscovy Company of London a charter excluding all other ships ^ , ^ British and foreign. The following year the company received an Order ^ ✓ ^ in Council to uphold the king's right to King James' Land. A declaration was made and a cross with the royal arms erected, by Fortherby at several points. In practice the name King James' Land was little used: the belief, however, that it was part of Greenland was rejected by the Muscovy Company's skippers. There was no official Dutch counter-claim but Prince Maurice of Amsterdam gave Dutch ^ ✓ ^ whalers a monopoly in Spitsbergen waters. There was thus a clash of English and Dutch monopolies ^ , ^ with Denmark putting in a claim in 1614, both as an inheritor ^ ✓ ^ of Norse rights and as sovereign of Greenland. But Denm r ^ a ^ rk's claim was thin and largely ignored. Dutch and English came to a working agreement dividing [: ] the bays. This worked fairly well and the two strong rivals combined against Dan– ish, Basque and Hamburg whalers; although as the whalers gave up using shore stations by the late seventeenth century the political quarrel was forgotten.Spitsbergen
bearing estates. Norway, Sweden and Russia were each unwilling that one or other of the remaining two should have a controlling say in the destinies of Spits– bergen. The debate continued.Spitsbergen
in Barentsburg were bombed daily until the end of May when a British Cata– lin ^ a ^ e appeared and received a message asking ^ ^ for help. In June the wounded ^ ✓ ^ were moved by air. On July 2 a British naval squadron arrived and found no Germans. A Norwegian garrison of 100 men was left. On September 8,1943, a German naval squadron including T I RPITZ, S C HARNHORST and eight destroyers ^ ✓ ^ accompanied by [: ] planes arrived and fired at all buildings. The small garrison replied but was completely outgunned. After a few hours the enemy withdrew and never returned.Spitsbergen
The for e mer were poor and were eventually abandoned after a few years working and the export of a few cargoes. The Green Harbour estate had many changes of ownership. In 1920 it passed to the NEDERLANDSCHE SPITSBERGEN COMPAGNIE with a subsidy from the Dutch Government along with a purchase from Norwegian claimants at Kapp Boheman. The latter was soon aba ^ n ^ doned but the former was developed on a large scale and began to export. In 1932 [: ] however the Dutch owners sold out to the Soviet Arktik Ugol which poured labor and materials into the settlement of Baren s tsburg. At the outbreak of war in 1939 this and the Norwegian mine at Longyearbyen were the only two well equipped exporting mines in Svalbard.Spitsbergen
most mines consist. The mines are free from water and there is no risk of flooding. Ventilation is easy. Coal dust explosions have occurred but no fire damp disasters are recorded. Health is good. The frozen ground gives secure foundations for surface buildings. On the other hand, there are some drawbacks. All materials have to be imported. The country produces nothing of value to the miner except water and some building stone. Labor and food have also to be imported. Recreation is limited even with club rooms and cinemas in the largest camps, and the employees tend to become restive and long for civilized amenities. To some the long winter night is depressing. In the latitude of the chief mines in Isfjorden the sun is below the horizon for 112 days, from October 26 to February 17. The export season of the coal, owing to pack ice and darkness is from about May 1 to November 1. With the use of icebreakers it might be extended. [: ] Mining, however, goes on through– out the winter.Arctic Coal Co., Boston (American) | 1907-15 . . . . | 146,690 |
Spitsbergen Coal and Trading Co. Ltd.,Sheffield (English | 1908 . . . . . | 4,000 |
Svenska Stenkolsaktiebolaget SpetsbergenStockholm (Swedish) | 1918-25 . . . . | 444,722 |
Anglo Grumant Co. Ltd., London(English-Russian) | 1920-26 . . . . | 62,200 |
N.V. Nederlandsche Spitsbergen Com-pagnie, Rotterdam (Dutch) | 1921-25 . . . . | 192,200 |
A/S De Norske Kulfelter Spitsbergen(Norwegian) | 1918-27 . . . . | 44,280 |
Spitsbergen
A/S Isefjord Kulkompani (Norwegian | 1920 . . . . | 2,000 |
A/S Russiske Kulfelter [: ] i Green Har– bour Spitsbergen (worked by Norweg– ians and for Norwegian capital) | 1918-20 . . . . | 27,900 923,992 |
Björnöen A/S (Norwegian) | 1919-25 . . . . | 116,829 |
Kings Bay Kull Comp. A/S(Norwegian) | 1917-29 and 1946-48 . . . | 951,890 |
Norske Kulfelter A/S(Norwegian) | 1939-40 . . . | 3,903 |
Store Norske Spitsbergen Kul-Kompani A/S, Oslo (Norwegian) | 1916-41 and 1945-48 . . . | 5,115,905 |
Arktik ^ Arktik ^ Ugol (Soviet) | 1931-41 . . .1948 ca. . . | 2,425,625 25,000 |
Total export, including bunkers 1907-48 | 9,563,144 | |
Export from Norwegian coal mines [: ] in Svalbard | 1907-48 | 6,262,707 |
Export from foreign mines | 1907-48 | 3,300437 |
Spitsbergen
larger scale. In 1893 the Hamburg-Amorika Company ran a cruise, in 1894 the Orient Steamship Company, and in 1895 the P. & O. Company did the same. In 1896 the Vestersalen Dampskib A/S during summer sent a small weekly steamer from Tromsö to Advent Bay where they had an alpine hotel accommodating 25 persons. The service was continued in 1897 and then abandoned. Then for some years the tourist traffic was catered for mainly by large German liners and an occasional FrenchSpitsbergen
one as well as smaller Norwegian steamers. From 1920 the traffic greatly increased in volume and British companies took an active share with several large luxury liners. West coast bays alone were visited. In 1938 and 1939 some of the abandoned dwelling houses in Kongsfjorden (Ny Aalesund) were termed Nordpol Hotel. The government vessel making regular journeys between Tromsö and Spitsbergen usually called there.Spitsbergen
<bibl> Blake, C. T. (ed) The True and Perfect Description of Three Voyages (Including that of Barents), Hakluyt Society, 1853 </bibl> <bibl> Cadell, H. M. "Coal Mining in Spitsbergen," Trans . Inst. Min. Engrs., Vol. 60, pt. 2. Newcastle-upon Tyne, 1920. pp. 119-142 </bibl> <bibl> Conway, W [: ] .M. (ed) Early Dutch and English Voyages to Spitsbergen , Hakluyt Society, 1904 </bibl> <bibl> ----- No Man's Land , 1906 </bibl> <bibl> ----- Spitzbergen Handbuch , Berlin, 1926 </bibl> <bibl> Dole, Nathan H. Americans in Spitsbergen , Boston, 1922 </bibl> <bibl> Gray, L. H. Spitsbergen and Bear Island (for official use) Washington, 1919 </bibl> <bibl> Hoel, Adolf "The Coal Deposits and Coal Mining of Svalbard (Spits– bergen and Bear Island," Result . Norske Spitsbergen– eksped., Bd. 1, Nr. 6. Oslo, 1925 </bibl> <bibl> Horn, Gunnar "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Kohle von Svalbard (Spitz bergen und der Bäreninsel)," Skr. Svalbard og Ishavet, [: ] Nr. 17. Oslo, 1928. </bibl> <bibl> -----. and "Geology of Bear Island with special reference to the Orvin, Anders K. Coal Deposits, and with an account of the History of the Island," Skr. Svalbard og Ishavet., Nr. 15. Oslo 1928 </bibl> <bibl> Knothe, H. "Spitzbergen," Petermann's Mitteilungen Evganzungschaft No. 211, Gotha, 1931 </bibl> <bibl> Kotlukov, V.A. "The Geological Structure and Coal Deposits of Barents– burg and of the Boheman Tundra (Western Spitsbergen)," Trans. Leningrad Geol. Trust, Fasc. 11. Leningrad– Moscow, 1936. [In Russian with English summary.] </bibl> <bibl> Laing, J. An Account of a Voyage to Spitzbergen, 1815 </bibl> <bibl> Lutkevich, E.M. "Geology of the Tertiary Coal-bearing Deposits of Spits– bergen in the Ice-Fjord Region," Trans. Arctic Inst., Vol. 76. Leningrad, 1937. [In Russian with English summary.] pp. 7-24 </bibl> <bibl> ----- "Geological Survey and the Problems of the Coal Fields of Mount Pyramid, Spitsbergen Island," Ibid . pp. 25-38. [In Russian with English summary.] </bibl> <bibl> Nansen, Fridtjof En Ferd til Spitsbergen , Kristiania, 1920 </bibl> <bibl> ---- The Spitsbergen Treaty , 1920 </bibl>Spitsbergen
<bibl> Orvin, Anders K. "Geology of the Kings Bay Region, Spitsbergen, with special reference to the Coal Deposits," Skr. Svalbard og [: ] Ishavet., Nr. 57. Oslo, 1934 </bibl> <bibl> ----- "Outline of the Geological History of Spitsbergen," Skr. Svalbard og [: ] Ishavet, No. 78, Oslo, 1940 </bibl> <bibl> ----- "Bibliography of Literature about the Geology, Physical Geography, Useful Minerals, and Mining of Svalbard," Skr. Norges Svalbard-og Ishavs-unders o kelser, Nr. 89. Oslo, 1947. [In this paper is found all literature about coal deposits, coal mining, coal production, coal analyses, and mineral deposits.] </bibl> <bibl> Rudmose-Brown, R.N. The Polar Regions , 1927 </bibl> <bibl> ----- Spitsbergen , 1920 </bibl> <bibl> Sindballe, K. Report Concerning Claims to Land in Svalbard , Copenhagen and Oslo, 1927. [Report and Atlas] </bibl> <bibl> White, A. (ed) A Collection of Documents on Spitsbergen and Greenland , 1855 ^ . Haklwyt Society ^ </bibl> <bibl> Wieder, C. The Dutch Discovery and Mapping of Spitsbergen , Amsterdam, 1919 </bibl>EA-Geog. Greenland-Svalbard Author: R. N. Rudmose Brown Date Received: 8/8/47 No. of words: 300
Prins Karls Forland (or Prince Charles For l ^ e ^ land) Island
Author: R. N. Rudmose Brown 500 words.
Noraustlandet (or North-East Land)
Noraustlandet
and ivory gulls as well as fewer snow buntings, purple sandpipers, divers, grey phaleropes etc. Ptarmigan are not numer u ^ o ^ us. Birds start to migrate southward by mid-August. Foxes and reindeer are few but bears and seals are fairly nu– merous. Walrus are now rare. The whole island by virtue of its structure is outside the area of mining claims and has never been much frequented by trappers.Author: R. N. Rudmose Brown' 80 words.
Kvitoya
Author: R. N. Rudmose Borwn 150 words.
Kong Karls Land (or Wiches Land)
AUTHOR: R. N. Rudmose Brown Received 8/8/47 160 words.
Berentsöya
Author: R. N. Rudmose Brown Received: 8/8/47. 200 words.
EDGEÖYA
Author: R.N. Rudmose Brown 400 words.
Hopen (Hope or Seahorse Island)
Hopen
abundant driftwood. A.G. Nathorst in 1898 was unable to land but the same year W.S. Bruce landed from ^ t ^ he Prince of Monaco's yacht. Norwegians failed to get ashore in 1920 but twice in 1924 and in 1926 Th. Iversen landed and explored the island making at l e ^ a ^ st a satisfactory map. Further work was done in 1939 by Th. Askheire.Author: R. N. Rudmose Brown Received 8/8/47 No. of words: 1,000
Björnöya (or Bear Island)
Björnöya
except that it is on the eastern or lee side. Kvalrossbukta, further south, offers anchorage for [: ] small vessels and easy access to the interior, but has a rock studded entrance. Herwighamna on the north may be a useful anchorage for small vessels.Björnöya
In 1605Bennet was back and collected some lead ore and named a mountain, but not the present bearer of that name, Mount Misery. Bennet made several further voyages in search of walrus. In 1609 J. Poole claimed the island for the Muscovy Company of London. [: ] No doubt it was frequently visited [: ] during the seventeenth century which was a prolific period in Spitsbergen whaling but there are few records. The first record of wintering was in 1700 by a Dutch shipwrecked crew. During the eighteenth century Russian trappers often wintered but have left few records except their well built huts and a few graves. They called it Medved which means the Bear. In the end of that century Norwegian trappers began to displace the Russian winterers. B. M. Keilhau of Oslo University was the first scientist to visit Björnöya (1827). S. Tobieson, a Norwegian hunter in 1865-66 took the f o ^ i ^ rst meteorological observations. In 1864 and 1868 A.E. Nordenskjöld and in 1870 A. G. Nathorst and other Swedish scientists were there. A more thorough exploration was that of C. J. O. Kjellström, A. Hamberg and J.G. Andersson in 1898 [: ] and 1899. In late years Norwegian surveyors and others have practically completed the exploration of the island as part of the general survey of Norway's Arctic territory of Svalbard (q.v.). The [: ] Oxford expedition to Spitsbergen in 1923 spent some days at Björnöya. There have been many other investigators but most ^ of ^ them were concerned chiefly with the mineral wealth and the use of the islands as a whaling base. In 1898 a German party made the first claim to supposed coal bearing [: ] land. Next year this claim was expanded to more valuable land and further activit i y continued intermittently with a certain degree of contention among rival German firms, the one seeking coal and the other bases for fishing interests. A challenge to these claims came from Russians in 1899 at intervals up to 1921 and the Russian claims were possibly related to political ambition. From 1903 to 1908 there was a Norwegian whaling station at Kvalrossbu t ^ k ^ ta and little was heard of the coal until 1915 when war conditions cut off the import of British coal to Norway. Björöyen KulkompagniBjörnöya
of Stavanger then claimed the whole island, buying up other authentic claims. This company mined coal until 1925 when the mine at Tunheins was closed down. The wireless station erected in 1919 and meteorological observatory built in 1923 were then taken over and continued by the Norwegian government. The coal is of Carboniferous age and is good coking coal, but the seams are thin and the ash content is high. There were never more than 200 men employed and the total export, all to Norway, was 50,330 tons. A few tons of galena have also been mined. The political destineis of the islands are bound up with those of Spitsbergen but it has never had much interest to rival powers. The Muscovy Company's claim in 1609 was never pressed and there were no Dutch or Danish claims. Both Germany and Russia, in spite of semi-official visits disavowed political aims and neither Norway nor [: ] Sweden seemed much interested until Björn– öya was included in the Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920 and put under Norwegian sovereignty.