Mount McKinley: Encyclopedia Arctica 12: Alaska, Geography and General

Mount McKinley (63°5′ N., 151° W.), North America's supreme mountain, rises to 20,300 feet in south central Alaska, and is formed by a gigantic mass of granite that was forced upward through the earth's crust. This great peak, a part of the Alaska Range, is out– standing not only in being the highest mountain in North America but in rising higher above its base than any other mountain in the world. It culminates in two peaks — North Peak, with a height of about 20,000 feet, and South Peak, the true summit. The granite of which the moun– tain is composed is of a light, grayish-tan color, and at a distance the towering cliffs take on a pinkish hue which gives the vast uplift a delicato, atmospheric appearance that differentiates it from other mountains and stamps it with a beauty and grandeur of its own. Some of the lower peaks close to the mountain are given a strange black-capped appearance by an overlapping stratum of slate.

Before the advent of the airplane the main difficulty to be overcome in ascending the mountain was the low altitude from which it rises. In both South America and Tibet, where the world's highest mountains are located, climbing difficulties do not really begin until an altitude of at least 10,000 feet is reached. On McKinley the "snouts" or ends of the glaciers extend downward to within about 2,000 feet above sea level and, without modern mechanical help, the

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glaciers offer the only practical routes to the summit. On the south, or Susitna Valley side of the mountain ^ , ^ the only glacier explored on foot , thus far, necessitated thirty miles of back-packing over treacherous ice-fields to reach an altitude of 5,000 feet at the mountain ^ ' ^ s base, where the climber is still confronted with 15,000 feet of ice and snow. On the mountain's northwestern face there are places where the ice sweeps downward to 3,000 feet, leaving more than 17,000 feet of ice-clad mountain to rise above the tundra.

As the mountain ranges that separate the glaciers are too rugged to follow, the climber is forced to take to the ice at a low altitude, which necessitates polar equipment and the transportation of a large amount of food and gear. On the lower reaches of the glaciers dog-teams can be used, but most of the pre-airplane transportation was by backpacking.

In the early days Alaskans used to say that Mt. McKinley "had been placed in the most inaccessible position obtainable." It lies just north of a "sixty– three" and it is bisected by the 152d meridian, forming the apex and geographical center of the great wilderness lying south of the Yukon and west of the Tanana rivers. Its glacial streams cool the [: ] ^ Y ^ ukon on the north , via the Kantishna and Tanana rivers, and the S i ^ u ^ sitna on the south , via the Tokositna and Chulitna rivers. The nearest salt water to Mt. McKinley is Cook Inlet, 140 miles to the southwest.

The Alaska Range, of which McKinley forms the crowning peak, is the main branch of the great western cord erilla ^ illera ^ . It sweeps westward [: ] from the headwaters of the Tanana river and then southwest in a great arc to form the mountains of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands.

The Talkeetna Indians called the mountain Doleika and regarded it with reverent awe. To them, the roar of distant avalanches and the sounds made by the glacier were the groans of evil spirits. Talkeetna Nicolae, chief of the Susitnae, gave this version of the origin of the mountain:

In speaking of the Indian names for Mt. McKinley, Alfred H. Brooks says: "No one can know how many generations of natives have wandered over this region, but it seems certain that the indigenous population was greater at the first coming of the white man than it is now. As the natives depended largely on the chase for subsistence, they must have frequented the slopes of the Alaskan Range, and the adjacent lowlands, for this is one of the best game regions in the Northwest. Most of the range formed an almost impassable barrier between the hunting ground of the Cook Inlet natives and that of the Kiskoquim Indians. It does not seem to have been ^ n ^ amed, for the Alaskan Indian has no fixed geographic nomenclature for the larger geographic features. A river will have half a dozen names, depending on the direction from which it is approached. The cartographers who cover Alaskan maps with unpronounceable names, imagining that these are based on local usage, are often misled. The immense height of Mr. McKinley must have impressed the Indian. It was used as a land– mark in his journeys. With its twin peak, Mount Foraker, it is interwoven in the folklore of the tribes living within sight of the two giant mountains. The tribes on the east side of the range, who seldom, if ever, approached it called it Traleika, probably signifying big

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mountain. Those on the northwest side, who hunted caribou up to the very base of the mountain, called it Tennally ^ " ^ (a name which Archdea k ^ c ^ on Hudson Stuck heard as Denali).

Brooks was correct in stating that Traleika signified big mountain; but I cannot agree that the people east of the mountain never hunted close to it. The Susitnas and Talkeetnas as well as the western Kantishna hunted close to it. They ascended the S i ^ u ^ sitna tributaries in the winter with dog-teams, made skin boats from the hides of the animals they had killed and floated back to their homes after the spring flood had ended.

Captain James Cook, who discovered the great inlet that now bears his name, did not see the Alaska Range; the mountains that rise so majestically above the northern horizon on a clear day, were evidently obscured by fog. The honor of the first mention of the range by an English speaking explorer belongs to George Vancouver, one of Captain Cook's officers. He caught sight of the range from Knick Arm at the head of Cook Inlet, close to where the city of Anchorage now stands, and in speaking of it says:

^ " ^ The shores we had passed were compact; two or three small streams of fresh water flowed into the branch between low, steep banks, above these the surface was nearly flat and formed a sort of plain on which there was no snow and but very few trees. This plain stretched to the foot of a connected body of mountains, which, excepting between the west and north-west, were not very remote; and even in that quarter the country might be considered moderately elevated, bounded by distant stupendous mountains covered with snow and apparently detached from each other, though possibly they might be connected by land of insufficient height to intercept our horizon. ^ " ^

In speaking of this description Brooks says: ^ " ^ Even Vancouver failed to mention specifically the two high peaks which tower above the range, though the description " distant stupendous mountains covered with snow and apparently detached from each other " undoubtedly refers to Mount McKinley and Mount Foraker. ^ " ^

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In 1834 a Russian mate by the name of Malakoff ascended the Susitna River, but it is improbable that he reached the forks as he made no mention of the Alaska Range. Possibly the story handed down by the Talkeetna Indians concerning the Russian who died in the Kichatna swamps may have reference to Malakoff ^ ' ^ s expedition, for he was the only Russian known to have made an attempt to explore the McKinley region.

That the Russians knew of the Alaska Range there is no doubt, as Brooks says: "Grewingk, who summarised the geography of Alaska in 1852, indicated on his map the axis of such a range, to which he gave the name of Tchigmit Mountains." Dall gave the Alaskan Range its name. He was one of the engineers appointed to survey a route f ro ^ or ^ a telegraph line; he did not approach closely to the range but saw from a distance.

As to the first mention of Mount of McKinley by Americans, Brooks states: ^ " ^ In the fall of 1878, Harper and Mayo ascended the Tanana a distance estimated at 250 to 300 miles, which would bring them to the present town of Fairbanks. This was the first exploration of the Tanana by white men. They reported the finding of alluvial gold in the bars of the river and also that there was a high snow-covered mountain plainly vis a ^ i ^ ble to the south; this of course, was Mount McKinley. Later on Brooks says: ^ " ^ In 1889, an Alaskan pioneer, Frank Densmore, with several others, crossed one of the portages from the lower Tanana to the Kusko qu ^ kw ^ im. About the same time another prospector, Al King, made the same trip. Densmore must have had a glorious view of Mount McKinley. Apparently it was his description of it which led the Yukon pioneers to name it Densmore's Mountain, and as such it was known on the Yukon [: ] for a long time before any one realized its altitude. ^ " ^

In 1885 Lieutenant Henry T. Allen crossed from Copper River to the Yukon. His report mentions seeing very high mountains south - west of the Tanana.

Although the mountain was known among the pioneers along the Yukon, no description of it had , as yet reached the outside world. W.A. [: ] Dick ^ e ^ y,

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a young Princeton graduate, was destined to awaken the great peak from its long sleep and give it the prominence it deserved.

In 1896, with one companion, he "tracked" a boat up the S i ^ u ^ sitna River. He and Monks, his partner, were prospecting for gold and in the course of time they reached a point where, from some bare hills, they got an open view of the Alaska Range, with Mount McKinley towering above it. With a crude theodolite, made on the spot, he estimated its height at 20,000 feet. On his return south he wrote an article describing the location and grandeur of the great mountain, which he named Mt. McKinley.

In theory, at least, the naming of important geographical features should be a metter for serious consideration. In this respect the alleged reason for the naming of Mount McKinley is worth recording. It is said that while Dick ^ e ^ y and Monks were in the Susitna wilderness they were joined by two prospectors who were rabid advocates of free silver. After listening to their arguments for many weary days, Dick ^ e ^ y and Monks retaliated by naming the mountain after ^ Willian McKinley ^ the champion of the gold standard.

In 1898 much was added to the knowledge of the Alaska Range and Mount McKinley. George H. Eldridge and Robert Muldrow led an expedition up the Susitna. Muldrow, the topographer, made a rough triangulation of the mountain that verified Dick ^ e ^ y's estimate of height. J.E. Spurr and W.S. Post of the Geological Survey ascended the S qu ^ kw ^ entna, a western fork of the Susitna, crossed the Alaskan Range, and, after many adventures, reached Bering Sea. The War Department dispatched Captain F.W. Glenn to Cook Inlet to explore a route to the interior. His party reached the Tanana and retraced their steps via the Delt e ^ a ^ and Matauska rivers.

Also in 1898 a party led by W.J. Peters, to which Brooks was attached as geologist, was traversing the Tanana valley on the north. In summing up the

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year ^ ' ^ s work Brooks says that the surveys of that year had circumscribed an area of about 50,000 square miles which was still unexplored. "Within it lay Mount McKinley, the highest peak on the continent, as the general public, hitherto skeptical as to its reported altitude, was beginning to realize."

Five years went past without further addition to the knowledge of the mountain. Then Brooks and Raeburn made their famous pack-train trip from salt water to the Yukon. Starting from Cook In sl ^ le ^ t they broke through the Alaska Range by a pass on the headwaters of the Kichatna River and following the northern foothills of the range, mapping the country as they advanced. Their route led them directly under the northwestern slopes of Mount McKinley and their triangulations placed the mountain's height at 20,300 feet. Their report furnished the first accurate details of the Mount McKinley region; in response to this knowledge the minds of men began to stir to the challenge of its virgin summit.

The first attempted climb was by Judge James Wickersham who in 1901 started from the mining camp of Fairbanks on the Tanana River, using pack-horse transport for his supplies. The party was not prepared in any way for alpine work of so difficult a nature, but an attempt to scale the mountain was made from the most westerly of the glaciers flowing north from the mountain, which they named Hannah Glacier.

An expedition in 1903 by Dr. Frederick A. Cook of Brooklyn marked only a slight transition from the earlier exploratory invasions of the Mt. McKinley region. The party followed a route previously explored, that taken by Lieut. Heron, in 1 9 ^ 8 ^ 99 and by Brooks and Raeburn; the avowed purpose of the expedition was the climbing of the big mountain.

The party consisted of five men: Dr. F. ^ rederick ^ A. Cook, Robert Dunn, Ralph Shainwald and Fred Printz. Printz was an experienced mountain man from Darby, Montana, and had been the head-packer for the Brooks and Raeburn expedition. Their transportation was furnished by packhorses from eastern Washington.

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The start was made from Tyonik, at the head of Cook Inlet and their route lead overland to the Skwenta and Kichatna rivers to Simpson Pass across the Alaskan Range to the valley of the Kuskoquim river. Once on the Northern side of the Alaska Range they turned northeast and followed timberline to Mt. McKinley.

The difficulties of the r oute slowed their advance and they did not reach the mountain until the end of August, too late for a job of such magnitude. Two attempts were made to scale the mountain. The first, made on the southwestern side, proved impractical at 8,000 feet. A second attempt made further east from the Peters Glacier enabled them to attain an altitude of 11,000 feet. They returned from the second effort on September 1st, to face the advent of wintry weather. A return to Cook Inlet by land was rendered dubious by the weakness of their horses. The second alternative, which was adopted, was to cross the Alaskan Range north of McKinley, descend to the headwaters of the Chulitna river and raft to Cook Inlet via the Chulitna and Susitna rivers. The retreat was successfully accomplished.

This experience eliminated the Simpson Pass - Kusko qu ^ kw ^ im trail as a route for parties attempting the ascent of McKinley. The deep snow of Simpson Pass precludes a passage with horses enough to give a climbing party the time necessary for locating a possible climbing route and conducting the climb and returning to the coast. The ascent of Mt. McKinley was still in the exploration stage.

The expedition of 1906 was organized by Dr. Frederick A. Cook and Professor Herschel C. Parker of Columbia University. The other members were Russell W. Porter, topographer; Belmore Browne, artist; Ernest Miller, photographer; Fred Printz, the veteran horse-packer of two previous expeditions; Edward Barrill e , packer, also from Darby, Montana; and ^ the man named ^ Beecher, who served as cook.

Packhorses were again used for transportation; but as the plan was to approach the mountain on a more direct route via the Yentna river a larg northern tributary of the Sus u ^ i ^ tna x , a motorboat was employed to carry extra supplies as

^ 9 ^ well as members of the party [: ] attached to the pack-train; and to explore the headwaters of the Yentna before the pack-train's arrival.

From the headwaters of the Yentna the final route was problematical. If a [: ] satisfactory pass was found leading across the Alaskan Range to the Kusko qu ^ kw ^ im it would constitute the shortest route to the northern side of Mt. McKinley and a quick return route to the motorboat at the head of the Yentna for getting back to the coast. If no usable pass was found, a direct advance along the south side of the range would be made. In either case a serious problem was presented in that the country was an unexplored wilderness. It was known that a few pros– pectors had penetrated the range at different points, but no details of their experiences were obtainable.

The pack-train and motorboat met as prearranged at the head of navigation on the Yentna. From this point a scouting party was sent forward consisting of Cook, Browne and Porter who sighted a deep gap in the range leading northward to the Kusko qu ^ kw ^ im. The hardships encountered in exploring this area were severe. Dense timber, swamps, glacier streams and constant rain made travel difficult. Lack of game and of grass ag ^ g ^ ravated the food problem for men and horses, while dense clouds of mosquitoes made life even more difficult.

The effort to cross the range was brought to an end by a canyon with vertical walls after several members of the party had narrow escapes from death while swimming weakened horses through the ice-laden rapids.

The only alternative was the route leading along the southern side of the range to Mt. McKinley and the S ^ s ^ tart was made at once. As the Alaska Range lies athwart the drift of moist clouds from the Pacific Ocean, its southern face receives an enormous snow-fall on the higher peaks and heavy rains in the foothills. The advance was made over or through a constant series of bogs, where the horses sank in deep, or swift rivers that were of swimming depth.

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Prospectors had reached the area and some of the stream had been named: Sunflower Creek, Cache Creek, Lake Creek and the Kahiltna river — a large tributary of the Susitna.

The first of the Mt. McKinley glaciers reached was a large ice-stream flowing from the southwestern face of the mountain. A wandering Indian who had joined the party stated that the Susitna Indians called it Kahnicula. The horses had weakened alarmingly; and as the travel was becoming increasingly difficult they were turned loose, to recuperate. The party advanced on foot to the largest glacier coming from the southern face of Mt. McKinley. Dr. Cook named it Ruth Glacier. (It was called "the Big Glacier" by the Parker-Browne Expedition of 1910). A smooth ridge separated the two glaciers and ended in a small but bountiful mountain range which the party named the Tokoshah Mountains, meaning in the Susitna language "The Mountains Where there are no Trees."

From the top of the ridge the party were able to study the lower reached of the Big Glacier and the great Gorge through which it debouched from the southern face of Mt. McKinley. A low range of broken mountains hid the actual base of the precipitous wall, but above the five thousand foot level the entire south slope of the mountain was exposed to view.

A careful examination of the twenty miles of glacier ice that separated the party from the fifteen thousand foot uplift of the mountain's southeastern face convinced Browne and Parker that their equipment and the time at their disposal was insufficient for a task of such magnitude. The end of summer was at hand, frost was killing the vegetation, the horses were weak. The return to the seacoast, in itself, was a serious problem.

From the viewpoint of exploration the effort constituted a valuable addition to the knowledge of Alaska. Russell Porter's efforts had added large areas to the map and the experiences of the party were an aid to prospectors who were invading the Susitna valley. But from the climbing viewpoint the trip had been of little account; a glacial roadway had been found leading to the southwestern

^ 11 ^ face of the mountain, which appeared unclimbable; a ten thousand foot, flat topped buttress was seen extending from the southwestern end of the mountain leading [: ] upward to avalanche-swept cliffs. The only suggestions of unbroken ridges that might offer a route to the summit were on the northeast, too far away for detailed examination.

The enormous difficulties of climbing McKinley were just becoming apparent to Parker and Browne. They had already decided to make a second attempt to scale the mountain and the first hand knowledge of the approaches, character of terraine, distances to be covered and the equipment necessary was of great value to them later on. The equipment which had been in local use to this time was utterly inadequate for the polar-type travel obligated by the vast fields of snow and ice that stretched before them. Horse transportation was ruled out for all time. The river formed by the Kahniculah and T ^ t ^ he Big Glacier s and named the Tokositna flowed eastward to the Chukitna and offered ^ a ^ near approach to the mountain for a motorboat via the Susitna river.

On its return the party reached the seacoast after enduring many hardships and dangers. Parker returned to civilization and Browne, on the request of Cook, proce ^ e ^ ded to Knick Arm and the Chugach Range to collect a series of big game animals for the Brooklyn Museum.

After Parker's departure Cook stated to Browne that he was contemplating a trip with the motorboat to the Chulitna river for the purpose of studying the possibility of reaching the southern approach to the mountain by water. Browne stated that if any exploration of T he Big Glacier was contemplated he would like to join the venture. Cook replied that no explorations would be made except by water and he again urged Browne to go and secure the big game s e p ^ e ^ cimens previously referred to. It came out later that, immediately after the conversation with Browne, Cook dispatched a telegram to a friend in New York City: "Am preparing for a last, desperate attack on Mt. McKinley." This incident may be looked upon as Cook'

^ 12 ^ Cook's first step in the battle of words known as the Mount McKinley Controversy which swelled to a globe-encircling cre ^ s ^ cendo when it became connected in 1909 with the Cook-Peary North Pole controversy.

It is clear that Dr. Cook ascended the Susitna, Chulitna and Tokositna rivers as planned and, with Edward Barrill e as his only companion, proce ^ e ^ ded over the ice of the Big Glacier to the entrance of the Great Gorge, previously referred to. At this point a small tributary glacier enters the main ice-stream from the east and on this glacier, as Parker and Browne later showed, Cook took the photographs used as illustrations in his book The Top of the Continent to show the alleged top of the mountain. His closest approach to the mountain evidently was at the entrance of the Great Gorge, about twenty miles from the actual base of the mountain.

On their return to Cook Inlet B ^ ar ^ rille and Cook met Browne at Seldovia. While waiting for a south bound steamer B ^ ar ^ rille confessed to Browne that he and Cook had not reached Mt. McKinley. It was, therefore, with the knowledge that Cook's claim was a sham, but with no factual data to prove it, that Browne rejoined Parker in New York. Such information as they had was placed before the Board o ^ f ^ Governors in the Explorer's Club. But before any action was taken Cook sailed for Greenland and for the great North Pole [: ] deception that was to cause his downfall.

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The Peary-Cook North Pole controversy once more threw into the limelight Cook's earlier disputed claim, and one of the motivations of the Parker-Browne Expedition of 1910 was to secure, if possible, photographic evidence to show that Cook had not conquered the summit of Mt. McKinley. Moreover, the southern glaciers had not yet been adequately surveyed, and the approach from the southern side by way of the Susitna and Chulitna rivers was a simple matter, especially in the early summer and with a motorboat.

The party consisted of eight men: Prof. Herschel Parker, Prof. J.H. Cuntz, topographer, Valdemar Grassi, Herman L. Tucker, of the United States Forestry Service, Merl [: ] La Voy, J.W. Thompson, engineer who handled the boat engine, Arthur Aten, of Valdez, Alaska, and Belmore Browne.

Without undue difficulty the Susitna, Chulitna and Tokichitna rivers were ascended and a base camp was established on the banks of the Tokichitna at the foot of the main glacier flowing from the southern face of Mt. McKinley. Dr. Cook had named the glacier Ruth Glacier, but the Parker-Browne party decided to call it the Big Glacier.

The advance to the mountains was accomplished by back-packing in relays. The entire southern face of the mountain was then searched, but unavailingly, for a route capable of being climbed. Fifty days in June and July were spent on the ice-fields at this. The great sloping ridges on the northeast were a tantalizing sight; but to reach them proved too great a task for the party which was limited both as to time and as to provisions. However, before the end of June one of the objectives of the expedition had been achieved - the locations of Dr. Cook's photographs were found and duplicated. His "peak" proved to be on a small eastern tributary some twenty miles from the base of Mt. McKinley and only 5,300 feet above sea level. The photographs obtained on this expedition furnished incontrovertible proof of the falseness of Dr. Cook's claims.

On this expedition pemmican was used as basic food, rationed out one pound per man per day along with three hardtack biscuits and a limited smount of tea and

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sugar. Despite the arduous labor performed, the party remained in excellent health and spirits. It must be noted that the pemmican used was made after the simple recipe of the American Indians and consisted of meat and fat exclusively - quite different from the inferior product issued under the name of pemmican to the American and Canadian armies during World War II.

By the end of this Expedition the unknown areas close to the base of Mt. McKinley had been reduced to the heavily glaciated strip lying between the mountain and Mt. Foraker on the southwest and the portion of the Alaskan range that extends in a northeasterly direction towards the Tanana River. It was on the latter approach that Parker and Browne had seen the sloping ridges that appeared to be climbable, and the decision was made to organize a third expedition to attack the mountain from that side.

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Meanwhile, the "Sourdough" Expedition had tackled the North Peak and claimed to have planted a ^ 14-foot ^ flagpole on its summit - a claim that was discounted ^ CK with Stuck's book to see if the exped. was as named ^ and laughed at for many years but which was practically confirmed by the Karstens– Stuck Expedition three years later. Interest in Mt. McKinley and its unconquered summit had grown apace. In every camp and settlement in Alaska were to be found men inured to hardship, accustomed to conditions of cold and snow, and who were anxious to prove their skill and hardihood in mountain climbing. One such group of men, prospectors in Fairbanks, set out in the early summer of 1910, under the leadership of Thomas Lloyd. The party included Charles MacGonagall ^ McGonnagal ^ , William Taylor, and Peter Anderson.

Travelling first to the headwaters of the Clearwater River close to the Muldrow Glacier [: ] which sweeps downward from the northeastern end of Mt. McKinley they reached the summit of the North Peak, an altitude of 20,000 feet, 300 feet lower than the South Peak. A detailed account of the climb has not been written.

The Parker-Browne Expedition of 1912 was made in mid-winter and employed

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dog teams, bought at Seward. The party included, beside its leaders Prof. Herschel Parker and Belmore Browne, two others of the previous 1910 expedition: Merl La Voy and Arthur Aten. La Voy and Aten began to move the equipment early in the winter, using Seward as a base. By the first of February a food and equipment cache had been established on the Chulitna River and the party assembled at Susitna Station.

After finding and crossing a pass across the range, the party turned westward and established their base camp on a tributary of the Clearwater River - later named Cache Creek. Numerous views of the mountain's northeastern end had disclosed three ridges descending from the twin summits. Between the central and the northeastern ridges, the Muldrow Glacier offered an approach to the actual base of the mountain. From that point upward the central northeastern ridge appeared to be climbable. Food and equipment were transported by dog team to the end of the glacier, and at that altitude of 10,000 feet the party rested while the dogs were returned to the base camp which was left in charge of Arthur Aten.

Parker, Browne and La Voy advanced up the glacier. A camp was established on a low point of the central northeastern ridge and the most difficult part of the ascent began. Food and equipment were advanced by relays and camps were shovelled out of the snow at 13,500 feet and, below an outcrop of cliffs, at 15,000 feet. From this point a traverse was made into the basin between the twin peaks. A camp was established at 16,000, then another, the final camp, at 16,615 feet.

Meanwhile the food supply was proving to be inadequate. This was caused by an unexpected flaw in the pemmican which seemed to be indigestible at those high altitudes. The remaining food consisted solely of hardtack, tea, sugar, and a few raisins. The physical condition of the party deteriorated rapidly so that the sub-zero temperatures caused excessive suffering.

From their highest camp the slopes leading to the summit offered no climbing

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difficulties aside from the usual difficulty in breathing at high altitudes.

On the first attempt to reach the summit the party succeeded in reaching the nearly level summit ridge at an altitude of about 20,000 feet. During the last part of the climb, however, they were overtaken by a storm of blizzard proportions and had to turn back. On this day, the 29th June, the temperature was 23° below zero and the wind was not less than 55 miles per hour.

After a dangerous and difficult return to camp, the climbers found that their clothing was so thickly filled with ice particles that a day would have to be sacrificed to dry it out. On the third day, weakened by lack of proper food, they once more set out, reaching an altitude of 19,000 feet. Again a storm, worse than the previous one, forced them to return to camp.

By this time the food supply was so low that an immediate descent was necessary. The return to their base camp was made successfully and a few days of rest intervened before setting out on the long journey to the Yukon.

During this period of rest occurred the great earthquake caused by the eruption of Mt. Katmai. Glaciers and rock ridges were shattered and even the hills about the base camp were scarred by avalanches. Had the party not been forced down by the storm they might well have met with catastrophe in this upheaval.

The party back-packed to a tributary of the Kantishna River and travelled down stream in an abandoned boat which they had repaired, descending to the Tanana River and thence proceeding to Fort [: ] Gibbon on the Yukon.

The completion of the 1912 journey across the mountain's northern foothills ma ^ r ^ k r ed the end of the McKinley region as an uncharted wilderness area. A new gold rush was on, more and more prospectors were invading the region, Mt. McKinley was soon to be established as a National Park, and subsequent expeditions followed charted routes.

A fifty year old missionary, Rev. Hudson Stuck, Archdeacon of the Yukon, headed the next expedition to attempt the ascent of Mt. McKinley, and this

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expedition, known as the Karstens-Stuck Expedition of 1913, had the honor of completing the first ascent of the highest peak, that of South Peak, at an altitude of 20,300 feet. The party consisted of Harry P. Karstens, a "sourdough" ^ Tatum? ^ and a famous trail-man; Robert G. Tatem, Walter Harper, and some Indian boys from the Yukon Mission. The mountain was reached via the Kantishna River, with dog teams. A base camp was established on Cache Creek, and the route followed was identical to that taken by the Parker-Browne party in 1912. The Central Northeast– ern Ridge had been broken in places by the earthquake of that year, but otherwise the party encountered no great difficulties.

This expedition proved that the South Peak is the true summit and, incidentally, was able to correct a previous injustice. From the great height ^ , ^ Archdeacon Stuck, surveying the lower North Peak through his glasses, was able to see, he stated, the 14-foot flagpole which the "Sourdough Expedition" of 1910 had claimed to have planted there - a claim which had hitherto been discounted.

In 1915 ^ 1932 ^ two climbing parties were on the mountain simultaneously: the U.D. Lindley Expedition and the Cosmic Ray Expedition.

The U.D. Lindley party, consisting of Lindley, Erling Strom, Supt. Leik of the Mt. McKinley Park and Grant Pearson, famous Alaskan trail-man and warden of the Park, was the first to use an airplane as an aid in reconnaisance and for transportation of equipment. They were also the first party to ascend both the North and South Peaks. Skis were used to reach the upper end of the Muldrow Glacier.

The Cosmic Ray Expedition, under the auspices of the University of Chicago, had for its objective the study of cosmic ray activities at high altitudes. The members of the party were Edward P. Beckwith, Percy T. Olten Jr., Nicholas Spadavechia, Theodore Koven and Allen Carp ^ é ^ . The latter two met with tragedy.

On the return journey of the Lindley party to the Muldrow Glacier, an abandoned tent belonging to the Cosmic Ray party was found. Following the trail down the glacier they soon found traces of the tent's occupants: Koven lay dead beside a

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crevasse into which he and Carpe had fallen. Carpe's body was not found, but Merl La Voy, of the Parker-Browne party, along with Andy Talor and Grant Pearson were able to convey ^ Koven's corpse ^ back to civilization. Koven's corpse

The U.S. Quartermast Corps Expedition of 1942 was organized as the name indicates by the U.S. Quartermaster Corps with the cooperation of the Medical Corps, the Army Air Forces, the Signal Corps, the Canadian Army and the Royal Canadian Air Force. Its purpose was to test equipment, food and the physical reactions to high altitudes for the benefit of troops serving in the Arctic.

Seventeen men composed the party, under the leadership of Col. Frank G. Marchman, U.S.Q.M.C. The list of members reaching the summit follows: Terris Moore, Einar Nilsson, Robert H. Bates, Bradford Washburn, Sterling B. Hendricks, Albert H. Jackman, and Peter W. Webb.

Much of the equipment was dropped by airplane. In fact, the use of planes as an aid in mountain climbing had, by this time, become an accepted technique. Gone are the days when the reaching of a wilderness objective required weeks or months of toil, adventure and exploration. The development of the airplane has abolished distance and Mt. McKinley, which used to be a remote point in the sub-Arctic wilderness is now but a two days' flight from New York City.

The Quartermast Corps Expedition suffered, however, a temporary interruption in 1942, when the Japanese invaded the Aleutians before the completion of the climb and all available planes had to be sent to western Alaska. Other planes were eventually secured for the continuance of the project.

During the war eleven different ski-landings were made by army aircraft on the Muldrow Glacier. These landings demonstrated the practicality and safety of such methods of approach. Several photographic flights were made, as well, in the Mt. McKinley-Wonder Lake region. These were made in connection with field tests of Army Airforce equipment. These photographs, w ^ W ^ hen added to the many stereoscopic

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photographs taken by the National Geographic Society-Pan American Flights, and also the photographs made by individuals ^ They ^ comprise a visual record of practically every foot of the great mountain.

Operation White Tower 1947 was the most ambitious expedition yet directed at Mt. McKinley. Its purpose was twofold - photographic and scientific - and it was successful in every way. Sponsored by RKO Radio Pictures (for the acquisition of snow pictures and high altitude techniques in photography) it had the valuable cooperation of the New England Museum of [: ] Natural History which, under the leadership of Bradford Washburn, planned and conducted the expedition and carried out the scientific objectives.

The scientific objectives were as follows:

The members of the Expedition were: Carl Anderson (horses), George Browne (artist), Haakon Christensen (pilot), Robert W. Craig (American Alpine Club), William Deek ^ e ^ (RKO cameraman), James E. Gale (10th Rescue Sqdn.), Lt. William D. Hackett (Army Ground Forces), Robert G. Lange (University of New Hampshire), Earl Norris (dog driver), Grant Pearson (Chief Ranger, McK. Park), Leonard Shannon (RKO), William Sterling (RKO), H.T. Victoreen (University of Chicago), Mr. and Mrs.

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Bradford Washburn (New England Museum), George H. Wellstead (RKO cameraman), and Sgt. Harvey Solberg (radio operator).

During the month of March, 1947, N.W.Airlines carried 8 passengers and 11,000 lbs. of equipment from Minneapolis to Fairbanks, Alaska. From Anchorage, equipment was relayed by small planes and a 3,000 ft. landing strip was marked out on the Muldrow Glacier. Two reconnaissance flights were made by G-47 planes of the 10th Rescue Squadron and additional photographs were taken of the higher snowfields.

By April 12th the entire party was assembled at the base camp at McGonigal Pass and the ascent began.

A procedure of importance, used for the first time on any high mountain, was the construction of Eskimo snow houses. In his report, Bradford Washburn speaks in the highest terms of their efficiency. At an altitude of 11,000 ft., three snow houses were constructed; at 12,000 ft., one snow house was built, at Browne Tower, [: ] 14,700 ft., two were built, and a large snowhouse was erected at 16,500 ft. These primitive shelters provided complete protection from winds that attained one hundred mile velocity and from the sub-zero tempera– tures that make life in a tent disagreeable.

The basin between the two peaks, famed for its winds and storms, more than lived up to its evil reputation with nine consecutive days of gales which, blowing at ninety miles an hour, [: ] played havoc with the equipment and the Geiger Counters for Cosmic Ray research. When these were blown away duplicates were rushed from Chicago and were dropped later by plane.

No air-drops were possible between 11,000 ft. and McGon i ^ na ^ gal Pass. This fact necessitated the back-packing of 600 lbs. of moving picture gear and 500 lbs. of dog food in addition to the expedition's equipment.

Measurement of the flow of the Muldrow Glacier disclosed a movement of only 15 ^ inches ^ a day at 8,500 ft.

Survey stations were successfully established and a complete collection of

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geological specimens was secured. The world's highest weather station was operated while the party was on the mountain and extensive Cosmic Ray experiments were completed.

On April 30th a 10th Rescue Squadron B-17 dropped 5 cases of ten-in-one-ration at the 18,000 foot level and later, an 800 lb. pre-fabricated house for use as a Cosmic Ray laboratory along with 2,000 lbs. of food, gasolene and equipment for army tests.

The summit was reached on June sixth by the following members of the party: ^ ✓ ? ^ Mr. and Mrs. Bradford Washburn, ? Deek ^ e, ^ Craig, Browne, Gale, Lang and Hackett. On the following day the North Peak was climbed. Those who made that climb were: Mr. and Mrs. Washburn, Craig, Gale, Hackett and Sterling. Survey records were made for the Coast and Geodetic Survey.

The main party began the descent on June 11th. Gale, Lang and Victoreen remained behind to complete the Cosmic Ray program.

Operation White Tower 1947 was in many ways epoch-making. From every point of view it was successful. With this expedition, [: ] ^ the use of air power for the ^ transport of equipment had been ^ was ^ shown to be practical even in most difficult conditions. The White Tower group had still used to a great extent the old methods of back-packing, but the air-transport successes demonstrated once and for all that these methods were now out of date and that in future airplanes would more and more bear the brunt.

While the White Tower party were still on the mountain another group of climbers, this time an extremely small one consisting of three students from the University of Alaska, were encountered. The students, Gordon Herried, Henry Daub and Frank Mills, were so poorly equipped that members of the White Tower party after offering them food, persuaded them to return to the lowlands. When the

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White Tower expedition had left the mountain, however, the three University students once more ascended and succeeded in reaching the summit of the mountain. Without minimising their effort and success, it must be noted that they benefitted by the trails that had been broken by White Tower Operation and by the prepared campsites and large supplies of food and equipment that had been left.

The Gunnason Expedition of 1948 consisted of five climbers: Walter G o ^ u ^ nnason, John McCall, Charles Pieper, Phil Spaulding and Edward Huizer. As in the case of the preceding expedition, this was an exclusively climbing venture. The summit was reached on July 13th, 1948.

It is doubtful that future ascents of Mt. McKinley will add much to our knowledge of the great peak, so complete have ^ been ^ the scientific and photographic studies thus far made of it. Occasional scientific expeditions will still, from time to time, make tests on its icy summit or perform experiments cal u culated to increase mankind's capacity for dealing with high al [: ] titude conditions. But its topographic features have been so exhaustively studied by aerial photography that no climbing party nowadays can hope to add much to that body of information. The summit has been [: ] conquered, the trails charted. But the great mountain will still tempt men to put their agility and endurance to the test.

Considering the constant dangers that are attendant upon such ascents, it is remarkable how few fatalities have been met with on Mt. McKinley. Sub-zero temperatures, winds of dangerous velocity, crevasses of great depth and enormous avalanches provide dangerous conditions enough, however, and all ascents of the mountain should be conducted by men of wide experience with ice, snow, and high altitudes.

The great twin summits now stand at the centre of a national park and game preserve. On February 26, 1917, Mt. McKinley National Park was created by act of

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Congress - a wide area of wilderness which, in 1932, was extended to encompass an area of 3,030 square miles. It is the habitation of 112 kinds of birds and 35 kinds of mammals, many of which are rare. The willow ptarmigan and the caribou, for instance, are found in no other national park; the eggs of the surfbird and the wandering tattler have been found here and nowhere else in the entire world.

Here many thousand caribou graze, travelling singly, in pairs, or in small bands. The Alaska moose, largest of the species, is also found here in great numbers. The handsome wild mountain sheep, known as Dall's Sheep, the horns of which are such valued trophies of the big-game hunter, finds protection in these mountain slopes, its only enemy being the wolves over which the Park equally extends protection. Grizzly bears, red fox, squirrels, procupines, wolverines, lynx, wolf, coyote, beaver, marten, mink, snowshoe hare, and Alaska cony are also in the park, glimpsed occasionally among the trees and shrubs. The golden eagle, golden plover, raven, and magpie are showy birds which astound the tourist. Among the smaller birds are the woodpeckers, juncos, snow buntings, Alaska jay, the redpoll, the varied thrush, and the white-crowned [: ] sparrow. The short– billed gull breeds here, 300 miles inland. In the park waters, where fishing licenses are not required, trout abound.

The white spruce is the commonest tree here. The white birch is found in the lower valleys; cottonwoods and aspen are near the streams, and willows are abundant in their smaller forms. The wild rose grows here, as do the blueberry, the bearberry and the cinquefoil. In summer the blue larkspur is the showiest flower, and in spring the dogwood blooms. The white and yellow varieties of the dryas carpet the slopes and the mountain sheep feed on their foliage.

Excellent roads and trails now thread the [: ] ark, camp grounds are being prepared, and a modern hotel, operating on the European plan, provides first– class accommodation for visitors. The eastern boundary of the Park is formed by Broad Pass, through which the Alaska Railway passes on its way from the

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Alaskan coast to Fairbanks on the Tanana River. A sixty mile motor highway extends from the Park Headquarters on the eastern boundary to the McKinley River which flows from the Muldrow Glacier and Wonder Lake, from which point a magnificent view of the mountain may be had.

In 1903 the highest mountain on the continent was still isolated within the depths of an almost untrodden wilderness. It has now become an imposing attraction for the tourist.

- Belmore Browne.

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Belmore Browne

Mount McKinley: Encyclopedia Arctica 12: Alaska, Geography and General