Algae: Encyclopedia Arctica 5: Plant Sciences (General)

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Algae: Encyclopedia Arctica 5: Plant Sciences (General)

Author Stefansson, Vilhjalmur, 1879-1962

Algae

Unpaginated

Corrections in Taylor’s Arctic Bibliography for Algae

#11 Boldt, 1888 - ibid refers to #12

#101 Larsen 1907 - add: pp. 305-364

#106 Lowe 1923- ibid is wrong

#114, 115, 116 - ibid should not cover volume number

#114 volume number is 29

1875 volume number is 32

1885 volume number is 42

#135 Rosenvinge 1898: pages are 129-243, 339-346.

#136 Rosenvinge 1917: volume number is 43

#30, 31 Author’s name is Cedercreutz, C.

^ H. Croosdale ^

Corrections for Taylor arctic Ed. Plant Sciences

Unpaginated

EA-Plant Sciences (Wm. Randolph Taylor)

ALGAE

CONTENTS

Scroll Table to show more columns

	Page
Significance of Arctic Algal Vegetation	1
Representative forms of Arctic Algae	2
Factors controlling algal vegetation	6
Marine Flora of the Arctic and Subarctic	9
Western Soviet Arctic	9
Eastern Soviet Arctic	11
North American Region	12
Baffin Bay and West Greenland	14
East Greenland	15
Iceland	16
Jan Mayen	17
The Faeroes	18
Northern Coast of Norway	19
West Soviet Arctic (Murman Sea)	19
Spitsbergen	20
Summary of Marine Algal Vegetation	22
Freshwater Algal Vegetation	23
Algal Floras of Various Regions	28
Summary of Freshwater Algal Vegetation	32
Bibliography	34

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ALGAE

SIGNIFICANCE OF ARCTIC ALGAL VEGETATION

In the Arctic, as in the Antarctic, the great rigors imposed by the climate force us to consider most attentively the factors controlling life, and the biological chain by which the more complex forms depend on the simpler ones. The first source of organic matter is vegetable, and since all animal life is dependent on it, the nature of the plant life in such a territory as that which we here consider is very pertinent. It is clear that the plant life of the exposed land becomes rapidly less as we pass northward; the forests give place to tundra, beyond which there remains little continuous vegetation. The sudden extremes of temperature and the destruct– tive gales which may affect life on land are not so sharply felt under water. In the sea great current drifts exist which carry warm waters far north, so the conditions remain fairly suitable for aquatic organisms much farther to the north than is the case with terrestrial organisms. The truly aquatic vegetation in fresh water consists only in minor degree of vascular plants, and in the sea still less.

When we examine the truly aquatic flora of cold northern regions we find it rapidly diminishes, so that, for instance, Potamogetons reach a northern

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reach a northern limit in Scandinavia, except for a few species in Greenland, etc., and Myriophyllums and Utricularias also reach only midway on the West Greenland coast, while in the sea Zostera disappears a little north of the southernmost portion. We find, however, a very considerable bulk and range of animal life dependent on the great plant group the Algae, vast in variety of species and vast in economic importance in all parts of the world, but in cold regions often the sole ultimate source of organic matter.

REPRESENTATIVE FORMS OF ARCTIC ALGAE

Algae are plants of the greatest diversity, often beautiful in form and color. Because of this wide range of pattern, it is hard to define them except in technical terms. One may generalize by stating that they all have the green pigment chlorophyll as their essential photosynthetic tool, just as land plants do, though a few decadent types may similarly lose it and in many it is concealed by accessory pigments. Then, the algae have no such system of food-conducting ducts, or vascular bundles, as is familiar in land plants. Finally, they lack the particular types of reproductive organs known as archegonia and antheridia, which many nonvascular land plants possess.

There are several major groups or classes of algae, some ten or twelve, depending on how the relationships are interpreted. This is far too many to distinguish in a general account such as this, where we will have occasion to refer to about six. If we depart from the standard nomenclatorial groupings, we find that we can designate the types much more simply as freshwater or marine, as bottom [: ] growng or as free floating (plankton) in the water. The brackish-water types are few, especially in the Arctic, and the intergrades

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between plankton and bottom-growing types are limited to very small, even microscopic organisms. In the sea the chief bottom types are often large and are of the classes of chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae (brown algae), and Rhodophyceae (red algae), although there are some Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) and Myxophyceae (Cyanophyceae or blue-green algae). The plankton types in the northern seas are almost exclusively Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyceae (peridinians), and are, therefore, quite microscopic. These are groups which must be studied and described separately, so the reader is referred to the articles “Phytoplankton” and “Algae: Planktonic Groups” in this Encyclopedia, for they are the greatest food sources in the sea, and of prime importance. While diatoms and peridinians are also important in freshwater plankton, other algae of the green and blue-green groups are very important too, and almost all forms are microscopic, though their abundance makes them a major food source. The bottom vegetation in freshwater ponds consists chiefly of organisms belonging to these groups of small species, though they are usually different from the marine species. The bottom vegetation of the sea includes numerous small forms as well as intermediate ones, and culminates in the great rockweeds and kelps several feet in length, which are so conspicuous a feature of northern shores. We will hardly concern ourselves with the microscopic marine species, most of which are diatoms.

Blue-Green. Putting aside for the present the freshwater algae, we may consider the appearance presented by the marine algae, which are more limited in the Arctic than in warmer regions. First let us deal with the blue-green algae, the least conspicuous group and the one to be expected highest on the shore, in the splahs zone above high tides, between high and low tides, or

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rarely below low tide level. The commonest will be forms like Calothrix or Rivularia , filamentous and, like the rest, microscopic as individuals, the colonies of which comprise blackish or dark blue-green velvety or gelatinous crusts of considerable extent on stones or woodwork. There will be a few others which barely discolor the rocks, and in places Hyella , which lives in and discolors the substance of mollusk shells. However, the marine blue– green algal flora of the Arctic Sea is a sparse one.

Green . The green algae also are sparingly represented. They are plants ordinarily requiring a maximum of light consistent with submergence, and so are peculiarly susceptible to the long periods of darkness and the added ice and snow cover. Since they prefer an intertidal habitat, they are subject to the abrasive action of ice, and consequently green algae are, in general, scarce in the Arctic, and inconspicuous wherever moving ice occurs. However, in some districts the large club-shaped cells of Codiolum form a close, slippery, dark-green coating on stones. Of the Ulvales we have two types, the tubular Enteromorphas of which several wide-ranging species are present, and the broad, flat blades of Ulva and Monostroma , the latter being relatively more prominent than in warmer seas. The filamentous green algae are represented by the microscopic Ulothrix , which accompanies Calothrix on the rocks, and the large bushy types Chaetomorpha and Cladophora , reaching a decimeter or more in height, which chiefly grow in protected shore pools and on littoral or sublittoral rocks.

Brown . With the remaining two major marine algal groups we cannot concern ourselves in such detail, because the variety present is too great. The brown algae or Phaeophyceae are very conspicuous in the Arctic. They would ordinarily

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appear almost exclusively in the littoral and immediate sublittoral zones. Probably because they cannot withstand ice action well enough, the Fucaceae or rockweeds alone persist in this zone in any quantity, and chiefly toward the south. The widespread Ascophyllum is one of these, and the others are chiefly members of the genus Fucus , which is represented by several species. These Fucaceae are richly branched, strap-shaped plants with inflations of the blades serving as floats, swollen fruiting tips and, in Fucus , blades marked by midribs and tufts of minute whitish hairs from minute pits in the surface.

In contrast we have bushy filamentous genera such as Ectocarous and Sphacelaria , and even some microscopic epiphytes (i.e., plants which grow upon other plants, such as Myrionema . We have also, chiefly in the upper sublittoral, a number of wide-ranging plant forms, such as crustose Ralfsia , narrow strap-shaped and foliaceous blades ( Ilea and Punctaria ), unbranched tubes ( Scytoeiphon ), soft and branching submucus types ( Aegira , Mesogloia ), or slenderly branched firmer bushy genera of larger growth ( Dictyosiphon and Desmarestia ).

The final conspicuous group of brown algae are the kelps. These are quite varied in aspect, and while occasionally they grow in the upper sublittoral, they are more often in northern seas forced down into deeper water, where their relatively long-lived blades and holdfasts may not be destroyed by the ice. The genera include especially Laminaria , stalked blades which are plane or ruffled, simple or cleft, and often two to several meters in length. Also often present are Agarum , having a broader and shorter blade, rarely a meter long, with midrib, the blade perfora c ted by a multitude of holes up to a

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centimeter in diameter, and Alaria , again a long entire blade, but with a midrib and numerous fertile leaflets at the base.

Red . The red algae or Rhodophyceae are distinctly less conspicuous on northern than on southern shores, and the plants are pretty well restricted to the sublittoral. There are plants in many of the form categories described for the brown algae. Of broad bladelike types there are not many; a few are present and vary from the delicate brown or violet-red blades of Porphyra to [: ] the larger, coarse, red, forking blades of Rhodymenia , a meter or more long. Of the tubular types there are still fewer, but branched Halosaccion and Dumontia are examples. Bushy filamentous species are more numerous, the moderate-sized, exceedingly delicate, rosy tufts of Callitham– nion contrasting with the large, coarse ones of Ceramium rubrum or the minute ones of Rhodochorton , a few millimeters high. Finally, we have the crustose species, not well represented in the brown and green algae. Hildenbrandia forms a thin orange-red coat on stones in the littoral, while the opaque white calcified crusts of various lithothamnioid types, smooth or raised into papillae or bushy branches, form masses one or two decimeters in diameter which, while they do not produce “nullipore” reefs as in the tropics, yet in less extreme northern waters sometimes grow in conspicuous quantities at considerable depths.

FACTORS CONTROLLING ALGAL VEGETATION

Recognizing, then, that we are dealing with a very major food source even when we have put the diatoms and peridines into other hands for detailed discussion, we may turn first to the marine and then to the freshwater environ– ments for discussions of their controlling conditions and plant populations.

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The only comprehensive account of these marine plants and their circumboreal distribution yet attempted is The Algae of the Arctic Sea (79). Kjellman wrote it with firsthand knowledge, since he accompanied Nordenskiöld to Spitsbergen, to Novaya Zemlya, and to northern Siberia on the Vega expedition, during 1872-80. In the following discussion, the term arctic algae will refer to types characteris– tically found in the Arctic, but that does not mean that they are exlusively arctic. The major marine flora of the Arctic is very similar around the whole circuit. The species found in northern Asia and northern America are much the same, so the questions to be answered concern, not continental floras, but the controlling conditions which limit the plants in their abundance.

Light . The first and most striking of the controlling factors is light. North of the Arctic Circle the summer season has continuous light but because of its obliquity, the light is not continuously effective under water for photosynthesis in the submerged marine algae. However, these plants are far more adapted to use light of low intensity than land plants, and make a seasonal growth quite comparable with that of similar species in temperate regions. In fact, where they can grow without interference they often grow in the greatest luxuriance. It is not surprising that they can manage with a long light period; the adjustment to the long dark winter is a much more impressive adaptation. Remembering that oblique illumination from low light near the horizon is not very effective under water, we see that the marine algae when submerged live in the dark for much of the year, or in a dim light of an intensity very much below that which such shoal-water species prefer. Furthermore, penetration of the light to the algae is by no means unimpeded. Far beyond the [: ] arctic

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night the presence of ice cuts down the light to minute proportions; for the thick shore ice, fortified by overlying snow, is an effective block.

Temperature . Unfortunately, it is hard to be certain what temperature prevails at the time and place where growth occurs. For plankton it is rela– tively easy. Surface temperatures are known for the Subarctic and much of the Arctic; they range from an average of about 7°C. at the surface in summer to 3°C. in winter near Nordkapp, but farther north the average temperatures drop, especially the winter temperatures, which generally run well below 0°C. Temperatures at various depths, too, are known for many localities, and we know that the cold generally increases with the depth (though the range is relatively slight), generally to about −1.5°, rarely to −3.0°C. or a little more. Kjellman states that the temperature at the depth where the richest algal vegetation occurs does not in general exceed 0°C. at any time of the year.

However, algae, especially nonplankton algae, are much better adapted to growing at low temperatures than other plants, and in any case in summer the actual growing temperatures for the shallow-water species (but not the deep kelp beds) may be considerably above the surface reading for the open sea. The fact that the winter temperatures, when these species are encased in ice, may be considerably lower, seems less important, for many algae may be frozen and survive a remarkable degree of cold, [: ] Even when the chief vegetative parts are destroyed, regeneration may be possible from holdfasts, or spores, and sporelings may persist. In the discussion of the algal flora of the northern coasts, it will be found that temperature is not simply correlated with latitudes, but that ocean currents alter conditions over large areas.

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MARINE FLORA OF THE ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC

Western Soviet Arctic

Novaya Zemlya . Having discussed the conditions under which the marine algae grow, it is now necessary to select a starting point for a circuit of the Arctic and an evaluation of the vegetation and controlling conditions in each sector. The area between Baffin Bay, Spitsbergen, and Norway being by far the richest and best known, and most continuous with a more temperate flora to the south, it is decided to leave this to the last, and to start the discussion with the conditions on the coast of the U.S.S.R. farther to the east. Here we find considerable differences at once, for the flora of the Barents Sea area resembles that of northern Norway and Spitsbergen, while that to the east of Novaya Zemlya is somewhat different. On the whole, the northern Soviet coast is relatively unproductive. The open character of the coast line gives little protection, and the rock character is nearly everywhere unfavorable. The numerous great rivers which discharge into the Arctic Sea along this line tend to reduce the salinity of the surface water. This is especially marked in the eastern part of the Kara Sea and the western Siberian Sea where the salinity down to the level where the algae would grow is essentially less than the proportion characteristic for the Arctic, or suitable for a general flora of marine algae. These rivers also affect the temperature of the water, as during a good part of the year the river is warmer than the sea, with the result that the surface inshore water is not only less salty but decidedly warmer than that offshore. The tides are not great, being extremely slight in the eastern part, but somewhat greater about Novaya Zemlya, where they

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produce violent currents in the Mathochkin Shar Strait, which separates the islands, with accompanying severe ice action.

Novaya Zemlya . Our knowledge of this district is very incomplete, and we know details only regarding Novaya Zemlya and parts of the Kara Sea. [: ] Kjellman (86; 79) and Sinova (147) have made the most significant contributions. A sparse literature in Russian, to which some references have appeared in Sinova’s work, is unfortunately unsummarized and not readily inaccessible. The algal flora is poor in variety and very deficient over much of the coast, being richest in the western and Novaya Zemlya areas. Sinova reports 123 species of marine algae for Novaya Zemlya and nearby shores — far more than are re– ported by Kjellman. The northeast coast is relatively inaccessible, and glacier-bordered. However, the coast immediately northeast and northwest of Matochkin Shar has proved unexpectedly rich. The littoral was [: ] nearly bare, with some Urospora high on the rocks and Enteromorpha a little lower down, but at the lowest littoral level some dwarfed Fuci, Chordaria and Pylaiella appear. In the sublittoral appear the kelps: two Laminarias, three Alarias, Phyllaria lorea (which was luxuriant at 77° N. latitude), a Polysiphonia, two Delesserias, and a Phyllophora alone were common, but in some places Lithothamnia were also frequent. Of this list, only Phyllaria lorea (if dis– tinct from P. dermatodea ) is probably strictly an arctic plant, and there are few strictly arctic among the less notable species. There are no prominent species peculiar to these islands, or indeed to the whole Siberian mainland coast.

The Kara Sea . In the western part of the Kara Sea, Euthora , elsewhere a minor floristic element, becomes abundant. The chief peculiarity of the Siberian

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kelp flora east of Novaya Zemlya is the change in the Alarias, as Alaria membranacea and A. pylaii are replaced by A. dolichorachis , A. elliptica , and A. oblonga . There are a few species lacking on the American side which are present here, but they are represented in the northern Norwegian or Spitsbergen floras. Along the general Siberian coast littoral algae appear to be nearly absent, and kelps even in rather deep water are seldom met with. Conditions are somewhat better than usual in the eastern parts of the Kara Sea at Taimyr Island and east of Cape Bolshoi Baranov in the East Siberian Sea.

Eastern Soviet Arctic

With the approach to 170° W. longitude and Bering Strait, one is tempted to look for a major change in the flora, for if most of the plants so far met have been of North Atlantic affinities, here i w ^ s ^ the possible point of dis– persal of a major North Pacific element. No such change occurs. The prominent elements in the marine flora continue the same. Inspection of Kjellman’s list shows no conjunction of northern Pacific, Siberian, and northwestern American records except of very wide-rang ^ i ^ ng types, and the list of Collins (33) offers only Chondrus affinis , Pterosiphonia bipinnata , and Rhodomela larix as northern Pacific forms which occur in the American Arctic but not the Siberian. Of course, the field work in this territory has been altogether inadequate, but so far as the records go there is little to suggest a spread from the Pacific into the Arctic or vice versa. A close study of the flora and vegeta– tion on both sides of Bering Strait from the latitude of St. Lawrence Island northward is sorely needed, to define sharply the limits of the floras. We do know that the algal floras of the Okhotsk Sea (138), Kamchatka (151), and

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the Gulf of Alaska (139) are clearly subarctic, having their chief relation– ships with the floras to the south, and little in common with the arctic flora.

North American Region

The conditions for algal growth on the American coast toward the west are, like those of northern Eurasia, generally unfavorable. However, there are no great rivers except the Mackenzie River (at 135° W. long.), so the salinity and temperatures are relatively little affected from this source. The coast is in general open and seldom of suitable rocks, so that the substratum is unfavor– able. The additions made by Collins from the Canadian Arctic Expedition raise the American records slightly, but this coast and that of Siberia still seem to possess the poorest floras of the Arctic. As the stations investigated poorly represent the whole, we note the need for detailed study, especially by dredging, e.g., in Kotzebue Sound, east and west from Point Barrow, west of the Mackenzie Delta, and east to both the north and south shores of Amund– sen Gulf, where as stations investigated by Collins and. What may occur to the north on the many great islands is practically unknown. It is not until we pass Melville Peninsula and have the contrast of the subarctic Hudson Bay to the south and Baffin Bay to the north, that substantial information regard– ing the marine algae is again available.

Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait . Although from its latitude Hudson Bay cannot be considered arctic, its connection with the Atlantic is through the arctic algal zone, and its poverty of opportunity for the growth of algae resembles much of the Arctic. The literature available is not extensive, Setchell and Collins (143) in a short paper, Howe (72), and Polunin (124a) report on the

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Canadian Arctic Expedition materials. The first paper dealt with 28 algae in material from Depot Island in the north and James Bay in the south; Howe had material from James Bay and as far north as Richmond Gulf on the eastern side, so that he was able to increase that total to 61 species and varieties — about a fourth as many as occur in Baffin Bay to the northeast. There is little in– formation about luxuriance, most of the material having been altogether frag– mentary, but the writer, from this and other sources, gathers that the character of the shore and bottom is generally soft and not suitable for good algal development. One notes a scarcity of kelp, Chorda and a fragment of Alaria alone being recorded, and only one Fucus . Most of the material was secured by dredging, and some shallow-water types ( Sphacelaria , Pylaiella , Chordaria , etc.) occurred at the surprising depth of 18 meters. A few plants, hitherto absent in our circuit, presage the appearance of North Atlantic and northern Norwegian algae, such as Ralfsia deusta and Turnerella pennyi .

Labrador and Newfoundland . Finally, before turning to the North for a consideration of the relatively rich flora there, we should note the scanty information avaiable regarding the subarctic flora of Labrador and Newfoundland. The Labrador Peninsula is represented by one paper (50) dealing with the Ungava Bay algae of L. M. Turner and the Howgate Polar Expedition algae of L. Kumlien from nearby. The records are for the most part of types common to the Arctic, including about 30 species, among which kelps are chiefly represented by Alaria . Newfoundland many years ago was studied by De la Pylaie, and his classical observations (37; 36) remain the last catalogues, too old by far to be currently useful. The flora is subarctic in general, but several typically arctic species, such as Polysiphonia arctica , occur there; we badly need a modern study, particularly of the northeastern portions.

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Baffin Bay and West Greenland

The Baffin Bay area represents one of the richer algal districts of the Arctic. Northward from Hudson Strait on the American side, the shore of Baffin Island is considerably dissected, and the dissected shore line of Greenland extends even farther north, which all favors algal growth. The American side has been very little studied, but there are a few reports for Baffin, Devon, and Ellesmere Islands recently especially those of Rosenvinge (132), Lund (107), and Polunin (124a). The south coast of Ellesmere Island frequently has a soft bottom in the fjords and algal growth is poor, but in Smith Sound the bottom is rocky and supports good vegetation; however, good littoral vegetation has not been reported anywhere. Laminarias appear as far north as Flagler Fjord (79° 04′ N.lat.).

The Greenland side is quite well known (131; 135; 130; 132; 107). The algal flora is an extension of the cold North Atlantic types, with many species omitted and several more truly arctic ones introduced; the numbers of the arctic and of the North Atlantic kinds are about equal, the subarctic element being somewhat greater than either of the others. Considering the small amount of coast involved, the last-mentioned is richer than might be expected. Hard rocks help support the algal population, and there is open water on the West Greenland coast for a considerable annual period quite far to the north, with fairly high tides. In spite of the ice and tidal action, the dissected Green– land shores favor the littoral development of Fuci, and these abound unusually far to the north. Arctic Alarias and Laminarias occur as far north as Uper– nivik (nearly 73″ N.lat.), and have been formed loose on Bjørling Island far from the mainland (76°43′ N.lat.). At Foulke Fjord (78° 18′ N.lat.), there

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have been reported a littoral Enteromorpha zone and at the low tide line a continuous belt of Fucus , with two species of Laminaria in deep water.

The flora of the Baffin Bay area is clearly related with that of the American coast to the south, and with that of Iceland to the east. Currents from Iceland sweep around the south coast of Greenland, then curve to the north, before swinging toward Labrador and the south. In Baffin Bay and Davis Strait the currents are therefore tending to flow south, and would not be expected to bring American algae into the area; under conditions such as obtain at present, forms from Iceland and the east might perhaps reach the boundaries of the territory; but it is more likely that the similarity of the Baffin Bay flora to the vegetation of the south is due to spread from the north than vice versa.

East Greenland

East Greenland would seem much less hospitable to algae than West Green– land, for the pack ice is driven against the coast by the current from the Greenland Sea, deflected by the warm current tending northward from the North Atlantic. There was little information available from the early arctic reports, but we know considerably more now, and the flora as reported appears only about one-eighth poorer in the east — for which the lesser proportion of brown and green algae, forms growing in shallow water, may account. The coast is now well reported upon in a preliminary way, for Amdrup’s Expedition (76) carried the stations to 74°32′ N. latitude, while the Scoresby Sound Commission, 1932 expedition, and the Danmark expedition of 1906-08 (136; 133) carried them from about 68° to 76°30′ N. latitude, about Danmarks Navn, but with notes from farther north. At Lake Fjord in the south (66°21′ N.lat.), there is very good

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littoral development of fuci and kelps, but the fuci grow a few meters below low tide line instead of in the littoral, and the kelps are still lower. There is a good vegetation of Lithothamnia at considerable depths, and such noncalcareous red algae as Turnerella , Phycodrys , Phvllophora , and Polysiphonia arctica . there were algae in clumps frozen in the ice at Cap Am e ^ é ^ lie (77°32′ N.lat.), and this seems the limit of recorded living specimens on this side, though there were fragments on the ice at the upper limit of observations, Hyde Fjord (83°15′ N.lat.). There are about as many species at Danmarks Havn as are known from Scoresby Sound (70° 21′ N.lat.), and they were the same species, in general, although with a few notable omissions, such as Scaphosphora, Chordaria , Dictyosiphon , Punctaria , and Chaetomorpha . The number of North Atlantic species is far smaller in northeast Greenland, and the whole flora is more markedly arctic because of this omission.

Iceland

Iceland, lying close to eastern Greenland as it does, presents sharply contrasting conditions for algal growth. The north coast is highly dissected, but receives directly the cold Greenland Sea current bringing the pack ice south in summer. The south coast is simpler, and receives the remnant of the warmer current coming north from the mid-Atlantic, which tends to deflect the ice westward toward Greenland. As this is a long-settled community with rela– tively accessible coast, its vegetation is perhaps better known than that of any other northern area, but the algae tend to be less known than the land plants. Strőmfelt (163) did the pioneering work, Børgesen and J o ^ ó ^ nsson (24; 78) a thorough study, reporting 200 species, with an elaborate analysis of the phytogeographic relationships. Where the coast is rocky in Iceland, the rocks

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are chiefly fissured and eroded basalt; sometimes dolerite; sometimes on the south, however, volcanic tuff. More than half the flora (124 species) is un– distinctive, appearing in all suitable areas on the island. The small arctic group of 11 species, including Turnerella , Polysiphonia arctica , and only Laminaria nigripes to represent the great arctic kelp vegetation of Baffin Bay, appear almost exclusively on the north and east coasts, where the cold currents prevail and the tides are [: ] least, being only 0.76 to 2.3 meters in range. Here the subarctic elements dominate, as they do in northeast Iceland also. However, the southwest coast is more boreal, though with a considerable sub– arctic element, the warm boreal being represented by such genera as Chondrus, Bonnemaisonia , and Leathesia . This element is barely represented in northern Iceland and is absent in the east. On the south coast, the greater, eastern portion is sandy and not very productive of algae, but the western border is better. The southwest coast is rocky and has the greatest [: ] tides, of 1.2 to 4.3 meters. In the southwest, the flora is much like that on the small rocky area of the south coast. As a whole the flora resembles that of Finmark, with a tendency for the eastern flora to resemble that of the White Sea in its subarctic character, while that of the south and southwest resembles the flora of the Faeroes.

Jan Mayen

The small arctic island of Jan Mayen, with a very inhospitable climate, shows a comparatively well-developed marine flora, clearly arctic in dominant characters, which we may piece together from the papers of Kjellman (88), Rosenvinge (129) and others. None of the collections are adequate to define the distribution of the vegetation on the coast. Fuci seem to grow [: ] at

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considerable depths (about 5 meters); kelps at 5 to 20 meters; Polysiphonia and abundant Turnerella still deeper at 50 meters; and the deepest reported vegetation of Phycodrys and Pantoneura at 110 to 118 meters. This seems to be the usual shift in growth habit in the Arctic where there is considerable risk of abrasion by floating ice. Kjellman considers the flora to be inter– mediate between that of East Greenland and Spitsbergen, but peculiar in several respects, and with a few species which he considered new and endemic. The variety of kelps and the presence of Polysiphonia arctica , Turperella , etc., testify to the arctic characters, as does the absence of the plants which Jonsson ascribes to the boreal groups.

The Faeroes

The Faeroes resemble southwestern Iceland in flora, but with an even stronger warm boreal element. There is still a very small arctic element, and the strong subarctic fraction accounts for more than one-fourth of the species, but the warm Atlantic current which sweeps around these islands places them in a marine climate definitely milder than latitude would suggest, and gives them a considerable number of warm boreal species which are absent from southern Greenland. The sea temperature is reported to average 5.5°C. in the late winter about Thorshavn, and about 10.3°C. in the late summer. The flora has been thoroughly studied by Børgesen (25/ 27). The vegetation is rather luxuriant, with a large intertidal growth of Fuci , Porphyra , Gigartina , and Rhodymenia , while Laminaria and Alaria may even be exposed at spring tides. The algal growth here is sufficiently rich to promise direct utilization (28), as in the Orkneys. The Shetland Islands, only a little farther south, lack the arctic floral element altogether, and the subarctic elements becomes much less important than the warm boreal element, so reversing the situation found in the Faeroes.

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Northern Coast of Norway

The coast of Norway, lying in the latitudes of south and central Green– land, offers a marked floristic contrast to the latter. Receiving as it does a good measure of the warm current from the North Atlantic, which swings around into Barents Sea, we find that the southern portion has a very distinct boreal character; but when Nordland Fylke is reached a quarter of the species are sub– arctic, and in the northernmost Finmark Fylke the change is even more marked, so that even Kjellman (79b) considers the whale area north of the Arctic Circle to be in the Norwegian Polar Sea, and the adjoining coast of Finland and western Russia to front floristically on the Murman Sea.

To the north of the Norwegian Polar Sea is the Spitsbergen Sea, which floristically is much more extreme in its arctic character. The Norwegian flora clearly has its affinity with the North Atlantic flora, but in the cold arctic element may be accounted several species, especially in Monostroma , which are not known elsewhere. A special aspect is given to the vegetation by the preva– lence of Phyllaria dermatodea , which replaces in the upper sublittoral the Laminaria and Alaria vegetation of Greenland, though these genera are not absent. Several species occur in northern Norway which are not found on the more ice– bound shores, and some, like Porphyra [: ] amplissima , reach unusual size. There is abundance and variety of Fucus species and other rockweeds.

West Soviet Arctic (Murman Sea)

The Murman Sea shows the transition from the rather rich flora of the Nor– wegian Polar Sea, with its prominent littoral flora of rockweeds and other types, to the sparse flora of the Siberian coast which lacks significant littoral

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vegetation. When we compare the list of species we find that the chief charac– teristic is a reduction in the variety, for by Kjellman’s listing, the Murman Sea flora is much less than half as rich as that of northern Norway. There are a few new types, perhaps a score, but these do not much reduce the loss. In the western area and the White Sea, the Fuci are still prominent, though Himanthalia and Halidrys are gone; but in the eastern area, Ascophyllum and Pelvctia have left the flora, only two species of Fucus remaining instead of the eight or nine which according to his 500 classification occur in Norway. Though still in the flora, Rhodymenia has shifted to a sublittoral habitat. Certain other forms become more prominent. Forming brown crusts on the rocks, we find Ralfsia deusta widely distributed, while Pantoneura , Halosaccion , and Euthora become common and luxuriant. The more truly arctic additions to the flora do not appear in the White Sea and western area, but rather in the east, with the advent or marked increase in the prominence of Haplospora, Phyllaria lorea, Laminaria nigripes , L.fissilis , and Sarcophyllis , and the presence of d ^ e ^ structive ice action which presages the shifting of the brown algal flora into deep water, as its constitution shifts from a rockweed-dominated to a kelp-dominated list.

Spitsbergen

The knowledge we have of the flora of Spitsbergen rests mostly on the important studies of Agardh (4; 2) and Kjellman (82; 84; 79), both most expert phycologists. These islands lie across the line of 80° N. latitude, being mostly below it, while Franz Josef Land lies mostly to the north of it, with marine algal flora unrecorded. The shore line of Spitsbergen is much dissected, the character of the rocks being uneven as regards suitability for algal growth; in great part they are of schists and poor, the proximity to the arctic ice

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fields and the position well within the area of drifting pack ice assuring conditions suitable only for a strongly arctic vegetation. The flora is not a very poor one, though somewhat smaller than that of [: ] northern Norway; but it is much more extensive than that developed on the Siberian coast. Certain general features are apparent. First, it is rare to find many plants in the littoral, although about 14 species have been so reported, all sporadicall ; y. There are a few fairly characteristic groupings in deeper water. One, based on Fucus evanescens and Rhodomela Lycopodioides , with Polsyiphonia arctica and other species, is quite often met at a few meters depth. Another, found occa– sionally at 9 to 27 meters depth, is based on Lithoderma , associated with Phyllophora interrupta , Laminaria solidungula , etc. In fact, the L. solidungula vegetation is common and luxuriant in Spitsbergen. Another feature is the occasional presence and apparent continuing growth in detached masses on the bottom, often in huge bulk, of normally attached species, such as Phyllophora interrupta , Desmarestia aculeata , and Kallymenia rosea .

The relations of the Spitsbergen flora are clearly with that of West Green– land and arctic Ame b rica, rather than with Siberia, those species occurring in common with Siberia being generally forms of wide range. Currents bring to the shores of south Spitsbergen large quantities of debris of southern, often recognizably Norwegian origin, and algal masses such as Ascophyllum bearing Polysiphonia lanosa are included, but no boreal element is evident in the flora. The fact that the temperature is constantly below even that of the northermost coast of Norway would clearly put such plants at a disadvantage.

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SUMMARY OF MARINE ALGAL VEGETATION

The opinion expressed by Kjellman that the arctic algal flora is in its distinctive features endemic, evolved and dispersed within the arctic seas, seems to have been accepted by most later workers. However, Simmons (146) considers that, after the evolution of a Tertiary arctic algal flora, it was largely, or perhaps entirely, driven southward by the progress of glaciation, but that some representatives afterward moved back. It does not seem that any signifi– cant interchange with the Pacific has occurred. The fact that several charac– teristic species also occur well down the American coast suggests more strongly a dispersal from the Arctic rather than introduction into it. However, it must be realized that this view can apply only to the species, not the genera or families to which they belong, which are often very wide-ranging, with the time of their introduction into the Arctic or dispersal from it accordingly remote. There are only a very few endemic genera, and some of these are of doubtful worth.

Of distinctive ecological aspects, perhaps the intertidal rockweed vegetation so rich in the Norwegian north as well as in deep water on more northern coasts, the Lithoderma vegetation and the kelp vegetation which is of very wide range in deep water, are the best examples. The fact that the vegetation in deep water can develop well even when it is seasonally snow– and ice-shielded, far beyond the winter-long night, from even the feeble nor– thern daylight, and at temperatures seldom above zero centigrade, is the most striking physiological adaptation. Economically there is little promise of a direct utilization of algae in the Arctic proper, where the biological yield must be harvested through the cycle of animals in the sea. However, in the

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Subarctic, where the littoral growth is heavy or the sublittoral accessible, the recent resurgence of utilization of kelp for alginic acid and of red algae for various gels may well encourage exploitation.

The records of northern peoples using seaweeds for food are few and unsatis– factory. That people in the tropics use them is well known; so do people in temperate regions, notably the Asiatics. There is nothing about the coarser arctic species which would indicate that they could not safely be eaten, with the minor exception, probably, of the Desmarestias. Where the elaborate preparation accorded them by the Japanese is impossible they could simply be boiled with other foods to furnish pleasing bulk and texture, and in some cases a modifying flavor. Kelps, Porphyra , and Chondrus are groups which so suggest themselves. The nutri– tive value is probably small, but this is true of many foods; other virtues must be given due weight.

Kjellman (79) expresses his opinion of the marine algal flora in the Arctic very aptly at one point in his discussion: “the most prominent features in the general aspect of the arctic marine Flora are scarcity of individuals, monotony and luxuriancy.”

FRESHWATER ALGAL VEGETATION

The arctic freshwater algal vegetation offers a very different problem from that of the marine algae. In the first place the expectation of different floras in different sectors is much less, freshwater algae having, in general, very wide ranges. Then we have the special problem of the similarity of arctic and alpine floras. Finally, there is much less literature available, and much of it deals

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only with the areas of interest to Scandinavian scientists. While we have many more species listed, less is told about even the most characteristic individual species among them.

The arctic freshwater vegetation may be expected to be the same in all general features, whether in Greenland, northwestern Europe, Russia, or Alaska. There will be reports of endemic species, of course, but these do not appear in any part of the world to play a distinctive role. Therefore, the important factors are those which produce special environmental conditions and so cause a characteristic type of flora, which may be expected in various parts of the Arctic.

The freshwater algal genera found in arctic regions differ very little from those found in milder zones. The difference lies not in the genera, or even in the species, but in the way particular types dominate their habitats. We have the same types of filamentous algae; Nostoc , Spirogvra , Zygnema , Cladophora , Rhizoclonium , of unicellular genera such as [: ] Gloeocapsa , Cosmarium , of diatoms, and of peridinians. However, in arctic areas among desmids Cosmaria are disproportionately common, and many of the “arctic” species of desmid lie in Cosmarium , whereas Euastra and some others are rela– tively scarce. Indeed, it is only in the specialized groups of desmids that much prospect exists of designating phytogeographic areas (Boldt 1887).

Algae may notably color the damp rocks and soil, because of the per– sisting humidity. On the snow they produce the red, green, and brown condi– tions so often noted in accounts of travel in mountains and arctic lands. We know little of an exact quantitative nature regarding the productivity of arctic lakes, but we know that in many subarctic areas the fish production

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of lakes and streams is very generous, and the algae of the subarctic regions are largely responsible for this. Where the lakes are too shallow for produc– tion of major fish, algae and submerged mosses and vascular plants (often not true aquatic genera) will serve as the food source for the lesser fauna.

Ice and Snow Fields . Freshwater algal habitats may be divided into several categories, for they are responsive to many factors, such as temperature, aera– tion, pH, available calcium or nitrogen, and light. As these factors have been little studied in the Arctic, we had best confine ourselves to a brief mention of a few characteristic aspects. First, let us consider the ice and snow flora. This has chiefly been studied in alpine and subarctic areas [: ] [: ] (173; 90), but the observations may be extrapolated to the arctic situations. Since ice and snow organisms cannot be studied well except in the living state, and few explorers in the Arctic have taken such care as to do this, our best knowledge of them comes from the snow fields of mountains parts of Alaska, Switzerland, and Scandinavia. But comparable conditions in general prevail in the Arctic, and the at least seasonal continuity of habitat has tended to a general distribution of the algae concerned, producing a similarity of ice and snow flora wherever any is known, although there are a number of different species in the Antarctic.

The classical organism concerned in coloring snow is Chlamydomonas nivalis , which most often causes red snow, and is well known in the Arctic. On the old snow fields, resting cells of this plant growing near the surface are sufficiently abundant to color it, even to a conspicuous pink. Obviously, it multiplies at about zero centigrade. Other red-snow algae are found, as C. sanguinea and Smithsoniomonas abbottii . Characteristic organisms produce green and yellow

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snow, as Scotiella . Organisms characteristically forming an ice flora rather than one on snow are Ancyclonema and Mesotaenium , producing a purplish-brown color, the former in particular being reported from Greenland. Numerous other species are minor but normal constituents of the snow and ice flora, which is by no means an inconsiderable source of organic matter, involving, as it may, great areas. In the Arctic the long periods of darkness probably limit growth more than the cold.

Wet Rocks and Ground . Secondly, we may consider the flora of wet rocks and ground. These are sometimes provided with gelatinous sheaths and so become resistan se ^ t ^ to drying, but the climate of much of the Subarctic and Arctic in summer favors algal growth in such situations. The daytime surface temperatures rise rapidly; the stones lose heat slowly in the evening. There is often abundant water from springs, bogland, melting snow, etc. on stones, red colora– tion may be due to Glosocapsa , blue-green to Phormidium , and grass-green to Rhizoclonium. One of the notable features of subarctic and arctic puddles and wet ground is the development of Nostoc , especially N. commune colonies, which have appeared in collections from many countries, including many seen by the writer from Arctic America.

Brooks and Streams . Thirdly, there is the flora of brooks and streams. In great part the elements will be like those of alpine districts, and somewhat different from those of temperate countries. Notable features are the production of abundant brown gelatinous unpleasant-smelling streamers of Hydrurus , and of flat green blades of Prasiola fluviatilis . We may even have Batrachospermum tufts, e.g., in Greenland. [: ] Bordering the brooks and rivulets, Mougeotia , Zygnema , Vaucheria , and diatoms may form green or brown mats.

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Lakes . The floras of deep lakes and of shallow ones may differ markedly, particularly in the more arctic stations, as the shallow ones tend to thaw more rapidly and completely. The algal flora in these shallow ponds is often in– conspicuous, and it may require a close inspection to see that the bottom is completely covered with a living carpet. The margin, usually subject to some variation in submergence, may support a dense dark-brown felt of Stigonema or Scytonema , which may extend out over the bottom. However, here the vegetation is often in the form of a nondescript sludge which, if carefully examined, will prove to be largely of gelatinous unicellular algae, chiefly blue-greens. When such ponds are continuously exposed to sunlight they become quite warm, favor– ing such groups of algae.

The algae are entirely able to withstand freezing and to take advantage of even a few hours of thawing for rapid growth (68); in fact, a thin ice cover probably does not inhibit growth, though full encasement and darkening by winter snow no doubt ends activity for a season. It is not known just what species can withstand freezing in the vegetative state, and to what degree. One notes in alpine areas a massive development of Zygnema aplanospores, but commonly complete absence of zygospores, suggesting that they can well withstand freezing in the vegetative state.

Though net hauls have occasionally been taken, true plankton studies of arctic lakes are nearly lacking, and not enough is known upon which to generalize. Børgesen and Ostenfeld ( 25 ^ 29b ^ ) report on the plankton of one deep lake in the relatively temperate Orkneys; it was dominated by the diatom Asterionella , with some Dinobryon , and with the diatoms Tabellaria and Fragilaria , the desmids Xanthidium and Staurastrum (four species), and Sphaerocystis , all frequent on

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occasion. There is nothing peculiar about this. The area is hardly even sub– arctic, to be sure. Strøm reports (159) various subarctic, alpine, and sub– alpine lakes with similar floras in which diatoms, Dinobryon , Sphaerocystis , and Anabaena were the important plant elements; earlier (160); in discussing some larger arctic-alpine lakes, he reported from these a very meager plankton flora.

Soil. The algae of the soil have been studied both in Iceland and Greenland. Petersen extended his studies of surface-growing (but not submerged) algae (121) to an analysis of the subsurface soil of virgin and cultivated areas (124). The soil contains in part species more or less peculiar to it, in part species that may appear in surface waters. The dampness of the soil was found to be a vital ecological factor in Iceland, a much larger population developing in damp soil. Exposure to light was also important, soil with a heavy moss or phanerogamic cover being unfavorable. The degree of acidity of the soil and the persistence of snow cover seemed relatively unimportant.

ALGAL FLORAS OF VARIOUS REGIONS

Swedish Lappmark . Swedish Lappmark would scarcely deserve consideration were it not for the valuable study of Borge (14) on the northernmost part at 68°20' N. latitude in the Torne Träsk area at about 345 meters elevation. Borge’s account of 442 kinds of freshwater algae is exceptionally informative. In the snow fields of the area, red snow is reported to be very common, as it is in the Sarek Mountains (161). Hydrurus is reported in several places; desmids are ex– ceedingly varied but with southern forms by no means scarce; Pediastrum braunii is widespread, but although Stigonemas are reported several times, there is no

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indication that they are striking elements in the flora, as they are in high mountains in Canada (165). The Norwegian reports (158; 157; 159) are chiefly from alpine and southern areas, but make the Scandinavian Peninsula phycologi– cally very well known.

Finland . Only in its northernmost part can Finland be considered subarctic. [: ] Cedercreutz (30; 31) gives the best account from here. he reports an arctic– alpine element of substantial extent, involving 16 Cosmarium species among desmids, and Pediastrum braunii , and considers that this high proportion of Cosmaria (43 per cent on the Fisher Peninsula) is strong evidence of arctic character.

The Soviet Arctic . The Soviet Arctic has not been well surveyed for fresh– water algae, and, since even a reconnaissance would require far more detailed collecting than for marine algae, the situation is very obscure. In the west– central and southeastern parts of the Murmansk region, the reports given by Kosinskaia (94; 95) deal especially with desmids; the flora is rather rich and not particularly arctic, with several Micrasterias and Euastrum species. The desmids alone have been studies at several islands and stations near the arctic coast [: ] (92), from the Kara Sea to the Bering Sea. The whole character is arctic, with no Micrasterias, few Closteria and Euastra, but very many Cosmaria (50 species).

Jan Mayen, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land . The arctic islands of Jan Mayen, Novaya Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land have all been studied and sere reported upon by the beginning of the twentieth century (98; 171 ^ a ^ ; 93), in some cases by several expeditions, but little has appeared recently. Large lakes are not a feature of these islands, and so the algal flora tends to be one of wet rocks,

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marshy ground, and snow fields, exhibiting rather little variety. The flora is strongly arctic; for instance on Franz Josef Land, there are, in desmids, no species of Micrasterias or Closterium, but many Cosmaria, and Prasiola, Gloeocapea, and especially Nostoc populations are, as usual, common.

Spitsbergen . Spitsbergen has been well studies by Borge (16). The flora is sharply arctic. Hydrurus and Prasiola fluviatilis are found in streams. On snow fields, Chlamydomonas nivalis , Raphidonema , and Ancyclonema are reported, producing characteristic colorations. Though scarce, Pediastrum braunii is re– ported. Other, subaerial, Prasiolas are reported on rocks. Among desmids, Micra – sterias is absent, and there is a wealth of Cosmaria. The hot springs of [: ] Spitsbergen, with temperatures from 20.0° to −28.3° C. in a latitude of 79°25′30″ N., are a special feature of the island which has been examined by Strøm (162). They support quite a large algal flora, including a local from the Chara aspera, a genus otherwise apparently unknown so far north.

The Faeroes . Of the Faeroes the best account is given by Børgesen (24). On the whole he finds the relations of the freshwater algae to be strongest with the west European flora, except in that area of the islands where the arctic– alpine phanerogams appear. Here there is, in desmids, a strong Cosmarium contin– gent of the type common in the North. In streams Hyudrurus is common, and, even in a subalpine stream, Enteromorpha . Though not a feature of alpine flovas, in the Faeroes, Cladophora forms colonies in the lakes. The Sphagnum bogs and Myriophyllum communities were rich in algal species. Among notable aerial algae, we have an important vegetation of Prasiola on rocks.

Iceland . Icelandic freshwater algae have been quite extensively studied. The general flora, northern in character, needs little additional mention. The most

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distinctive features appear in the studies of the more or less exposed algal colonies (120; 121). In spite of the prevailing damp, algae on shrubs, masonry, woodwork were not evident. On turf walls Prasiola was common. Among the hillocks of the myri, such blue-green algae as Stigonema and Scytonema were common. Meadows near the sea that were occasionally flooded by salt water were commonly covered with Vaucheria . Shady mountain clefts were dominated by desmids and diatoms. About the margins of caves there was much Trentepohlia . Bird cliffs were not unexpectedly dominated by Prasiola , which favors areas besprinkled by bird dung, and species of blue-green algae. Hot springs as on Spitsbergen are a feature of the country; blue-green algae were abundant in them.

Greenland . Greenland in its southern flora partakes much of the character of Iceland and Scandinavia, and space cannot be spared to discuss it. The more northern portion has been dealt with by Børgesen (23) and Petersen (122), the first with samples from about Danmarks Havn [: ] (76°46′ N.lat.), and the second from 81°15′ to 83°06′ N. latitude, which appears to be the northern limit of land samples of freshwater algae to date. At 76° there was quite a varied flora. The desmids as usual were distinctive, with [: ] Cosmarium dominating (42 species), Staurastrum not far behind, Euastrum (4), and Closterium (2); Micrasterias were absent. Common and often large Nostoc commune is reported. At the more northern latitude unfortunately the samples were not made from very suitable stations, and desmids were few, but the blue-green algae and diatoms were very well represented. Even on the old ice of the fjord, the diatoms were freshwater species. Among blue-green algae Nostoc commune again appears, from the border of the inland ice; Gloeocapsa and Phormidium are prominent, and, depositing lime on the bottom of a stream, even Schizothrix .

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The American Arctic . The American Arctic at the time of writing (1948 was too little known for a report on the algal flora to be completely comprehensive. To the southeast we know (166; 167) that the freshwater algal flora of Newfound– land has quite a few arctic species, but the variety of Euastra and Micrasterias found there makes it clear that the arctic floral characteristics do not pre– dominate. Westward, only Lowe (106) reporting on Canadian Arctic Expedition (1913-18) algae from the arctic coast of Alaska gives any substantial report. As was to have been expected, the one species of Micrasterias reported was rare, Euastrum uncommon, but Closterium was represented by several species and Cosmarium [: ] dominated as usual (about 40 species), so that the indicator value of the desmids is again shown. The Nostoc vegetation was prominent, as the writer has found it represented also in samples from Chesterfield Inlet, Iguliguar Island, Sarpic Island, and Southampton Island in Hudson Bay; Winter Island to the north, Cape Wostenholme, Cape Dorset, and Lake Harbour in Hudson Strait; and Minto Inlet on Victoria Island.

SUMMARY OF FRESHWATER ALGAL VEGETATION

In summary of the freshwater algal distribution, one may say that as far as land is known to go to the north, and is even briefly exposed by melting of ice and snow in the summer, there are suitable conditions and a freshwater algal flora. A very little more exposure, as at Danmarks Havn and Franz Josef Land, gives a substantial variety. On snow and ice there is also a varied flora, but very specialized and relatively small. This flora is pretty uniform about the whole arctic circuit, but we do not know much of its distribution off the land masses, on the sea ice and the snow which may lie on it. The terrestrial

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and aquatic algae of the land masses also show little distinctive variety in the different geographical areas apart from that controlled by local climate. The species concerned are seldom exclusively arctic in distribution, with some notable exceptions in the desmids. Even here, the most distinctive feature is the dominance of Cosmarium and considerable suppression of certain other genera. Among subaerial green alage, Prasiola is important. Among blue-green algae we not the abundance of Gloeocapsa and especially of Nostoc — not in variety but of individuals. On the whole one can say that, in terms of reducing variety and abundance, freshwater algae are among the slowest of plants to respond to the repressions of the arctic climate.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Agardh, J.C. “Alger insammlade pa Grönland of Dr Sv. Barggren och P. Oberg, bestämda af Prof. J. G. Agardh. — Redogorelse för en expedition till Grönland ar 1870 af A. E. Nordenskiöld, Bilaga II,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers. Förh . vol.27, pp.1080-81, 1871.

2. ----. “Birdrag til kännedomen of Spetsbergens Alger, jemte Tilläg,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl, vol.7, no.8, pp.1-49, 1868.

3. ----. “Bidrag till kännedomen of Grőnlands Laminarieer och Fucaceer,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl . Vol.10, no.8, pp.1-31, 1872.

4. ----. Om Spetsbergens Alger . Lund, Akademisk Program, 1862.

5. Ashmead, S. “Alage. Enumeration of arctic plants collected by Dr. J. J. Hayes in his exploration of Smith’s Sound between parallels 78th and 82nd during the months of July, August and beginning of September 1861,” Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. Proc . vol.96, 1864.

6. ----. “Plants from Smith’s Sound. Alage,” Jones, T.R., Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland , London, 1875, p.255

7. Babington, C. “Lichens from Barrow and Davis Straits…alga,” Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland . 1875.

8. Bachmann, H. “Beiträge zur Algenflora des Susswassers von Westgrönland,” Nitt. Naturf, Ges. Luzern , vol.8, pp.1-181, 1921.

9. Bell, H.P. and MacFarlane, C. “Marine algae from Hudson Bay,” Contri. Canada . Biol. & Fish. Vol.8, no.3, pp.65-68, 1933.

10. Berggren, S. “Alger fran Grönlands inlandsis,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers . Förh . vol.28, no.2, pp.293-96, 1871.

11. Boldt, R. “Deamideer fran Grönland,” Ibid ., vol.13, no.3, 5, pp.1-48, 1888.

12. ----. “Grundrragen af Desmidieernas Utbredning i Norden,” Svenska Veten– skapsakad. Bihang. Handl. Vol.13, no.3,6, pp.1-110, 1887.

13. ----. “Nagra sötvattens-alger fran Grönland,” Botaniska Notiser , 1893, pp.156-8, 1893.

14. Borge, O. “Beiträge zur Algenflora von Schweden, 2. Die Algenflora um den Torne-Trasksee in Schwedish-Lappland,” Botaniska Notiser , pp.1-110, 1913.

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15. ----. “Chlorophyllophyceer fran Norska Finmarken, “Svenska Vetenskap– sakad. Bihang. Handl . Vol.17, no.3, 4, pp.1-15, 1892.

16. ----. “Die Sűsswasseralgenflora Spitsbergens,” Norske Videnskaps-Akad. Mat.-Nat. Kl. Skrifter , vol.11, pp.1-39, 1911.

17. ----. “Sűsswasseralgen von Franz Josefs-Land, gesammelt von der Jackson– Harmsworth’schen Expedition,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers . Förh . vol.56, no.7, pp.751-66, 1899.

18. ----. “Susswasserchlorophyceen gesammelt von Dr. Osw. Kihlman in nörd– lichsten Russland, Gouvernement Archangel,” Ibid . vol.19, no.3, 5, pp.1-41, 1894.

19. Børgesen, F. “Algues d’eau douce. (Sauf les Diatomees),” Ostenfeld– Hansen, C. Contribution a la Flore de l’Ile Jan Mayen, Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.21, pp.18-3221897.

20. ----. “Conspectus algarum novarum aquae dulcis, quas in insulis Fearoen– sibus invenit,” Dansk Naturhist. Foren. Medd. 1899, pp.317-66, 1899.

21. ----. “En för Faerøerne ny Laminaria,” Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.20, pp.403-5, 1896.

22. ----. “Ferskvandsalger fra østgrönland,” Medd. Grønland , vol.18, no.1, pp.479-81, 1894.

23. ----. “Freshwater algae from the ‘Danmarks-Expedition’ to North-East Greenland (N. of 76° Lat.),” Danmarks-Ekspedition til Grønlands Nordøstkyat 1906-1908. vol.3, no.3, pp.71-90, 1910.

24. ----. “Freshwater algae of the Faeroes,” Bot. of the Faeroes , based upon Danish Investigations, vol.1, pp.198-259, 1901.

25. ----. “The marine algae of the Faeroes,” Ibid ., vol.2,pp.339-532, 1902.

26. ----. “Nogle Ferskvandsalger fra Island,” Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.22, pp.131-8, 1899.

27. ----. Om Algevegetationen ved Faerøernes Kyster; en Plantegeografisk Undersøgelse . København, Acad. Diss. 1904.

28. ----, “Om et Par Smaaerhverv før Faerøerne og Island,” Atlanten , vol.2, no.14, pp.1-4, 1905.

29. ----. “Om Faerøernes Algvegetation. Et Gensvar. 1, 2,” Botaniska Notiser, 1904, pp.245-74; 1905, pp.25-56, 1904-05.

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29a. Børgesen, F., and Jonsson, H. “the distribution of the marine algae of the Arctic Sea and of the northernmost part of the Atlantic,” Botany of the Faeroes , vol.3, Appendix: I-XXVIII. Copenhagen, 1901-08.

29b. Børgesen, F., and Ostenfeld, C.H. “Phytoplankton of lakes in the Faeroes,” Ibid . vol.2, pp.558-624, 1903.

29c. Boye, P. “Bidrag til Kundskaben om Algvegetation ved Norges Vestkyst,” Bergens Mus. Arbog , 1894-1895, vol.16, pp.16-46, 1896.

29d. Brown, R. “Cryptogamic Plants from Baffins Bay,” Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland. London, 1875, p.238.

29e. ----. “On the nature of the discoloration of the Arctic Seas,” Ibid . pp.311-18.

29f. Cederkrentz, C. “Freshwater Algae from Labrador.” Soc. Fauna flor. Fenn. Memor. Vol.19, pp.216-22, 1944.

30. ----. “Sűsswasseralgen aus Petsamo,” Soc. Fauna Flor. Fenn. Memor. vol.5, pp.140-58, 1929.

31. ----. “----.” Ibid . vol.7, pp.237-48, 1932.

32. Collins, F.S. “Algae of the Neptune Expedition,” Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18. Report , vol.4, Botany, B, Marine Algae, pp.29B, 1927.

33. ----. “Bering Strait and Arctic Ocean Algae,” Ibid ., vol.4, pp.2 [: ] 1B-16B, 1927.

34. Croall, A. “Florula Discoana. Marine Algae,” Jones T.R. Manual of the Natural History … of Greenland . London, 1875, pp.276-80, 1875.

35. ----. “Marine algae,” Brown, A. The Florula Discoana. Contributions to the phytogeography of Greenland within the parallels of 68° and 70° North Latitude by R. Brown ,” Bot. Soc. Edinb. Trans . vol.9, pp.45-67, 1868.

36a ^ 35a ^ . Dall, W.H. “Arctic marine vegetation,” Nature , vol.12, p.166,1875.

36. De la Pylaie, A.J.M.B. Flore de l’Ile de Terre-Neuve et les Iles St. Pierre et Miclon . Paris, 1829.

37. ----. “Quelques observations sur les productions d’ile de Terre-Neuve, et our quelques algues de la cote de France apartenant au genre Laminaire,” Annales Sci. Nat . vol.4, pp.174-84, [: ] 1824.

38. Dickie, G. “Algae and Diatomaceae,” Nares, G.S. Narrative of a Voyage to the Polar Sea during 1875-6 in H. M. Ships “Alert” and “Discovery ,” with notes on the Natural History. Edited by H.W.Feilden. London, 1878, vol.2, App.XIV, Botany , pp.323-6.

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39. ----. “Algae,” Hooker, J.B. “An account of the plants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and arctic America during the Expedition of Sir Francis M’Clintock in the yacht ‘Fox,’” Linnean Soc. J . Bot . vol.5, pp.86, 1861.

40. ----. “XXIV (VI). Florula Discoana, freshwater algae,” pp.280-83; XXIX. The Algae, In ; Flowering Plants and Algae of Greenland, Davis’ Strait and Baffin Bay, Collected by Dr. P. C. Sutherland and determined by Sir W. J. Hooker and G. Dickie M.D.,” pp.239-41; “LXXV. Arctic Algae collected in Davis strait … Captain Penny’s Expedition 1850-51,” pp.515-19; “LXXVI. On Algae col– lected in Cumberland Sound, by Mr. James Taylor, with remarks on arctic species in general,” pp.519-52; “LXXVIII. Algae, In : An Account of the Plants collected by Dr. Walker in Greenland and Arctic America … in the yacht ‘Fox’ by J. D. Hooker,” p.526; Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History … of Greenland . London, 1875.

41. ----. “Notes of algae collected on the coast of northwest America, by Mr. R. Brown,” Bot. Soc. Edinb. Trans . vol.9, pp.465-7, 1868.

42. ----. “Notes on a collection of algae procured in Cumberland Sound by Mr. James Taylor, and remarks on arctic species in general,” Ibid . vol.9, pp.235-43, 1867.

43. ----. “Notes on a collection of plants from the northeast shore of Lan– caster Sound,” Linnean Soc. J. Bot . vol.11, pp.34-35, 1871.

44. ----. “Notes on flowering plants and algae collected during the voyage of the ‘Isabel,’ Algae,” Inglefield, E.A. A Summer Search for Sir John Franklin; with a Pap into the Polar Basin . London, 1853, pp.140-4.

45. ----. “Notes on the algae,” Sutherland, P.C. Journal of a Voyage in Baffin’s Bay and Barrow Straits in the Years 1850-1851 . London, 1852, vol.2, pp. exci-cc.

46. ----. “On the algae found during the Arctic Expedition,” Linnean Soc. J. Bot . vol.17, pp.6-12, 1878.

47. Ehrenberg, C.G. “Über eine frische Probe der die Crimson Cliffs scharlach– roth farbenden Substanz aus der Baffin’s Bai und das begleitenden Kleinste Loben,” Akad. Wiss. Berl. Monataber , vol.741, 1851.

48. Farlow, W.G. “Alage,” p.214. In ; Wetherell, H.E. Botany. List of Plants Obtained on the Peary Auxiliary Expedition of 1894. Geogr. Club Penn. l(5), Appendix C:208-15, 1895.

49. ----. “List of algae collected at points in Cumberland Sound during the autumn of 1877. Contributions to the natural history of Arctic America made in connection with the Howgats Polar Expedition, 1877--78, by Ludwig Kumlien,” U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull . no.15, p.169, 1879.

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50. ----. “Notes on arctic algae; based principally on collections made at Ungava Bay by Mr. L. M. Turner,” Amerc. Acad. Arts Sci. Proc . vol.31, n.s. vol.13, pp.469-77, 1886.

51. Foerov, B.C. “Sur les algues d’eau douce de Novaia Zemlia,” Wissenach. Meeresinst. Ber . Vol.12, pp.13-47, 1925.

52. Foslie, M. Contributions to a Monograph of the Lithothamnia . Edited by H. Printz. Trondijem, 1929.

53. ----. “Contribution to the knowledge of the marine algae of Norway. I. East Finmarken,” Tromsø Mus. Aarsh . Vol.13, pp.1-186, 1891.

54. ----. “----. II. Species from different tracts,” Ibid . vol.14, pp.36-56, 1892.

55. ----. “The Norwegian forms of Lithothamnion,” Norske Videnskaps-Akad. Skr . 1894, pp.29-208, 1895.

56. ----. “Om nogle nye arktiske havalger,” Norske Videns Keps-Akad. Forh . 1881, vol.14, pp.1-14, 1881.

57. ----. “Remarks on Lithothamnion murmanicum ,” Ibid . 1908, vol.2, pp.1-8.

58. Gardner, G. “Liste annotee des especes de pteridophytes, de phanerogamies et d’algues recoltees sur la cote du Labrador, a la baie d’Hudson et dans le Manitoba nord, en 1930 et 1933,” Soc. Bot. Fr. Bull . vol.84, pp.19-51, 1937.

59. Gobi, C. “Die Algenflora des Weissen Meeres und der demselben zunächts– liegenden Theile des Nordlichen Eismeeres,” Akad. Nauk. Mem . Vol.26, 1878.

60. Grönblad, R. “Algen, hauptsäclich Desmidiaceen, aus dem Finnischen, Nor– wegischen und Schwedischen Lappland. Mit Berűcksichtigung der Organismen des Phytoplanktons und des Zooplantons,” Societas Fauna Flora Fenn. Acta , n.s. B, vol.11, no.5, pp.1-46, 1942.

61. ----. “Einige Desmidiaceen aus Sibirien,” Finska Vetenskaps-Soc. Commenta – tiones Biol . Vol. 1, no. 9, pp.1-9, 1924.

62. Gronlund, C. “Tillaeg til Dr. Kjellmans Afhandling,” Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.11, pp.81-83, 1879.

Hariot, P. “Contribution a la Flore cryptogamique de l’ile Jan Mayen,” J. de Bot . vol.7, pp.117-21, 1893.

64. ----. “Note sur les collections cryptogamiques, rapportees par La Manche. II, Ile Jan Mayen In : A. P. L. Bienaime, Voyage de ‘La Masche’ a l’ile de Jan Mayen et au Spitzberg, 1892,” Nouv. Arch. Miss. Sci. vol. 5, pp.235-54, 1893.

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65. Harvey, W.H. “Alage. Flora of Western Eskimaux-Land,” Seeman, B.L. The Botany of the Voyage of H. M. S. “Herald” — London, 1852-1857.

66. ----. “List of arctic algae, chiefly complied from collections brought home by officers of the recent searching expeditions,” Nereis Boreali Americana III, Supp. 2, pp.132-4, 1858.

67. Hauck, F. “Algae” Reichardt, H.W. Flora der Insel Jan Mayen. Beobachtungs – Ergebnisse die Internationalen Polarforschung 1882-1883. Die Osterreichische Polarstation Jan Mayen . Vol.3 (VII Theil, Botanik, A), pp.2-4, 1866.

68. Häyren, E. “Bilder fran Finlands Ishavskust,” Geogr. Sallsk. Finland Terra . Tidskr . Vol.40, no. 1, pp.27-44, 1928.

69. ----. “Notiz über das Überwinttern einiger Algen unter dem Eise,” Societas Fauna Flora Fenn. Medd . Vol.48, pp.174-7, 1924.

70. ----. “Zwei notizen über das Meereseis und die Algen,” Societas Fauna Flora Fenn. Memor . Vol.5, pp.134-40, 1929.

71. Hooker, W.J. “Alagae,” Arnott, G.A.W. The Botany of Captain Beechey’s Voyage; comprising an account of the plants collected by Messrs. Lay and Collie, and other officers of the expedition, during the voyage to the Pacific and Behring’s Strait, performed in his Majesty’s ship Blossom, under the command of Captain F. W. Beechey, R. N., F. R. and A. S., in the years 1825, 26, 27, and 23 . London, 1841, pp.54, 77, [: ] 78, 110, 134, 163-5, 406-9.

72. Howe, M.A. “Hudson Bay algae,” Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-1918. Report , vol.4 (Bot., B, Marine Algae), pp.18B-30B, 1927.

73. Hubbenet, E.R., and Voblikove, T.A. “Sutochniyi khod fotosinteza u vondoroslei Barentsova moria vo vremia poliarnogo dnia,” Mauchn. Inst. P. F. Lesgafta Izv . Vol.20, no.2, pp.47-68, 1937.

74. Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland and the Neighboring Regions; Prepared for the Use of the Arctic Expedition of 1875, under the Direction of the Arctic Committee of the Royal Society … together with Instructions … for the Use of the expedition . London, 1875.

75. Jonsson, H. “A contribution to the Knowledge of the marine algae of Jan Mayen,” Botanisk Tidsskr . vol.26, pp.319-20, 1905.

76. ----. “The marine algae of East Greenland,” Medd. Grønland vol.30, pp.1-7 [: ] ^ 3 ^ , 1904.

77. ----. “The marine algae of Iceland, I-IV,” Botanisk Tidsskr . vol.24, no.2 pp.127-155; vol.25, no2. pp.141-195; vol.25, no.3, pp.337-385, 1901-03.

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78. ----. “The marine algal vegetation of Iceland,” Botany of Iceland . Rosenvinge, L. Kolderup and Warming, E., vol.1, no.1, pp.1-196, 1912.

79. Kjellman, F. R. “The algae of the Arctic Sea. A survey of the species, together with an exposition of the general character and the development of the flora,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl . Vol.20, no.5, pp.1-350, 1883.

80. ----. “Bidrag till kännedomen of Kariska Hafvets Algvegetation,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers. Förh . vol.2, pp.1-30, 1877.

81. ----. “Bidrag till kännedomen om Islands hafsalgflora,” Botanisk Tidsskr . vol.11, pp.77-80, 1879.

82. ----. “Förberedande anmärkingar om algvegetationen i Mosselbay enligt iaktagelser under vinterdraggningar anställda af Svenska polar– expeditionen 1872-1873,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers. Förh . vol.5, pp.59-68, 1875.

83. ----. “Norra Ishafvets algflora,” Nordenskiöld, A.E. Vega-Expeditions Vetenskapliga Iaktagelser , vol.3, pp.1-431, 1883.

84. ---. “Om Spetsbergens marina klorofyllförande Thallophyter 1, 2,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Bihang. Handl . Vol3, no.7, pp.1-34; vol.4, no. 6, pp.1-61, 1875; 1877.

85. ----. “Redogörelse för Kariska hafvets växtoch djurvärld,” Nordenskiöld, A.E., “Redogörelse for en Expedition till mynningen af Jenissej och Siberien ar 1875,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Bihang Handl . vol.4, no.1, pp.47-57, 1877.

86. ----. “Über die Algenvegetation des Murmanschen Meeres und der Westküste von Nowaja Semlya und Waigatsch,” Vetenskaps-Soc. Upsala. Nova Acta vol.3, pp.1-86, 1877.

87. ----. “Über die Meeresalgenvegetation von Beeren Eiland,” Arkiv. för Bot . vol.1, pp.1-6, 1903.

88. ----. “Zur Kenntnis der marinen Algenflora von Jan Mayen,” Ibid . vol,5, no.14, pp.1-30, 1906.

89. Kleen, E.A.G. “Om Nordlandens h ö gre hafsalger,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers . Förh . vol.9, pp.3-46, 187 5 ^ 4 ^ .

90. Kol, E. “The snow and ice algae of Alaska,” Smithson. Misc. Coll . Vol.101, no.16, pp.1-36, 1942.

91. Koldewey, K. “Algae,” The German Arctic Expedition of 1869-70, and narrative of the wreck of the “Hansa” in the ice . London, 1874, pp.347, 518. Several maps and plates.

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92. Kosinskaia, E.K. “Desmidievye vodorosli iz Arktiki,” Akad. Nauk. Bot.Inst. Trudy , ser.2, no.3, pp.410-40, 1936.

93. ----. “Kriticheskii spisok presnovodnykh vodoroslei sobrannykh V. P. Savichem v Arkticheskoi pravitel’stvennoi ekspeditsii 1930 g,” Bot. Inst. Trudy , ser.2, no.1, pp.35-52, 1933.

94. ----. “Materiaux pour la connaissance de la flora algologique de la Presqu’ile de Kola,” Ibid . ser.2, no2, pp.57-100, 1934.

95. ----. “Sur la flore des Desmidiees du Lac Montsche,” Ibid . ser.2, no.3, pp.451-67, 1936.

96. Krieger, W. “Süsswasseralgen aus Spitzbergen,” Bericht Dtsch. Bot. Ges . vol.56, pp.55-72, 1938.

97. Kuchuck, P. “Meeresalgen von Sermidlet und Kleinen Karajakfjord. Bot. Ergeb der v. d. Gesselsch, f. Erdkunde zu Berline unter Leitung Dr. v. Drygalski’s Grönland Expedition nach Dr. Vanhöffen’s Sammlung bearbeitet; A. Kryptogamen, IV,” Biblioth. Bot . vol.42, pp.28-39, 1897.

98. Lagerheim, G. “Beiträge zur Flora der Bären-Insel. 2: Vegetablisches Süss– wasser-Plankton aus der Bären-Insel,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Bihang. Handl . vol.26, (3, 11), pp.1-25, 1900.

99. ---. “Bidrag til kännedomen om snöfloran i Lulea Lappmark,” Botaniska Notiser , pp.230-5, 1883.

100. ----. “Ein Beitrag zur scheeflora Spitzbergens,” Nouva Notarisia , pp.650-4, 1894.

101. Larsen, E. “Ferskvandsalger fra Vest Gronland,” Medd. Grønland , vol.33, 1907.

102. ----. “The freshwater algae of east Greenland,” Medd. Grønland , vol.30, pp.77-110, 1904.

103. Lawson, G. “On the Laminariaceae of the Dominion of Canada and adjacent parts of British America,” Nova Scotian Int. Nat. Sci. Trans . Vol.2, no.4, pp.109-11, 1870.

104. Lemoine, Mme.P. “Expedition Arctique Canadienne. Melobesiees (Calcareous Algae),” Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18. Report , vol.4 (Bot. B., Marine Algae), p.17B, 1927.

105. ----. “Sur les caracteres generaux des genres de Melobesiees arctiques et antarctiques,” Acad. Sci. Comptes Rendus , vol.154, pp.781-4, 1912.

106. Lowe, C.W. “Freshwater Algae and Freshwater Diatoms,” Ibid . vol.4 (Botany, A), pp.3A-53A, 1923.

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107. Lund, S. “The Godthaab Expedition 1928. The Marine Algae,” Medd. Grønland , vol.82, no.4, pp.1-18, 1933.

108. Lyngbye, H. C Tentamen Hydrophytologiae Danicae, continens [: ] omnia hydrophyta cryptogamia Daniae, Holsatiae, Faeroae, Islandiae, Groenlandiae hucusque cognita, systematice disposita, descripta et inconibus illustrate, adjectis simul speciebus Norvegicus . Copenhagen, 1819. I-XXXII, pp.1-248. 70 pl.

109. Marr, J.W.S. “Plants collected during the British Arctic Expedition, 1925,” J. Bot. Lond . vol.65; pp.272-7, 1927.

110. Merrifield, M.P. “Arctic marine vegetation,” Nature , vol.12, pp.55-58, 1875.

111. Murray, G., and Barton, E.S. “A comparison of the arctic and antarctic marine floras,” Phyc. Mem . vol.3, pp.88-98, 1895.

112. Nordhagen, R. “Studien über die maritime Vegetation Norwegens. I. Die Pflanzen-Gesellschaften der Tangwalle,” Bergens Mus. Arb. Naturv. – Rekke 1939/40, pp.1-234. 18 pl.

113. Nordstedt, O. “Alger, insammlade pa Grønlands inlandsis af Dr. Berggren bestämda till Grønland ar 1870 af. A. E. Nordenskiöld, Bilaga III,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers. Förh . Vol.27, pp. [: ] 1880-81, 1871.

114. ----. “Desmidiaceae ex insulis Spetsbergen-sibus at Beeren Eiland in ex– peditionibus annorum 1868-1870 suecanis collectae,” Ibid . no.6, pp.23-42, 1872.

115. ----. “Desmidieae arctoae,” Ibid , no.6, pp.13-43, 1875.

116. ----. “Desmidieer sammlade af Sv. Berggren under Nordenskiöld’ska Ex– peditionen till Grönland 1870,” Ibid . no.3, pp.5-12, 1885.

117. Ostenfeld, C.H. “Om Plantevaeksten paa Grønlands Nordkyst og dens Livsvilkaar,” Nat. Verden . Vol.9, pp.289-311, 1925.

118. Ostenfeld, C.H. and Wesenberg-Lund, C. “A regular fortnightly exploration of the plankton of the two Icelandic lakes Thingvallavatan and Myava– tan,” Roy. Soc. Edin. Proc . vol.25, no.2, pp.1092-1167, 1906.

119. Van Oye, P. “X. Die Desmidiaceen von Thingvallavatan und Umgebung. Weten– schappelijke Resultaten der Studiereis van Prof. Dr. P. van Oye op Ijsland,” Biol. Jaarb. Konink. Natuurw. Genootsch. Dodonaea , vol.7, no.11, pp.306-27, 1941.

120. Petersen, J. “The aerial algae of Iceland,” Bot. of Iceland, vol.2, pp.327-447, 1928.

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121. ----. “Algefloraen i nogle Jordprover fra Island,” Dansk Bot. Arkhiv . vol.5, no.9, pp.1-23, 1928.

122. ----. “Freshwater algae from the northern coast of Greenland collected by the late Dr. Th. Wulff. Den II Thule Eksped. til Grønlands Nordkyst 1916-18,” Medd. Grønland , vol.64, no.13, pp.307-19, 1924.

123. ----. “The freshwater Cyanophyceae of Iceland,” Bot. of Iceland , vol.2, no.7, pp.251-324, 1923.

124. ----. “Studies on the biology and taxonomy of soil algae,” Dansk Bot . Arkiv , vol.8, no.9, pp.10-183, 1935.

124a. Polunin, N. et al . “Botany of the Canadian Eastern Arctic, Part II, Thallo– phytes and Bryophytes,” Nat. Mus. Can. Bull . no.97, 1947. Biol . Ser . no.26.

125. Porsild, M.P. and Simmons, H.G. “Om Faer o ^ ø ^ ernes Havalgevegetation og dens Oprindelse. En Kritik. I. M.P.Porsild, Den faer o ^ ø ^ eske Havalge– floras Oprindelse;” “II. H.G.Simmons, De ökologiska enheterna i den färöiska hafsalgvegetationen,” Botaniska Notiser , pp.149-80, 1904.

126. Richardson, J. “Algae,” Franklin, John. Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the Years 1819, 20, 21 and 22 . London, 1823, No.VII. Botanical appendix, p.763.

127. Richter, P. “Süsswasseralgen aus dem Umanakdistrikt. Bot. Ergebn. Der … Dr. v. Drygalski’s … Grönland-expedition … A. Kryptogamen, I,” Biblioth. Bot . vol.42, pp.1-12, 1897.

128. Rosenvinge, L.K. “Algues marines,” Ostenfeld-Hansen, C. “Contribution a la flore de l’ile Jan Mayen,” Botanisk Tidsskr . Vol.21, pp.26-28, 1897.

129. ----. “A botanical trip to Jan Mayen by Johannes Gandrup. 3, Marine Algae,” Dansk Bot. Tidsskr . Vol.4, no.5, pp.1-35, 1924.

130. ----. “Deuxieme Memoire sur les algues marines du Grønland,” Medd. Grøn – land, vol.20, pp.1-125, 1898.

131. ----. “Grønlands Havalger,” Medd. Grønland , vol.6, no.765-981, 1893.

132. ----. “Marine algae collected by Dr. H. G. Simmons during the 2nd Nor– wegian Arctic Expedition in the ‘Fram,’ 2d, 1898-1902. Report , no.37, pp.1-40, 1926.

133. ----. “Marine algae from Kangerdlugssuak. The Scoresby Sound Comm. 2nd East Greenland Expedition in 1932 to King Christian IX’s Land,” Medd. Grønland , vol.104, no.8, pp.1-14, 1933.

134. ----. “Note sur une Floridee aerienne ( Rhodochorton islandicum n. sp.),” Botanisk Tidsskr . vol.23, pp.61-81, 1900.

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135. ----. “Om Algevegetationen ved Grønlands Kyster,” Medd. Grønland , vol.20, pp.1-125, 1898.

136. ----. “Om the marine algae from northeast Greenland (N. of 76° n. Lat.), collected by the ‘Danmark-Expedition,’” Danmarks-Eksped. til Grønl. Nordøstkyst 1906-08, vol.3, no.4, pp.93-133, 1910.

137. Rostrup, E. “Faerøernes Flora, en Floristik Skitze … Algae,” Botanisk Tidsskr . vol.4, pp.72-73, 92-93, 1870.

138. Ruprecht, F. “Tänge des Ochotischen Meeres. — Reise in den äussersten Norden und Osten Sibiriens von A. Th. V. Middendorff,” St. Peters– bourg, 1851, Bot. I. Abt . vol.1, no.12 [: ] pp. 193-345.

139. Saunders, De A. “Papers from the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 25. The Algae,” Wash. Acad. Sci. Proc . vol.3, pp.391-486, 1901.

140. Schmidle, W. “Über einige von Knut Bohlin in Pite Lappmark und Vesterbotten gesammelte Süsswasseralgen,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Bihang. Handl , vol.24, no.8, pp.1-71, 1878.

141. Schubeler, C. “Alg ^ e ^ ae,” Heuglin, Th. von. Reise nach dem Nordpolarmeer in den Jahren 1870 und 1871. Part 3. Beiträge zur Fauna, Flora und Geologie. Kryptogame von Nowaja Semlja und Waigatsch . Braun– schweig, p. 317, 1874.

142. ----. “Alger,” Blytt, A. “Bidrag til Kundskaben om Vegetation paa Nowaja Semlja, Waigatsch-øen og ved Jugar-Stroadet. (Rosenthalske Ex– pedition 1871),” Norske Videnskaps-Akad. Förh . vol.14, 1872.

142a. Setchell, W.A. Algae of the Pribilof Islands. The Fur Seals and Fur-Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean . Washington, vol.3, pp.589-96, 1899.

143. Setchell, W.A., and Collins, F.S. “Some algae from Hudson Bay,” Rhodora , vol.10, pp.114-16, 1908.

144. Setchell, W.A., and Gardner, N.L. “Algae of northwestern America,” Calif. Univ. Publ. Bot . vol.1, pp.165-418, 1903.

145. Sewell, P. “Algae,” “The flora of the coasts of Lapland and of the Yugor Straits, as observed during the voyage of the ‘Labrador’ in 1888, with summarized list of all the species renown from the islands of Novaya Zemlya and Waigatz, and from the north coast of western Siberia,” Bot. Soc. Edinb. Trans . vol.17, pp.460, 465-6, 1889.

146. Simmons, H.G. “Remarks about the relation of the floras of the northern Atlantic, the Polar Sea, and the northern Pacific,” Beih. Bot . Centralbl. Vol. 19, no.2, pp.149-93, 1905.

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147. ----. “Zur Kenntnis der Meerealgenflora der Faeroer,” Hedwigia , vol.36. pp.247-76, 1897.

148. Sinova, E.S. “De form^a^[: is] nov[: is]^a^ Fuci filiformis Gmel. in Oceani Glaciali,” Not. Syst. Inst. Sporovykh. Rastenii, Glavnyi Bot. Sad., Lenin– grad, vol.1, pp.143-4, 1922.

149. ----. “De formis novis Fuci Fueci De la Pylaie in Oceani Glaciali,” Not. Syst. Inst. Sporovykh. Rastenii, Glavnyi Bot. Sad., Leningrad, vol.1, pp.131-4, 1922.

150. ----. “Die neue Entdeckungen in die Algenflora von Murmanische Küsten,” Soc. Nat., Leningrad, Trav . vol.56( 3 , Bot.), pp.17-44, 1926.

151. ----. “Les Algues de Kamtschatka,” Inst. Hydrol., Expl. des Mers d’U.R.S.S. vol.17, pp.17-42, 1933.

152. ----. “Les algues de la mer Kara,” Soc. Nat., Leningrad, Trav . vol.55 ( 3 , Bot.), pp.53-116, 1925.

153. ----. “Sur quelques algues de la baie de Novorosiisk,” Leningr. Obshch. Estestv. Trudy , vol.57, pp.45-68, 1927.

154. Sommerfelt, C. “Bidrag til Spitzbergens og Beeren-Eilands Flora efter Her– barier, medbragte af M. Keilhau,” Nytt Magazin Naturv . ser. [: ] , vol.1, pp.232-52, 1832.

155. Steenstrup, K.J.V. “Kan Tangranden benyttes til Bestemmelse af Forandringer i Vandstanden?” Medd. Grønland , vol.33, no.1, pp.1-8, 1907.

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162. ----. “Some algae from hot springs in Spitzbergen,” Botaniska Notiser pp.17-21, 1921.

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171. Wille, N. “Ferskvandsalger fran Novaja Semlja samlade af Dr. F. Kjellman paa Nordenskiölds Expedition 1875,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Öfvers . Förh . no.5, pp.13-74, 1875.

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172. Wille, N., and Rosenvinge, L.K. “Alger fra Nowaia-Zemlia og Kara Havet, Samlede paa Dijmphna-Expeditionen 1882-83 af Th. Holm,” Lutken, Chr. F. Dijmphna-Togets zool. -bot. Udbytte . Copenhagen, 1887, pp.79-96.

173. Wittrock, V.B. “Om snöns och isens flora, särskildt i de arktiska trak [: ] terna, Nordenskiö ld, A.E. Studier och forskningar főranledda of mina resor i höga norden , vol.2, pp.65-124, 1883.

174. Wycoff, E. “Bibliography Relating to the Floras of Arctic Regions, Iceland, Scandinavia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Finland, Lapland, Russian Poland and Caucasia,” Lloyd Library Bibliogr. Contr . vol.7, 8, pp.311-52, 1912.

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175. Zanon, D.V. “Diatomee della Baia del Re (Swalbard),” Mem. Pont. Acad. Sci. Nuovi Lincei, Mem . ser.2, vol.12, pp.419-63, 1929.

176. Zeller, G. “CIII. The algae of east-arctic Greenland,” Jones, T.R. Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland . London, 1875.

177. ----. “Algen,” Mosle, A.G., and Albrecht, G. Die zweite Deutsche Nord – polarfahrt in den Jahren 1869 and 1870 unter Fuhrung des Kapitän Karl Koldewey . Leipzig, 1872, Bd. 2, Wissenschaftliche Ergeb– nissee, I. Botanik, pp.83-87, 1874.

178. ----. “Algen und Zoöphyten in Nordischen Meer und Sibirien gesammelt von Graf Waldburg-Zeil,” Wurtemb. Naturw. Jahresh . Vol. 39, pp.104-6, 1883.

William Randolph Taylor