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Additional Alaska Geographical Items
Encyclopedia Arctica 12: Alaska, Geography and General
001 | Vol_XII-0310
Ruby Collins
November, 1948 AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA
760 wds - Text
15 wds - BiblAGIAPUK RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, drains
an [ ?] rea of 700 to 800 miles north of Grantley Harbor and Imuruk Basin,
and empties into the Basin about wenty-four miles from Teller, at about
65° 12′ N.Lat., 165° 40′ W. Long.Rising in the limestone hills fifteen or twenty miles
northwest of Grantley Harbor, the Agiapuk flows first southward then
eastward along a lowland basin, approximately parallel with the Harbor,
for about [ ?] wenty miles to its junction with American River (q.v.), its
main tributary. American River is, in reality, larger than the Agiapuk.
Throughout the east-west part of its course, the Agiapuk drains a broad,
gravel-filled lowland, but, in the vicinity of its head [ ?] aters, the valleys
are narrow and the gravel deposits are of small extent.Collier gives a good description of this [ ?] lowland
section of the Agiapuk: "Having an area of about 60 square miles ... it
is dotted over with many lakes, and, from the surrounding hills, it has
the appearance of a filled lake or estuary. As they approach the plain,
the tributaries of the Agiapuk River have broad valleys and flood plains.
A mining sh [ ?] ft has been sunk on Allene Creek, one of the tributaries
from the south, and is said to have failed to reach bed rock at a depth
of 65 feet. Below a sur acelayer of gravel, blue clay containing bark
and other driftwood was found. Mammoth bones are reported to be common
within this basin."Previous to its confluence with American River, the
Agiapuk receives Sunrise, and North Creeks from the south, and innumerable
smaller affluents.
002 | Vol_XII-0311
AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA
North Creek , itself , is joined by Allene, Swanson, John, North,
Nickle, and Saturday Creeks, all of which rise in the mountains only a
few miles north of Grantley Harbor. Swanson Creek drains from the south–
eastern flank of Mukacharme Mountain, which, [ ?] with its associated hills,
forms the divide between streams flowing northward into the Agiapuk and
those flowing southward into Grantley Harbor.After meeting American River, the Agiapuk bends more and
more southward until it is flowing almost directly south toward Imuruk Basin.
Here the Agiapuk makes many meanders on the broad flood plain, from which
the upland rises by gentle slopes to flat-topped hills with elevations of
600 to 800 feet. For this last twenty-mile stretch, [ ?] it is joined by several
unnamed streams as well as by Mitchell, and Flat Creeks.Collier gives the following description of the Agiapuk in
the first decade of this century: "Being easy of access and supporting a
large Eskimo population, the Agia puk was one of the first streams of Seward
Peninsula to receive attention from prospect [ ?] rs, but up to the present time
no rich or extensive deposits of auriferous gravels have been discovered in
its basin. Colors of gold have been found in many of its tributaries and
nearly all of them have been st [ ?] ked and prospected. Small amounts of gold
have been produced on Allene Creek...In general the rocks of the Agiapuk
basin are less metamorphosed than the gold-bearing rocks in other parts
of the peninsula. They consist mainly of Silurian limestones that are re–
garded as equivalent to the Port Clarence member of the Nome group and gen–
erally have not been so productive of gold as the lower members of that
group. United States Geological Survey parties traversed part of the
Agiapuk basin in 1901, and again visited the region in 1903, but very few
prospectors were seen on either trip, though prospect holes, claim stakes,
and other evidences of white men were everywhere abundant."
003 | Vol_XII-0312
AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA
The Agiapuk was not destined to develop into a gold–
producing stream. As a waterway to the richer deposits on American River,
it was important in the [ ?] development of this part of Seward Peninsu–
la, but, although as late as 1930 there was a renewal of gold mining
interest along the Agiapuk, [ ?] no placers of commercial value
were ever found on it.Except for the scattered native population, there have
never been any settlements on the Agiapuk.Beechey was the first white man to record the name of
this river, which, in 1827, he wrote Agee-ee-puk. It has also been
written Ageepuk, Agiopuk, and Ahgeeapuk. The persistent last syllable,
puk, probably means big .
004 | Vol_XII-0313
[ ?] AGIAPUK RIVER, ALASKA
SOURCES
U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper No.314. Plate I.
Washington, D.C., 1913.Collier, Arthur J., and others. Gold Placersof Parts of Seward Gold Placersof Parts of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska. Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin, No.328)Brooks, Alfred H., and others. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of
Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, D.C., 1902.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington,
D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.299)
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0314
Ruby Collins ALAGNAK RIVER, ALASKA
23 April 48
150
ALAGNAK RIVER, ALASKA (Alaganak; Aliknuk; Lockenuck), in the northern part of the Alaska
Peninsula, drains from Kukaklek and Nanwhyenuk Lakes (q.v.) between 59° and
59° 10′ N. Lat. and 155° and 156° W. Long. The Alagnak takes a
generally westerly course across the coastal lowland for about 50 miles and
joins the Kvichak River (q.v.) at its mouth just north of 59° N. Lat.
Tebenkof reported the name in 1849.The Alagnak is one of the many Bristol Bay rivers reported by the
Sources: VS GB; Baker; U.S.C.P & Suppl.
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1938 to be poorly surveyed and dangerous
to navigate. These rivers are characterized by a tidal rise at the mouth
of from 15 to 24 feet, by the appearance of shoals and banks at low
tide not only at the mouth but often for [ ?] everal miles outside, and by
strong tidal currents running as high as 6 knots. Recent maps show no
settlements on the banks of the Alagnak, although there is a salmon cannery at ✓
its mouth.13 12 ﹍ 26 13 ﹍ 6
[ ?] in Colby; Sundborg
001 | Vol_XII-0315
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA
1415 wds - Text
50 wds - BiblAMERICAN RIVER, sometimes called the North Fork of the Agiapuk
River (q.v.), western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, drains a large area west of
the Kougarok Basin. The American rises in the mountains about forty miles
north of Grantley Harbor (q.v.) and flows in an easterly direction for about
fifteen miles, then t [ ?] rns and flows nearly southward for about thirty more
miles to its junction with the Agiapuk. The upper reaches of the American are torrential, but, for these
last thirty miles, the river meanders torturously across a comparatively
broad, gravel-filled valley. It is navigable for small boats and canoes
for about thirty miles above the mouth.No ¶ The upper reaches of the American are torrential, but, for these
last thirty miles, the river meanders torturously across a comparatively
broad, gravel-filled valley. It is navigable for small boats and canoes
for about thirty miles above the mouth.Along its early east-west course, the American is joined by many
unnamed streams, but, starting with its southward bend, the tributaries become
larger and can be identified. The first of these is Portage Creek, coming
in from the north. This river rises in the divide separating the American
from [ ?] Shishmaref Inlet and the Arctic Ocean drainage systems. Below this
point, Burke (with its affluent Fisher Creek), Goldrun, Budd, Dome, Camp,
and Igloo Creeks enter the American from the east. Newton Creek, just north
of Camp Creek, is the only named western affluent, but there are a great many
unidentified streams entering from this direction.Of the eastern affluents, Budd Creek is the most complicated
and economically the most important. About fifteen miles long, it is joined,
three miles from its mouth, by Windy Creek, which itself receives Trilby
Creek a few miles above its junction with Budd. About ten miles above its
mouth Budd Creek forks, the two parts coming from the north and the south, [ ?]
their direction being determined by the strike of the bed rocks. This
south fork is called Eldorado Creek. According to Collier: "Below the forks
the creek sinks, leaving its bed dry except in times of high water. After flowing24
002 | Vol_XII-0316
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA
underground for about two miles, the creek rises again in a number of
springs. This sink occurs where a massive bed of limestone, dipping downstream
at a small angle, cuts across the creek."Kougarok (Kugruk) Mountain rises up 2,787 feet only a few miles
from the northern headwaters of Budd Creek.Windy Creek enters Budd from the south about five miles from its
mouth and is it [ e ?] self about five miles long. Collier notes that "near the head
of the creek its bed contains many bowlders of greenstone, which are derived
from sills intruded in the limestone near its head. The valley of Windy Creek
is broad and gravel filled. Along the sides of the valley, back from the
creek bed, the gravel extends up the slopes, forming some well-marked gravel
benches. A cut bank of the creek shows 6 feet of muck overlying 6 feet of
gravel."Igloo Creek, also called Lewis Creek, enters the American only a
few miles above its junction with the Agiapuk. Again accordin g to Collier,
"this creek, like Budd Creek, flows west across the strike of the bed rock,
which, as on Budd Creek, consists of limestones, calcareous and graphitic
schists, with some intruded sills of greenstone, which are highly altered.
Like Budd Creek, Igloo Creek sinks for about a mile of its course, probably in
crossing the same bed of limestone that causes the sink on Budd Creek. In
its lower course Igloo Creek meanders over a broad flood plain, from which
the hills rise by very gentle slopes to the flat-topped upland. Practically
all of Igloo Creek and its tributaries have been staked, but little evidence
of prospecting or asse [ n ?] ssment work and no active mining was being done. (i.e.
in 1901) Colors of gold have been found on the creek, but the exact localities
are not known to the writer. Igloo Creek, except where it sinks in passing
over limestone beds, carries a large amount of water, which is ample for min–
ing the creek bed on a large scale at all seasons."26
003 | Vol_XII-0317
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA
Igloo Creek has a complex system of tributaries, including Yale,
Magnolia, Mascot, and Blackcrook from the north, and Caribou, Louisville,
Kentucky, Virginia, Ruby, and Lone Creeks from the south. A group of hills
well of over 1,000 feet high separates the headwaters of these northern tributaries
to the Igloo from the headwaters of Trilby and Dome Creeks.The entire course of American River lies within the permafrost zone.
The ground remains frozen the year around in the mountainous sections of the
upper river, but thaws for a few feet below the surface along the lower flats
section. This area is also beyond the timber line, but small willow and
alder, sometimes measuring only one inch thick, grow along the banks of the
more southerly streams in the system. These can be [ ?] used for fuel. The
lowland flats are, during the summer, thickly overgrown with moss, grasses,
and shrubs. These supply forage for pack animals, although summer overland
travel is very difficult because of the thick layer of h a lf-frozen mud over–
laying the frozen sub-soil.Here, as elsewhere on Seward Peninsula, the best weather comes dur–
ing the long, cold, dark winters. Travelling southward in August from the
Kugruk and over the divide to the headwaters of the America, Collier, in the
company of others from the U.S. Geological Survey, was held up much more by
heavy rain and fog than by the difficulties of the terrain. He mentions low
clouds and heavy fogs again and again, and then, on August 22, while in camp
on Igloo Creek, re p orts that one inch of snow fell followed by "several days
of bad weather." Describing their trip across the lowland flats, he adds, "In
places it was so marshy that the horses would have been lost but for the
solid ice which was found to overlie the moss as a depth of about 2 1/2 feet."Considering all this, it can be easily understood why the eraly early
miners to American Creek transported equipment almost exclusively by water
in preference to bringing it in directly overland.26
004 | Vol_XII-0318
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA
Mining The first reports of gold along American and its associated rivers
appears in Brooks, who recorded that Ernest [ ?] G. Rognon, the U.S.
Commissioner for the Port Clarence Mining District at Teller, knew of strikes
on Budd and [ ?] Burke Creeks in September, 1900. Brooks adds: "Since then
there have been rumors of further discoveries in this drainage basin. Colors
are said to be found on many other creeks. What little information we cou [ ?] d
gather about [ ?] the bed rock would lead us to believe that the same rock se [ ?] ies
occurs on the Agiapuk that is found on the Kugruk. What we know of the trend
of the beds on both sides of this basin would tend to confirm t is view. If
the region becomes a gold producer, it will be found to be easily accessible
from Port Clarence either by boat or by pack train."Collier, who [ ?] rev isited this region in 1901, writes as follows: " [ ?] long
the upper parts of Budd Creek many claims have been staked, and assessment work,
consisting of prospect pits and c or ro sscut ditches, has been done in a number of
places. Windy Creek is staked by one company for about 3 miles of its length.
No prospectors were seen on Budd Creek or its tributaries, and no active mining
has been done. This creek carries sufficient water for sluicing, except at the
places where it sinks in passing over limestone. The same is true of Windy
Creek, the large southern tributary."But this early [ ?] show of promise was not destined to develop into
anything significant. After a brief mention, in 1908, of a ditch on Windy
Creek, American River and its tributaries drop out of the story of gold
mining on Seward Peninsula until about 1929, when one company again investigated
the value of the deposits on that stream. These could not have been hopeful
since the creek does not again appear in the mining history of this part of
Alaska.Due, no doubt, to the failure of prospectors to find gold in
25
005 | Vol_XII-0319
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA
paying quantities anywhere along American River, no settlements have ever
grown up on its banks or on any of its tributaries.There is now a winter trail running from Teller across Grantley
Harbor and so overland to American River and northward to Shishmaref Inlet.
Via Teller, points on American River are connected with Nome and other towns
on the coast of Norton Sound, with Tin City, and with Shelton, on the [ ?] uzitrin,
from which places trails run northward to Kotzebue Sound. There is an 800-foot
landing strip on Windy Creek, but no other airplane facilities in the Americ [ ?] n
River system.
006 | Vol_XII-0320
AMERICAN RIVER, ALASKA
Sources
Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton
Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, 1901.Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,
1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 314)Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin
No.328)Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska. Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Surv [ ?] y.
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.299)U.S. Geological Survey. Alaskan Mineral Resources Alaskan Mineral Resources , 1907. Washington, 1908.
001 | Vol_XII-0321
Ruby Collins 1,755 wds-Text ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
February, 1949
50 wds-Bibl.
ANIKOVIK RIVER (Anakovik) western Seward Peninsula, Ala ks sk a,
empties into Bering Sea a few miles west of Cape York and south of Cape Prince
of Wales.Of the section of coast enclosing the Anikovik, Captain F.W.
Beechey wrote, in 1827: "To the southward of Cape Prince of Wales the coast
trends nearly due east, and assumes a totally different character to that which
leads to Schismareff Inlet, being bounded by steep rocky cliffs, and broken by
deep valleys, while the other is low and swampy ground. The river called
by the natives Youp-nut (the present Anikovik) must lie in one of these valleys;
and in all probability it is in that which opens out near a bold promontory,
to which I have given the name of York, in honour of his late Royal Highness.
On nearing that part of the coast we found the water more shallow than usual."Lutke recorded the name of this river as the Up-nut, but, since
Brooks' U.S. Geological Survey report of 1900, this the Eskimo name has, with great
consistency, retained its present form.The Anikovik rises in the York Mountains about fifteen miles from
the coast, leaves these mountains by a westerly course and then flows almost
directly south into the sea. Throughout the greater part of its length it
flows across the York Plateau, in which it has cut a comparatively broad
valley. The lower river has a broad , flat flood plain from one hundred y ards
to one-half a mile in width. The gravels here measure several feet deep
and from two to three hundred feet wide.Writing in 1900, Brooks remarks: "In the upper part of its course
the river flows in greenstones, but below its bend to the south it cuts the
phyllites and slates which have already been referred to. It carries colors
for the lower 10 miles of its course, but no paying claims have yet been devel–
oped on it. On some claims about 2 miles from the sea a little prospecting has
been done, and it is claimed that the yields show 10 to 15 cents to the pan.26
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0322
VILHJALMUR STEFANSSON
67 MORTON STREET
NEW YORK 14
002 | Vol_XII-0323
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
The nugge st ts are sometimes chunky and sometimes flat. The former are probably
from the quartz-calcite blebs and the latter from the mineralized slates. The
gold is usually rounded and well polished. Much magnetite occurs with the gold.
A rough estimate of the fall of Anakovik River makes it about 15 to 18 feet
per mile."The main tributaries to the Anikovik are Ishut, Buhner, and Deer
Creeks from the west, and Moonlight, Banner, and Flat Creeks from the east.
72Gold
MiningEstimating the gold-bearing potentials of these streams, Brooks
felt that the basin-shaped valley of the upper Ishut, Buhner, and
Deer Creeks offered the best pooepots prospects , since they all ran over bed-rock slates
which had proved to be mineralized elsewhere in the district. The original
discovery of coarse gold in the York district was made on Buhner Creek, but at
the time of Brooks' report (1900) little prospecting had been done there.
Collier reports, in 1901, that the entire season for that year probably produced
only about $200 in gold.In 1903, only one party of prospectors mined the gravels of the
river and they earned only $600 for one month's work. About half a mile from
the coast, the river water was diverted by a ditch so that the river bed was
exposed. The gravels here contained small amounts of gold, but could have be en
worked profitably only by a large company owning several [ ?] miles of
river-bed.Nothing more is heard of the Anikovik placers until 1914, when
the American Gold Dredging Company put two dredges there and operated for both
tin and gold at the same time. One of these dredges had formerly been used
on Peluk Creek, near Nome. After being towed along the shore of Bering Sea
to the mouth of the Anikovik, it d ug its own way across the bar and into the
river. But gold was never to prove a large source of income in this part of
Seward Peninsula. Here, contrary to other districts on all sides, tin becamse promised to become
25
003 | Vol_XII-0324
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
the most important product.Tin
Mining It was Alfred H. Brooks, while on a U.S. Geological Survey recon–
naissance of Seward Peninsula, in 1900, who first recognized
evidences of stream tin (cassiterite) on Buhner Creek and Anikovik River.
This tin, ignored by the prospectors in the region, was found associated with
the gold in these two streams. With characteristic modesty and caution, Brooks
remarks, "It is worth while to call the attention of the prospectors and miners
to the desirability of being on the lookout for stream tin, and, if possible,
of tracing it [ ?] to its source in the bed rock. From the description of the
occurrence which has been given it is plain that its source can not be far
distant."When Collier visited this region during the summer of 1901, the
prospectors had only just receive d the bulletin in which Brooks described his
findings. Up to this time they had ignored this heavy metal which they found
associated with garnets, magnetite, and gold in the sluice boxes. Subsequent
to Collier's departure , considerable prospecting for tin was done with the result
that it was found on the Anikovik and all its tributaries, as well as on
Baituk Creek and other streams flowing into Bering Sea. It was also found
on Grouse, Buck, Yankee, Mint, and other waterw a ys flowing northward from the
other side of the York Mountains into the Arctic Ocean.Collier explains the presence of tin in these streams in the
following manner: "The region about York in which the Anikovik River and other
tin-bearing streams are located has, in recent geologic time, been reduced to
a plain, possibly in part by wave action and in part by subaerial erosion. At
this time a considerable thickness of rock strata was undoubtedly removed by
erosive agencies, and the heavier constituents of these rock masses must have
been more or less concentrated upon the plain surve surface . Subsequent to this base–
leveling the York p lain has been elevated to a plateau, which has been dissected
26
004 | Vol_XII-0325
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
by the creeks and rivers of the region. That t he elevation of this plateau
is an occur r ence of comparatively recent geologic time is shown by the fact
that the smaller creeks flow in sharply cut V-shaped canyons, and have scarcely
begun to broaden their valleys. As these valleys and canyons are developed,
the heavier materials of the surface are naturally reconcentrated in them. If
during the base-leveling period the heavier concentrates of the erosive agencies
were transported to any extent from their original sources, and if they are again
concentrated in subsequent creek beds, they may be found removed some distance
from their original sources. It is possible that the rocks from which they came
may in some instances have been wholly removed, leaving no evidence in the present
bed rock to show what they may have been."Waterworn pebbles and bowlders of [ ?] gabbroic greenstone of the
type which forms large masses about the head of the Anikovik River are common
in the beds of the Anikovik River and Grouse Creek. These bowlders are frequent
along Buhner Creek, where the tin was first found. No rock of this character
has been found in the bed rock within the Buhner Creek Basin, or indeed within
5 miles of Buhner Creek. There is no evidence that these bowlders were trans–
ported to their present place otherwise than by being rolled along with currents
of water. The possibility of their being floated on shore ice at some time of
submergence must be considered. The wide distribution of the stream tin in
this region, together with the fact that pebbles and bowlders of known origin
have been widely distributed independently of the present drainage, suggest
at least that the original source of the stream tin may be some distance from
the present deposits, and is not necessarily to be found within the present
drainage of the streams where it occurs. Acid igneous intrusions, such as
Cassiterite veins, are usually associated with, are found in Cape Mountain and
Brooks Mountain. The slates of Brooks Mountain have suffered great metamor–
phism. The York River, which is reported to be very rich in tin, heads in this
mountain and carries granite pebbles and bowlders, which suggests that the tin
28
005 | Vol_XII-0326
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
had its origin near the granite contact. The wide distribution of this mineral
in the creeks of the York district justified the belief that the veins from
which it is derived will yet be discovered."With the discovery of lode tin on Cassiterite Creek, in 1903,
interest in tin mining grew. Much prospecting and mining were done throughout
the York district. By 1905 a reported 130 tons of tin ore concentrates had been
shipped to the States. These concentrates averaged 65% tin, or 1,300 pounds
of tin to the ton. With tin selling at 29-30 cents per pound at that time,
the value of these shipments can easily be estimated. However, the cost of
transporting them Outside and, in several instances, to Europe, plus the cost of
smelting, probably ate up most of the profit. Although the United States was and is the
largest consumer of tin in the world, this was the first discovery of that
metal in the United States or its possessions with the result that smelters
in the United States were not equipped for reducing tin ores. This lack of
smelting equipment worked an early hardship on the new industry and has con–
tinued to do so ever since.In 1905, Harrison wrote: "Considered in the light of all available
data I believe that tin mining in Seward Peninsula is a very promising industry.
Any person [ ?] familiar with quartz mining knows that a great deal of expense is
connected with the development of ledges, and money nust be expended in order to
develop the tin ledges of this part of Alaska. Transportation facilities
must be provided so that the ores can be transported from the mines to the sea–
board, and thence to a smelter conveniently and favorably situated. It is the
general opinion that this smelter should be const ur ru cted somewhere on Puget
Sound. The large quantity of fuel required for smelting ores makes it apparent
that the tin ore can be concentrated and the concentrates shipped to a smelter
on Puget Sound and reduced there at a less cost than fuel [ ?] can be shipped to
Alaska and used by a smelter to secure the same results at the mines. The
27
006 | Vol_XII-0327
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
development of the tin mines of Alaska is simply a question of time and the
intelligent use of capital."For an explanation of the failure of these high hopes for the
Alaskan tin industry see the article on Tin City York mountains.
3
007 | Vol_XII-0328
ANIKOVIK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No. 299)Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait .
London, 1831.Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on Progress Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on Progress
of Investigations in 1914 of Investigations in 1914 . Washington, 1915. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin 622 Bulletin 622 )Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton
Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, 1901.Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska. Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, 1905.
001 | Vol_XII-0329
Ruby Collins ANIUK RIVER, ALASKA
May, 1949
350 wds
ANIUK RIVER, northwestern Alaska, one of the major northern
tributaries to the Noatak (q.v.), heads in the vicinity of Howard Pass, in
the Brooks range, and flows in a generally southwesterly direction to the
Noatak.Many of the tributary valleys of the Aniuk have the open U–
shaped formations typical of valleys previously occupied by glaciers.Fauna Creek, one of the early tributaries to the Aniuk, rises
on the south side of a 4,680-foot peak in the Range, and the first several
miles of the main river pass [ ?] between mountains attaining ever higher
elevations that this. Soon, however, the Aniuk plunges down upon the broad
lowland , to which it gives its name , and across which it works a widely
meandering course for about twenty-five miles. Many travelers have note d
that the Aniuk adds a large amount of clear water to the Noatak.The entire lowland section and all but the steepest and
highest parts of the mountainous section of the Anuik [ ?] valley are
covered with an unbroken growth of grasses, sedges, mosses, lichens, and stunted
bushes. Where this growth is thick, it retards the thawing of the underlying
permafrost layer (q.v.) and absorbs great quantities of moisture. Thereby
is formed the spongy cushion of low-growing vegetation so characteristic
of arctic and sub-arctic regions. Summer travel across such terrain is accutely
exhausting since, with every step, the entire foot and sometimes much of the
leg punches through the surface growth and into the underlying half-frozen
gravels beneath.Although the winter trails which lace most of Alaska do not
reach up the Noatak and its tributaries, the pass, mentioned above, from the
headwaters of the Aniuk to the Ipnavik, a tributary to the Colville (q.v.),
is much used by the Eskimos living on both sides of the Brooks R ange.
002 | Vol_XII-0330
ANIUK RIVER, ALASKA
Stoney mentions a settlement on the Aniuk, named for the river, but this
would seem to have disappeared sometime during the last fifty years.References:
Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska . Washington,
1930.(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)Smith, P.S. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska . Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 536)Stoney, G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.
001 | Vol_XII-0331
Ruby Collins 120 wds ARCTIC LAGOON, ALASKA
February, 1949
ARCTIC LAGOON, on the northwestern shore of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska, appears as such on Gibson's 1908 map of the Peninsula, but is uniden–
tified on more recent maps.This shallow body of water, which is separated from the Arctic Polar
Ocean Sea by a narrow sandspit, receives many of the streams in the northern
drainage system of the York Mountains. These include the Pinauk, Nuluk, and
Kugrupaga rivers (q.v.), and Trout Creek. Several other tributaries to this
lagoon are unnamed.The lagoon, which lies between Lopp Lagoon and Shish [ ?] maref Inlet,
Source: Gibson, Arthur. Map of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Nome, Alaska, 1908.
is about twenty-four miles long and about four miles wide at the widest greatest . The
Eskimo village of Sinrazat lies on the sandspit at a point where it is
interrupted, a few miles from the northern end of the lagoon.
001 | Vol_XII-0332
Ruby Collins AROLIC RIVER, ALASKA
July, 1948
456 wds
AROLIC RIVER, southewestern Alaska, enters Kuskokwim Bay via
two channels, North Mouth and South Mouth, about midway along the
eastern side of the bay just north of 59° 40′ N. Lat.The Arolic is formed by the junction of two streams, South Fork
and East Fork. South Fork is fed by streams rising in a chain of peaks
of the Ahklun Mountains which forms the divide between its waters and
those of the Goodnews River. South Fork receives many unnamed tribu–
taries all along its course which trends northward along the valley
east of Island Mountain and so to its junction with East Fork. This
fork drains from a mountain lake which lies in the Ahklun Range at about
59° 25′ N. Lat., [ ?] 161° W. Long. and trends in a westerly direction
for about 8 miles. to its [ ?] confluence with South Fork. A few miles
south of this junction Dear and Fox Creeks enter from the south,
and in the same vicinity an unnamed tributary, fed by Tyone, Keno, and
Flat Creeks, which rise in the vicinity of Thumb Mountain, and another
shorter stream, Snow Creek, enter from the north.Another group of streams in the Arolic system flows down from
the eastern slopes of the chain formed by Figure Four Mountain, Yoke Moun–
tain, and Yukon Hill, just east of Jacksmith Bay (q.v.). These, from
south to north are: Domingo, Lucky, McLane, Red Lodger, Canyon,
Minnesota, and Boulder Creeks. These flow in a generally northeasterly
direction to the stream which trends northward along the valley floor to
join the Arolic about 5 miles southeast of Yukon Hill. Another group
of streams rises in the vicinity of Island Mountain on the eastern
side of the valley. These from south to north are: Faro, Dry, Kowkow,
Trail, and Butte Creeks, all of which flow in a generally northwesterly
direction to the main river of the valley.
002 | Vol_XII-0333
AROLIC RIVER, ALASKA
After this junction the Arolic receives no tributaries and flows
in a northwesterly direction for about 8 miles at which point it
divides and follows two channels, North Mouth and South Mouth, to
Kuskokwim Bay. South Mouth, for part of its length, itself divides
in two, but it joins again about two miles from the bay. Measuring
from the confluence of South and East Forks the Arolic is about 30
miles long.Since the discovery of gold near Butte Creek in 1900
small-scale mining has been carried on in the vicinity north of Island
Mountain. In 1939 the Goodnews Bay Mining Co. transferred a dragline
from Platinum Creek, Goodnews Bay, to an unspecified point near
Butte Creek on the Arolic River. Wilson & Horner [ ?] were reported in
1947 to be working a gold placer, with a crew of four, on Canyon Creek.The only settlement on the river is Arolic on the North Mouth
near the Bay.--------------------
Sources: Tewkesbury; VSGB
° in Baker; USCP; Colby
001 | Vol_XII-0334
Ruby Collins BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA
March, 1949
Text-1,355
Bibl-100
BALDWIN PENINSULA is an irregular extension of the northwest–
ern part of Alaska separating Selawik Lake and Hotham Inlet from Kotzebue
Sound, an arm of the Polar Sea.This peninsula is nine or ten miles wide at the point at which
it leaves the mainland. About fifteen miles northwest of this point the pen–
insula forms Atti [ n ?] nuk Point, the southern entrance point in to Selawik Lake, (q.v.)
while at the same time the southern side of the peninsula forms the northern
shoreline of Eschscholtz Bay (q.v.) In this vicinity, A a finger-like extension of the southern side
of the peninsula at this point is called Choris Peninsula, which extends
southward toward Chamisso Island (q.v.) and separat ing es Eschscholtz Bay from
Kotzebue Sound. Here the main body of the peninsula resembles an isosceles
triangle, but almost immediately the apex of this triangle stretches northwest–
ward in a thin neck of land which, after about fourteen miles, widens to form
the square, club-like head of the peninsula. Th is e head is about nineteen
miles long and about twelve miles wide at the greatest. The final two-thirds
of the peninsula forms the southern shoreline of Hotham Inlet, and the
northern shoreline of Kotzebue Sound.The promontories on the head of the peninsula are: Pipe Spit,
near the entrance to Hotham Inlet; and Nimiuk Point, about midway of the
northen side of the peninsula; and Cape Blossom on the Kotzebue Sound,
side, approximately opposite Nimiuk Point.Throughout it area Baldwin Peninsula is spattered with
tiny lakes and laced with equally small streams.Choris Peninsula has two 300-foot hills separated by a low,
sandy neck of land. For some distance N n orthward of this point, Baldwin Peninsula is low
but then rises into low bluffs. These bluffs, which continue across to
Hotham Inlet, are the most unusual feature of the peninsula, since they are
002 | Vol_XII-0335
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA
composed of ice and frozen mud. The bluffs are gradually melting and sliding
down into the Inlet. The bluffs on the Kotzebue Sound side of the Peninsula
are highest in the vicinity of Cape Blossom, where a flashing light is shown
from a small white house about 200 feet above the water.Capt. F.W. Beechey, R. N., in H.M.S. Blossom , explored this
part of Alaska in September, 1826. He named this promontory after his ship.
After examining the icy bluffs in the vicinity of the cape, he wrote:"In another excursion which I made along the north side of the sound [ Kotzebue
Sound ] , I landed at a cape which had been named after the ship, and had the
satisfaction of examining an ice formation of a similar nature to that in
Escholtz Bay, only more extensive, and having a contrary aspect. The ice
here, instead of merely forming a shield to the cliff, was imbedded in the
indentations along its edge, filling them up nearly even with the front. A
quantity of fallen earth was accumulated at the base of the cliff, which
uniting with the earthy spaces intervening between the beds of ice, might lead
a person to imagine that the ice formed the cliff, and supported a soil two or
three feet thick, part of which appeared to have been precipitated over the
brow. But on examining it above, the ice was found to be detached from the
cliff at the back of it; and in a few instances so much so, that there were
deep chasms between the two. These chasms are no doubt widened by the tendency
the ice must have towards the edge of t h e cliff; and I have no doubt the beds
of ice are occasionally loosened, and fall upon the beach, where, if they are
not carried away by the sea, th e y become covered with the earthy materials
from above, and perhaps remain some time immured. In some places the cliff was
undermined, and the surface in general was very rugged; but it was evident in
this as in the former instance, that the ice was lodged in hollow places in
the cliff. While we continued here we had an example of the manner in which
the face of the cliff might obtain an icy covering similar to that in Escholtz
003 | Vol_XII-0336
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA
Bay. There had been a sharp frost during the night, which froze a number of
small streams that were trickling down the face of the cliff, and cased those
parts of it with a sheet of ice, which, if the oozings from the cliff and the
freezing process were continued, would without doubt form a thick coating to
it."Upon the beach, under the cliffs, there was an abundance of
drift birch and pine wood, among which there was a fir-tree three feet in
diameter. This tree, and another, which by the appearance of its bark had
been recently torn up by the roots, had been washed up since our visit to this
spot in July; but from whence they came we could not even form a conjecture, as
we frequently remarked the absence of fl o ating timber both in the sound and
in the strait."In contradiction to Beechey's findings, is the statement
from the report of the 1881 cruise of the Corwin , under Captain C. L. Hooper,
which reads in part: "Cape Blossom is the northwestern termination of the
peninsula between Hotham Inlet and Seolowick [ Selawik ] Lake on one side and
Kotzebue Sound on the other. It presents seaward a sheer cliff, which was
described by Beechey as having an ice formation similar to that at Elephant
Point, to be described hereafter. Although I visited this place several times
during my two cruises, yet I saw no signs of ice against the face of the cliff
like that at Elephant Point, which remains the same from year to year. Cape
Blossom is highest at its western extremity and gradually becomes lower to the
eastward, until it forms only a low narrow neck, across which the natives easily
draw their boats. To the northwest of the cape a shoal extends eight miles
from the shore, and as it shoals up suddenly inside the seven-fathom curve,
it is [ ?] very dangerous and should be approached, even in clear weather,
with great caution."
004 | Vol_XII-0337
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA
There must have been some kind of ice formation in this area,
however, for as late as 1901, Mendenhall gives what he feels is the definitive
explanation of these cliffs: "Many writers since Kotzebue have discussed the
origin of these ice cliffs, but the explanation given by Mr. L. M. Turner,
Messrs. E. W. Nelson and C. L. Hooper, and Prof. I.C. Russell seems to be
entirely adequate. It is that many of the numerous lakelets scattered about
over the tundra are gradually buried by the advance of their mossy borders
toward the center. After their burial they are frozen, as is the entire tundra,
a few inches below its surface and are later revealed by lateral river cutting,
as in the Kowak delta, or by the work of waves, as at Elephant Point, and
appear as masses of comparatively clear ice in the general deposit of frozen
mud, sands, and vegetable matter."Kotzebue (q.v.), the only named town on Baldwin Peninsula,
occupies very nearly the same site as the former native settlement of
Kikiktak Kikiktak , which Stoney recorded as Ki-ra-targ-ga-roak Ki-ra-targ-ga-roak in 1886. As early
as 1880 , this settlement had a known summer population of two hundred or more,
and has remained an important trading and distribution point ever since.The coast northward from Cape Blossom to the mouth of
Hotham Inlet is still the summer gathering place for the natives of this
entire region. For the purpose of trading and fishing they come down the
major rivers of the mainland on the east, from as far west as Cape Prince
of Wales, the Diomedes, and King Island, and from as far north as Point
Hope, one hundred and fifty miles up the coast of the Polar Sea.A northern [ ?] branch of the winter trail around Norton
Sound and across Seward Peninsula connects Baldwin Peninsula with settlements
to the south. Branches of this trail lead eastward up the Kobuk River, and
northward along the Polar Sea to Barrow.Several herds of reindeer graze on Baldwin Peninsula,
and meat in any quantity may be obtained there.
005 | Vol_XII-0338
BALDWIN PENINSULA, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No. 299)Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ...
in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ...
in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28. London, 1831. 2v.Hooper, C.L. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas Corwin,
in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas Corwin,
in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 . Washington, 1884.Mendenhall, W.C. Recon n aissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska Recon n aissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska .
Washington, 1902. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional
Paper No.10)Stoney, G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.
United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II . 5th (1947) edition. Washington,
1947.VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0339
Ruby Collins BATTLE LAKE, ALASKA
22 April 48
60 w
BATTLE LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern section of the Alaska Peninsula,
Sources: VS GB: Baker; Aeronautical Chart No.136
is a narrow, spoon-shaped lake, about 9 miles long, lying in a valley southeast
of Lake Kukaklek (q.v.) and about 5 or 6 miles north of Lake Kulik (q.v.), near
59° N. Lat. and 155° W. Long. Battle Lake is surrounded on all sides by
mountains 2,000 to 3,000 feet high from which several small stream flows into
the lake.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0340
Ruby Collins BECHAROF LAKE, ALASKA
21 April 48
220
BECHAROF LAKE, ALASKA (Becharoff, Betchareff, Bocharof, Bochonoff)
the largest lake on the Alaska Peninsula, extends northwest-southeast across
58° N. Lat. from about 155° 55′ to 156° 53′ W. Long. The lake is roughly
rectangular in shape except for a tail-like extension from its southeastern
corner. The main body of the lake is about 15 miles wide and 36 miles long,
to which the southeastern extension adds approximately 19 miles of varying
widths. Severson Peninsula extends about 7 miles straight into the lake from
its southeastern shore, leaving only a two-mile entrance to the southern
arm. The farthest tip of this arm is only a scant five miles from Portage
Bay, Shelikof Strait, on the northeastern side of the Alaska Peninsula. The
Kejulik River has its source in the mountains northeast of Becharof Lake.
It follows a winding, southwesterly course, and is fed by Gas Creek,
Margaret Creek, Catrine Creek, and several unnamed tributaries. Kejulik
River runs into the eastern and of Becharof Lake just above Severson Peninsula.
The Egegik River (q.v.) drains from the northwestern end of the lake. A
winter trail connecting Kanatak (q.v.), on Portage Bay, with Egegik, Naknek,
and Koggiung (q.v.), on Kvichak Bay, runs along the south shore of
Becharof Lake.Becharof Lake was named after a master in the Russian Navy who was
at Kodiak Island in 1788.18 12 ﹍ 36 18 ﹍ 216
+ suppl
001 | Vol_XII-0341
Ruby Collins BESBORO ISLAND
August, 1948
192 w. Text
25 BiblBesboro Island, Norton Sound, about 11 miles off the
west coast of Alaska, is really the top of a mountain protruding 1,012
feet above the sound. Although the western side of western side of
the island is bold-to, a shoal extends for about two miles in a
northeasterly direction from the northern end. Sailing south from
Cape Denbigh, Captain James Cook, who named this island, was
deflected by this same shoal on September 17, 1778. "At seven we
were abreast of Besborough Isle," wrote Ellis, assistant surgeon to
the Cook expedition, "between which and the main we proposed going,
but in the space of ten minutes we shoaled our water from ten to four
fathoms and a quarter, so of course tacked ship and stood SW our distance
form the island being three-quarters of a mile s ." In 1870 Dall reported:
"When the snow melts and the ice goes out of the small rivers ...
myriads of water-fowl arrive, and breed on the steep cliffs of
Besboro Island." There are no settlements on Besboro Island, but
it is an important landmark, since it can be seen from St. Mich ea ae l
Island (q.v.) on a clear day.
192 wdsEllis, W. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and
Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,
and 1780; in search of a North-West Passage. and 1780; in search of a North-West Passage. London,
G. Robinson, 1782.Dall. Alaska and its resources. Alaska and its resources. Boston, Lee & Shepard, 1870.
U.S.C.P. & Suppl.
50 wds bibl.
001 | Vol_XII-0342
Ruby Collins BETHEL, ALASKA
14 July 1948
BETHEL, ALASKA, about 65 miles up the Kuskokwim River, is
the center of trading, religious, and education al activities for the entire
lower Kuskokwim Valley. It was founded in 1885 as a Moravian Mission by
William H. Weinland and John H. Kilbuck.Bethel, with a reported 376, but an estimated population of 450,
of [ ?] which about one-third is white and two-thirds are Eskimo, is the
metropolis for this section of Alaska. During the summer season of naviga–
tion freight and passenger vessels make regular trips between Seattle and
Bethel. Bethel is the head of deep water navigation up the Kuskokwim
and therefore the point at which cargoes are transferred to lighters for
the remainder of their journey to Akiak, Napamiute, Sleitmut and McGrath,
to name only a few of the many towns and villages along the more than 500–
mile course of the Kuskokwim. Bethel has one lighterage and two river
transportation companies to handle this traffic , but T the airplane however
is fast replacing this slower method of freighting. Bethel has a new two
✓ airfields , a 2,800 - foot airfield on the town on west side of the river and a 5,000–
foot hand-surfaced landing area on the east side directily across from the town Bethel receives
airmail service from Anchorage, and mail, express, and
passenger air service from Fairbanks. There are two post office s one
a third-class Government office and another run by the U.S. Army.
Regular mail deliveries arrive monthly by way of the Yukon and Holy Cross
Mission. From the Mission it is carried over the Portage to the Kuskokwim
and then down the Kuskokwim in small boats as far as Kinak on the west
side of the mouth. The Alaska Communications System of the U.S. Army
maintains a telegraph and radio station in Bethel, several airlines
maintain radio stations, and, in [ ?] 1940, the Moravian Mission Orphanage
was operating station KEP. Despite the fact that swamps and marshes border
both sides of the lower Kuskokwim, Bethel is connected by road with
Tuluksak, 40 miles up the river, and with Kwinhagek, 90 miles to the south,
002 | Vol_XII-0343
BETHEL, ALASKA
at the mouth of the Kanektok River (q.v), Kuskokwim Bay.The Moravian Mission runs an orphange which housed 33 children
in 1947 and maintains a training school each year from January 1 to
March 15. In December, 1947, there were at least three members serving
the mission. This mission owns a reindeer herd which, in 1942, was
estimated to have increased beyond 4,000 head. Bethel also has a
Native school, a Territorial school, a modern $250,000 Government
hospital for Natives, and a resident Deputy Marshal.The chief activities of the area are fishing, fur trading, and
placer gold mining. In 1947 Bethel had 5 licensed fur dealers and one
fur farmer. That same year three companies, Marvel Creek Mining Co.,
Peandori Placer Mining Co., and Wilson & Horner were operating gold
placers on Marvel, Cripple, and Canyon Creeks, respectively. These
streams lie southeast of Bethel between it and the most northerly of
the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.). The placers are equipped with draglines,
bulldozers, and hydraulics. Marvel Creek Mining Co. operated during 1945
although many other mines throughout Alaska shut down during World War II
because of the shortage and the high cost of labor.Bethel is seriously endangered by the storms which accompany the
spring break - up each year. These storms cause the [ ?] Kuskokwim to erode
its banks at the Mission end of the town. In 1947 the river cut into
the graveyard, opened graves , and caskets, and carried away bodies.
A store and several houses have been moved away from the banks along
Front Street, but the Territorial and Federal Schools, and the airport
are threatened unless more permanent protective measures are taken. Nels
Anderson, Chairman of the Bethel Chamber of Commerce, recommended in 1939
that the entire town be moved back from the river to higher ground. In
1946 this had not yet been done, and the Deputy Marshal, although
003 | Vol_XII-0344
BETHEL, ALASKA
approving the idea, explained that since the town lay between the river
and a swamp, the evacuation would be extremely difficult. In February,
1947, Bethel citizens were recommending that a road be built over this
swamp before the spring breakup and the entire town moved to the ridge
beyond it, a safe mile from the river. This mass movement would have
been easier before Bethel had reached its present proportions. By
1947 the town had two private air carriers, 6 general stores, 2 liquor
stores, 3 restaurants, a water, light, and power company, a theater,
bakery, book dealer, and billiard parlor. Provisions and gasoline may
be obtained in the town as well as limited supplies of coal although
the price of coal is very high. Because of the number and size of the
reindeer herds in the vicinity, deer meat is available and reasonably
priced.The territory around Bethel is swamp and treeless tundra.
Caribou abound and hundreds of thousands of geese and ducks of many
varieties breed in the lake-studded area northwest of the town. The
peninsula between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon Rivers is
the breeding ground for the game fowl not only of western Alaska but also
of western Canada and the United States.The weather is characterized by a high relative humidity,
strong winds, a comparatively light snowfall and temperatures ranging
from the mid-seventies to the sub-zero fifties. The following chart
reproduces in part the 1947 U.S. Weather Bureau Report for Bethel:--------------------
Sources: VSGB; USCP; Tewkesbury; Colby; Sundborg; Annabel; Tuttle
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0345
Bethel Weather Report -1947 T-Trace
Temp. of the Air Mean Relative Humidity l Precipitation Tota in Inches Wind Clear Days Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days Snow fall Total in Inches Maximum Velocity Aver. Hourly Velocity MPH Prevailing Direction. Max. Date Min. Date MPH Direct. Jan. 36° 5 ࢤ52° 25 87 2.10 - - 10.5 N 16 15 20.2 Feb. 47° 8 ࢤ45° 2 83 0.34 - - 12.4 NE 11 17 2.9 Mar. 39° 18 ࢤ27° 13 84 14.00 24 NE 0.8 NE 11 20 1.5 Apr. 49° 27 ࢤ4° - 85 0.13 - 34 - 10.2 N 8 22 May. 74° 31 21° 1 77 0.62 34 - 8.6 S 0 31 2.3 June. 73° 17 37° 2 76 2.64 40 - 8.9 S 0 30 0 July. 75° 19 42° 11 86 2.23 - - 9.3 S 2 29 0 Aug. No Report Sept. 56° 10 25° 25 82 1.52 40 S 10.0 NW 2 28 T Oct. 52° 6 6° 19 87 0.95 34 - 11.0 NE 3 28 4.9 Nov. 45° 21 ࢤ5° 16 94 1.32 38 - 11.0 NE 2 28 9.2 Dec. 38° 3 ࢤ26° 29 92 0.83 36 - 10.2 NE 3 28 4.5
001 | Vol_XII-0346
Ruby Collins BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA
November, 1948
1,000 wds-Text
50 wds - BiblBLUESTONE RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Al a ska, was the site of
an initially rich but later disappointing gold strike in 1900, and was
named by Barnard, of the U.S. Geological Survey, that same year.The Bluestone rises south of Grantley Harbor (q.v.) and southeast
of Port Clarence (q.v.), in a basin-shaped valley in the foothills of
the Kigluaik Mountains, and flows in a generally northeasterly direction
to Tuksuk Channel. This is the channel which connects Grantley Harbor with
Imuruk Basin (q.v.).From the one thousand-foot heights overlooking the Bluestone
Basin, several small streams flow down into the Bluestone. Travelling
down-stream these are: Alder, Right Fork, Ruby, Lucky Strike, Leroy, and
Gold Creeks.Right Fork is joined by Ring, Eagle, and Windy Creeks. None of
these streams is more than ten miles long, and [ ?] most of them are consider–
ably shorter.Brooks points out that, while the small streams in this vicinity
have comparatively straight valleys, the larger waterways, of which the
Bluestone is a good example, twist and turn most unexpectedly. "The
Bluestone," he continues, "... flows through a broad, flat valley nearly
east, then turning northward at an angle of 80° continues in this direct–
tion with the same character of the valley for about 4 miles, then, turn–
ing northeasterly, enters a narrow rock canyon. On emerging from the
canyon, about 5 miles below, it enters a broad valley again, and after
two more right-angle bends flows into Tisuk [Tuksuk] Channel. These irregularities [ ?]
[ ?] ... are due...to change of
drainage."
002 | Vol_XII-0347
BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA
In 1900, Brooks, continues, reported " P p lacer gold has been reported from
many creeks of the district, but so far the only claims that have been
worked are on Gold Run, a name given to the Upper Bluestone, and on
Alder Creek, a tributary of Gold Run. At a number of other creeks suffici–
ent prospecting has been done to show the presence of placer gold. The
placers which have thus far produced gold in the region all lie immediately
above the canyon on Gold Run and its tributaries...The gravels are coarse
and frequently contain large bowlders, which suggest ice transportation.
The surface indications are usually not particularly favorable, though
as high as 50 cents to the pan has been obtained. On bed rock fabulously
rich pans have been reported, and $2 to $3 pans are no uncommon.
The largest nugget which had been found at the time of the writer's visit
was worth somewhat under $100. The gold is, as a rule, coarse, dark
colored, and of irregular outline."From this account, report it can readily be understood why hopes ran so
high for the Bluestone District directly after the 1900 strike. This
enthusiasm persisted for about ten years, by which time most claims had
been worked out, and mining activities gradually decreased.In 1908 these was a town a t the mouth of Alder Creek called Sullivan.
This could be reached by wagon road from Teller, eighteen miles away.
There was also a road leading across [ ?] a low divide to the head of
Tisuk Creek, then down the Feather River, to Norton Sound and Bering Sea. During the
summer months stages ran daily from Sullivan to both these points.In addition to the richness of the original strikes in the Blue–
stone are a , one of the reasons for the optimism of the stampeders to the dis–
trict was the anticipated ease with which supplies could be brought in.
003 | Vol_XII-0348
BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA
Many of the original claim holders had come from Nome (q.v.). They
knew from experience of the disadvantages and dangers of the Nome road–
stead; they had probably waited for supplies to be lightered ashore at
Nome, and had perhaps lost some much-needed equipment in the storms
which sweep the Nome beach every summer. Port Clarence was known to be
the deepst and safest harbor anywhere on the coast of Seward Peninsula , and
T the Bluestone miners expected that cargoes could easily be landed at
Teller. However, this expectation was short-lived. Shoal water also
edges Port Clarence, as well as Norton Sound so that, although it has a safer roadstead, Teller
is no more accessible to deep-water vessels than is Nome.This fact, combining with the speedy depletion of th
Bluestone deposits, doomed the hopes of the first miners in that region.
From about 1910 to 1930 there was little mining activity along the
Bluestone, but the reduction of the gold content of the dollar in 1933,
which had the effect of increasing the value of gold, gave new impetus
to mining here, as elsewhere in the Territory. By 1936 the U.S.
Geological Survey reported: "Placer mining in the Port Clarence dis–
trict was decidedly on the upgrade in 1936, owing principally to the
highly successful operation of two dredges. These were situated on
Gold Run, a tributary of the Bluestone River, and on Dese Creek, which
flows directly into Grantley Habor." The latter dredge was worked by
N.B. Tweet and Sons. In 1939 production for the Port Clarence area
was below that for the previous few years, but only because the largest
dredging company at work there, the Bartholomae Oil Corporation, had
restricted mining operations so as to recondition the plant and equipment.
Hopes were, then, again running high when the World War II restrictive
order making gold non-essential went into effect in 1942. This put
an end to almost all gold mining in the entire Territory, and killed
004 | Vol_XII-0349
BLUESTONE RIVER, ALASKA
new-born enthusiasm of the Bluestone operators. As of this writing
(1948), gold mining in Alaska has not recovered from the effect of this
ruling. (See Bluff and Nome articles.) By 1947, three men still held
titles to gold property on Gold Run Creek, but the amount of actual
mining activity was negligible.The town of Sullivan, as such, has disappeared,
although most recent maps indicate that there are mining camps in the
vicinity of its former site.A winter trail now runs along the same route as was
taken by the stage-coaches leaving Sullivan daily for Shea's Roadhouse,
and a road leads from the camps in the Sullivan area to Teller.Sources:
Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin-
sula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, sula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok,
Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Washington,
D.C., 1908. (U.S. Geoloigal Survey. Bulletin , No. 328)Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton
Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.Brooks, Alfred H. Report on Progress of Investigations of Mineral Re- Report on Progress of Investigations of Mineral Re-
sources of Alaska in 1908. sources of Alaska in 1908. Washington, D.C., 1909.Smith, Philip S. Mineral Industry of Alaska in 1936. Mineral Industry of Alaska in 1936. Washington, D.C.,
1938. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 897-A)
Baker
001 | Vol_XII-0350
Ruby Collins BLUFF REGION
September, 1948
2100 wds
100 wds - bibl
The BLUFF REGION lies midway of the a deep bite in the
southern coastline of Seward Peninsula , Alaska, which extends from Rocky Point to
Cape Nome in the northern part of Norton Sound. Topkok Head, a promentory at
the mouth of the Topkok River midway of this bite, is the coastal extremity
of a series of high bluffs which skirt the shore for a distance of about 30
miles northwestern from Golovnin Bay (q.v.). Beyond Topkok Head and Cape Nome, 32 miles away these
highlands trend inland leaving an ever-widening stretch of moss-covered sand
and gravel along the coast between it and Cape Nome, 32 Miles away Westward from Cape
Nome the highlands once more crowd closer to shore, although they leave a
4 to 6 mile fringe of plain for the remaining 12 or 13 miles to Nome, itself (q.v.).Although the coastline in this area is edged by a narrow shoal,
the water one mile or more from shore is deep and the bottom regular. Topkok
Head rises abruptly 586 feet out of the water on its seaward side, and is
the most conspicuous landmark in the vicinity. A 572-foot yellow bluff about
6 miles east of Topkok Head is likewise conspicuous, but is not so
prominent as the Head itself.From east to west the rivers of the Bluff Region enter Norton
Sound in the following order: Koyana, Daniels, Eldorado, Ryan, Silverbow
(Little Anvil) Creeks, and the Topkok River, which is the largest of the group.
None of these streams is very long, however, because the watershed for the
entire area rises not more than 4 miles from the coast. From north to south
the tributaries to the Topkok are California Surprise, Allen, and Rock
Creeks, all from the west.There are only two towns in or near the Bluff area: Chiukak,
halfway between Rocky Point and Daniels Creek, and Bluff, at the mouth of
Daniels Creek. These towns are connected by the winter trail which runs
from Golovnin Bay around the southern shore [ ?] of Seward Peninsula and then
northward to Kotzebue Sound.25[1?]
002 | Vol_XII-0351
BLUFF REGION
Chiukak is an Eskimo village called Chiokuk by Petrof in 1880
and Seookuk by Jarvis in 1898.¶Bluff, on the other hand, is a white mining
settlement on the si te of the gold strik e made by William Hunter and Frank
Walter in September, 1899, one year after the Anvil Creek strike in the Nome
district. Although Hunter and Walter found placer gold at the mouth of Daniels
Creek in September, the first c a l aims were made by J.S. Sullivan, George
Ryan, and others in December of the same year. In January, 1900, Hunter
returned to Daniels Creek with H.C. Malmquist and three other partners who and staked
5 five tundra claims along the beach adjacent to the creek. These men bought
Discovery Claim at the mouth of the creek and organized the Black Chief
Mining Co.¶ Alfred H. Brooks writing in 1901 describes what happened immediately
thereafter: "The find on the creek was kept secret for a time, but by the middle of
March the rush from Nome began and soon many people were on the ground. A
miners' meeting decided that 60 feet back from high water belonged to the beach
and, as such, could not be claimed. The crowd worked on this ruling, every man
where he could, until July 8, when United States troops under Lieutenant Erickson
stopped work on the claim at the mouth of Daniels Creek pending litigation. During
the few months of work it is estimated that nearly three-quarters of a million
dollars were taken from a strip of beach less than 1,000 feet long and 50 feet
wide. Two men on an area of 27 square feet reported taking out $37,000. It is
said that three men took out $10,000 in five days. It was common for rockers
to make from $100 to $300 a day. These extraordinary returns were of short
duration, for the richest part of the small strip of beach was soon exhausted. The
first week of August, when Mr. Richardson visited the camp, called Bluff, about
200 men were present. There was little inducement for them to stay, however,
for the rich beach had been gutted, and the whole region had been staked."¶ In
1908 Brooks wrote again: [ ?] "It is estimated 23
003 | Vol_XII-0352
BLUFF REGION
that the gold tenor of much of the pay streak must have averaged $150 to the
cubic yard, or about $1 to the pan. This is far richer than the best part of the
Nome beach sands, and, in fact, is the richest marine placer ever found. In
gold content it has been equaled by only a very few claims in the peninsula."
¶ In 1900, only $200,000 was taken from the old beach which stretches across the present
mouth of Daniels Creek, although the lower part of the creek continued to be
exploited until 1902. Most of this gold came from Discovery Claim which,
by this time, was being worked with the aid of a gasoline engine which pumped a
sluice head of water from the sea. Between 1900 and 1902 gold was discovered
on Eldorado and Ryan Creeks and on Swede Gulch, but lack of water impeded
their development.¶ Brooks continues: "In 1902 a strong company called the Topkok
Ditch Company began the construction of a waterway from the head of Klokerblok
River to Daniels Creek. This work was completed late in the summer of 1903,
and sluicing began. In 1904 the company had about 16 miles of ditch in operation,
and in 1906 extended the conduit about 4 miles. This enterprise is a most success–
ful hydraulic mining operation and demonstrates what can be done under favorable
conditions and with intelligent and economical management. When the heavy
gravel deposits of Daniels Creek have been sluiced off, the water of the Topkok
Ditch Company can be utilized to mine the shallower deposits of Eldorado, Ryan,
and other smaller creeks." It is remarkable that a stream less than one mile
long could be put to such hard work.¶ By 1905 the Topkok Ditch Company
owned 35 miles of ditch and 5,000 feet of 28 ″ -30″ pipe, as well as a [ ?]
tunnel a quarter of a mile long connecting the headwater s of Daniels Creek with
the Klokerblok River and Skookum Creek. In 1906 an ancient beach deposit
below sea level was discovered near Bluff giving new impetus to the production
of the area, but despite this development only one man was working there in 1913,
and Topkok Ditch was dry. Within the next few years lode deposits were found
near Bluff and a gold mill was set up there. By 1920 a fairly thorough 27 [!?]
004 | Vol_XII-0353
BLUFF REGION
U.S. Geological Survey examination of the zones of mineralized schist had
revealed rich lode deposits on Daniels Creek and many other streams nearby,
and the Bluff area again became the scene of energetic activity.¶ Brooks visited
the region and reported in 1920: "... the deposits adjacent to and just east of
Daniels Creek are the most valuable of the region. Here the mineralized schist bands
in the limestone were staked as lode claims soon after the Daniels Creek placers
were discovered. The original locators have carried on development work on these
claims in a small way for some 20 years. Three lodes are recognized from Daniels
Creek eastward, the Sea Gull, Idaho, and Eskimo lodes. They trend in a general
northerly direction and except where they crop out on the cliff face are concealed
by the tundra vegetation and exposed only by mining operations...Four claims
are staked along the strike of each of the three lodes, extending from the sea
cliff nearly to the head of Daniels Creek valley. The most southerly claim on
the Eskimo lode is held by John Corrigan; the remaining eleven claims by Charles
Megan, Henry Megan, and W.J. Somerville. The schist zones have been traced by
pits and shafts and are said to contain gold wherever prospected. Most of the
work has been done about three-quarters of a mile from the beach, where fourteen
shafts, ranging in depth from 30 to 100 feet and aggregating 657 feet were
pointed out to the writer...The shafts have been sunk chiefly for prospecting
purposes, and it is said that no shaft failed to find gold-bearing quartz in
sufficient quantities and rich enough to mine. The present mill equipment will
handle, efficiently, only the oxidized surface portion of the lodes. There is
no timber in the vicinity of Bluff, and mine supports are difficult to obtain. As the
lode material is soft no considerable depth can be reached without danger from
caving. Only the present working shaft is timbered; all the others are caved
and inaccessible...Four men were employed in mining at the time of the writer's
visit. Dumps are taken out during the winter, and the ore is milled [ ?]
in the summer." Some cinnabar was discovered in the lodes although not in 27 [ ?]
005 | Vol_XII-0354
BLUFF REGION
commercial quantities.We have seen the town of Bluff expand to a high of 200, shrink
to one, and slowly grow again. The 1939 population was 14, and gold placer,
gold quartz, and cinnabar were still being removed from the area. The village
is was still strictly a mining community, without a post-office or a school,
although it does have a landing strip of unspecified length.H. Foster Bain in his report for December, 1946, covered the
past, present, and future of the gold mining in Alaska. He writes in part:
"The outlook for lode mining is obscure, despite the fact that scouts have been
maintained in the Territory for a number of years by several of the larger
mining interests...So far as Alaska gold mining is concerned, it is a further
fact, probably of considerable significance, that so large a proportion of the
output has been and continues to be from the placers. This, coupled with the
further fact deduced from the observation and experience of geologists in many
lands, that big placers are seldom if ever derived from big lodes but rather come
from the break-down of country rock cut by many little stringer lodes, is discourag–
ing to the search for profitable lode mines...It may well prove that in Alaska,
as in California, any really important lode mines found in the future will have
no significant relation to the placers. It may also prove that there are no
big ones to be found." Discussing Juneau mining developments in particular,
but telling a story which relates to all Alaska gold mining, he goes on to
explain the virtual shut-down of the industry throughout the Territory over
since the beginning of World War II. "It will be noted that there were no profits
from the operation through a term of years while the mine was being built up and
equipped or, again, after 1941, when war conditions affected operations adversely.
It was not only that prices of supplies and labor rose in these later years; but,
perhaps more importantly, shortage of manpower reduced output and increased unit
costs. The management struggled to keep the operation going, but the decision 27 [ s. ?]
006 | Vol_XII-0355
BLUFF REGION
of the War Labor Board decreeing an increase in wages with retroactive
payment finally made it cheaper to pay shut-down expenses than to continue to
operate at a deficit...It is to be expected that the company, with its heavy
investment and large remaining ore reserve, will make every effort to resume
operations as soon as possible; but the whole wage pattern in Alaska has been
so distorted by the war that resumption will be extremely difficult, and delay is
to be expected. It is to be remembered that gold miners operate against a fixed
price for their output and have no way to compensate for higher costs by increasing
the sale price of their product. In 1932, for the first time in many years, the
price of gold, in terms of United States dollars, was increased substantially,
but it is considered that since then the cost of taxes, supplies, and labor have
increased so much as to wipe out the margin of profit so created...The record
shows clearly that the mine can only be operated profitably [ ?] by mass production
methods and on a large scale. There is no way to run...a small mine, and this
fact also precludes resuming operation on a small scale and building up the
tonnage gradually...Any consideration of possible increase in price of g l o ld
involves to many factors of national policy and of politics that the subject
is hardly worth discussing. Meanwhile, one of the largest inudstrial units in
the Territory, with abundant raw material and complete and proved equipment,
remains idle." ¶ This story has been repeated in big and little throughout
Alaska, and it is only to be expected that relatively small operations like
those at Bluff will be slower to recover than the Juneau giant.22 [ s. ?]
007 | Vol_XII-0356
BLUFF REGION
References:
U.S.C.P. & Supplement
VSGB
Colby
Tewkesbury
Baker
Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula; a book of information about Nome and Seward Peninsula; a book of information about
Northwestern Alaska. Northwestern Alaska. Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan Press, c1905.Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry. Wash. D.C.,
Bureau of Mines, 1946. (U.S. Bur. of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular
7379. December, 1946)Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Redonnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Redonnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton
Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, G.P.O., 1901.
(U.S. Geological Survey)Collier, Arthur J. (and others). GoldPlacers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, GoldPlacers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence,
and Goodhope Precincts and Goodhope Precincts . Wash. G.P.O. 1908. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin No.328)Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska, report on progress Mineral Resources of Alaska, report on progress
of investigations in 1905, 1907, 1909, [ ?] 1913, 1917, of investigations in 1905, 1907, 1909, [ ?] 1913, 1917,
1920. 1920. Wash. G.P.O. 1906-1922. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Bulletins Bulletins No.284, 345, 442, 592, 692, 722)Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface water supply of Seward Peninsula, Surface water supply of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska Alaska . Wash. G.P.O. 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water- Water-
Supply Paper Supply Paper 314)
001 | Vol_XII-0357
Ruby Collins BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA
26 May 48
1000
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA, the center for the red salmon canning
industry [ ?] of sou thern Alaska and the Alaska Peninsula, may be said
to include all that part of Bering Sea east of a line dra wn from Cape
S arichef, Unimak Island, northeastward to Cape Newenham, the tip of the
peninsula which separates Bristol from Kuskokwim Bay (q.v.). Bristol Bay
is cut off from the Pacific Ocean on the south and east by Unimak Island
and the Alaska Peninsula, and is bounded on the north and northwest by
the territory around Kvichak, Nushagak, Kulukak, and Togiak Bays (q.v.),
all northerly arms of Bristol Bay. Naknek River, a tributary to Kvichak
Bay, is the head of deep water navi [ ?] ation in Bristol Bay, although
small cannery vessels proceed up the several arms of the bay and, in
some cases, to the head of the rivers which flow into them. The waters
along the northeastern and northern coasts of Bristol Bay are shoal
sometimes for as many as 6 miles offshore and are dangerous to navigate
except in daylight on a rising tide and then only with constant use
of the lead. Available surveys of this area are old, and it is felt that
considerable change in the channels has taken place since they were made.
Because of the funnel-shaped configuration of the mouths of the
Ugashik, Egegik, Naknek, Kvichak, and Nushagak Rivers, and of the bays
into which they flow, tidal currents are strong and run as fast as 6 knots.
In addition, the tidal range in these bays and rivers is sometimes as
much as 26 feet. The currents in Bristol Bay are therefore considered
to be partly tidal, although the bay is also thought to form the eastern
part of a permanent eddy which flows eastward past Cape Newenham and dis–
charges along the north shore of Unimak Island flowing westward.
002 | Vol_XII-0358
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA
The shores of Bristol Bay are mostly low, lake-studded, treeless
tundra, but the high, volcanic mountains along the central parts of
Unimak Island, and the Alaska Range which borders the southern side of
the Alaska Peninsula, would serve as [ ?] unmistakable land marks except
for the fog which prevails throughout the area during the season of
navigation. Fog persists from spring through fall, although it is
heaviest during the summer months, so that only what low landmarks are
visible beneath the fog may be used as guides to navigation. Very little
is known about ice conditions in Bristol Bay. It is probably free from
heavy ice sometime between mid-May and mid-June, and there is reason
to believe that it is occasionally open to navigation the year around,
although the rivers and bays associated with it are always closed from
late in the fall to May or June.Water transportation to Bristol Bay Points is supplemented by
overland and air carriers. Although the flat, marshy tundra is impassable
in summer, it is excellent terrain for winter travel by dog sled. Two
trails running from different points on Shelikof Strait and over the
Alaska Range connect settlements along the northern coast of the
Alaska Peninsula with points on Lake Clar k Iliamna Lake and the Kvichak
River with Dillingham, Togiak, Goodnews, and other settlements to the
west and northwest. It was reported in 1940 that a new airline, called
Naknek Airways, was opening in Koggiung, near the head of Kvichak Bay [ ?] ,
which would serve all Bristol Bay points. Dillingham, the largest settle–
ment on Nushagak Bay, had six air carriers in 1947 and was reported to
be constructing an airport with a 2200-foot runway. Besides these local
services, planes from Anchorage and Fairbanks make regular stops at most
Bristol Bay settlements.
003 | Vol_XII-0359
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA
The shallow waters of Bristol Bay, which nowhere exceed
300 feet and which receive so many lake-fed rivers and their associated
bays, offer an ideal habitat for the red salmon, or sockeye, which spawns
only in river systems containing lakes. The canning season runs from
mid-June to mid-July during which time not only the men employed [ ?]
[ ?] and brought in by the canneries but also almost the entire popula–
tion of the towns of Egegik, Naknek, Koggiung, Nushagak, Dillingham,
and other smaller villages along the northeastern coast of Bristol Bay
turn fisherman for a month. Workers are in such demand and the pressure
of the short season is so great, that the canning companies not only
pay the citizenry for their catch but also supply them with boats, nets,
and credit in the company stores. [ ?]
[ ?] Cannery buildings, wharves, fresh-water pipe lines, cranes,
[ ?] marine railways and other company installations in the Bristol Bay
area represent an investment of more than $20,000,000. To balance this,
the red salmon sells for $15.00 or more per case, the annual catch is
worth about $12,000,000, and the industry gives employment to over 8,000
men. In order to protect this valuable industry themselves the canneries have
insisted on certain restrictive regulations. Traps are illegal; all
fishing must be done with gill nets and from small boats fitted only
with oars and a sail. The catch must be returned to the cannery or to
a tally scow anchored on the fishing grounds within 24 hours, and many of
the companies have a much shorter time-limit. Because buoys would
catch and tear the nets, no such markers are maintained in Bristol Bay,
a condition which adds considerably to the difficulty of navigating
these waters. All cannery operations must be based on the tidal intervals,
since low tide exposes bars, shoals, and mud flats all along the shores
of Bristol Bay and its tributaries. Most cannery vessels are specially
004 | Vol_XII-0360
BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA
constructed so that they will not be damaged when they lie high and dry
at low tide. After the middle of August, when the hundreds of cannery
vessels and their thousands of workmen depart, Bristol Bay is quiet and
little frequented. For the remainder of the year the chief activities
are hunting and trapping.Bristol Bay was named by Cook in 1778 in honor of the Admiral,
Earl of Bristol.82 12 ﹍ 164 82 ﹍ 98 4
Pacific
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0361
Ruby Collins
21 April 48 BROOKS, LAKE, ALASKA
70 wds
BROOKS, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern section of the Alaska
Sources: VS GB
Peninsula, lies midway between 58° and 59° N. Lat. on 156° W. Long. It is just
south of Naknek Lake (q.v.) from which it is separated by a high mountain.
A short, swift river connects it with Iliuk Arm, a southeastern extension
of Naknek Lake, and it is fed from the east and south by several small
streams rising in the foothills of the Aleutian Range, which borders the
eastern side of the Alaska Peninsula.
001 | Vol_XII-0362
Ruby Collins
April, 1949 BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA
Text - 770 words
Bibl - 100 "BUCKLAND RIVER, is the largest tributary to Eschscholtz Bay, an
arm of Kotzebue Sound, which indents the northeastern side of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska. The Eskimo name for this river has been recorded variousl y
as Kaniek Kaniek , Kotsokotana Kotsokotana , Kunguk Kunguk , Konguk Konguk , and Kongak Kongak , but it was Beechey
who, in September, 1826, gave it its present name."Having now the assistance of the barge," Beechey wrote, "I
e mbarked in her to examine narrowly the shores of Kotzebue Sound. Proceed–
ing to survey the head of Escholtz Bay, shallow water obliged the boat to
anchor off Elephant Point, where I left Mr. Collie with a party to examine
again the cliffs in which the fossils and ice formation had been seen by
Kotzebue, and proceeded to the head of the bay in a small boat. We landed
upon a flat muddy beach, and were obliged to wade a quarter of a mile before
we could reach a cliff for the purpose of having a view of the surrounding
country. Having gained its summit we were gratified by the discovery of a
large river coming from the southward, and passing between our station and a
range of hills. At a few miles distance the river passed between rocky
cliffs, whence the land on either side became hilly, and interrupted our
further view of its course. The width of the river was about a mile and a
half; but this space was broken into narrow and intricate channels by
banks — some dry, and others partly so. The stream passed rapidly between
them, and at an [ ?] earlier period of the season a considerable body of
water must be poured into the sound; though, from the comparative width
of the channels, the current in the latter is not much felt."The shore around us was flat, broken by several lakes, in which
there were a great many wildfowl."Beechey called this river the Buckland, "in compliment to Dr.
002 | Vol_XII-0363
BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA
Buckland, the professor of g eology at Oxford, to whom I am much indebted
for the above mentioned description of the fossils, and for the arrangement
of the geological memoranda attached to this work."The Buckland rises about 75 miles southeast of Eschscholtz Bay
and opposes the drainage flowing on the one hand into Norton Bay and on
the other into the lower Koyukuk, in the Yukon River system. Dead water
extends about 30 miles from the mouth and there are no serious rapids
for another 30 miles upstream.¶ Speaking of one of the few ascents of this [ ?]
river by the white man, Mendenhall writes:"On the 9th of September, 1849,
Capt. Henry Kellett, commanding H.M.S. Herald Herald , at that time in Kotzebue
Sound, started with several boats' crews to visit the natives reported to
live some distance up the Buckland River. Captain Kellett himself ascended
the stre a m about 30 miles, until a rock obstruction which prevented the
passage of the heavier boats was encountered. He then returned and Command–
[ ?] er Moore, of the Plover Plover , and Lieutenant Maguire, of the Herald Herald , with
lighter boats ascended about 30 miles farther, passing several rapids en
route. These officers reported that the river contained several obstruc–
tions within the 60 miles explored by them, and at the head of this
stretch a strong rapid, half a mile in length, through which they could not
pass. Pine (spruce) trees were reported as occurring sparingly in the Buck–
land Valley, and an account is also given of the presence of fine basaltic
columns along the river.Only the last thirty miles of the Buckland, and the entire course
of its main tributary, West For k may be said to be on Seward Peninsula
proper. The upper Buckland system fans out far to the southeastward to
the highland which marks this part of the interior of [ ?] northwestern
Alaska. The data on the territory surrounding the upper reaches of the
main river [ ?] are still incomplete, and the many tributaries to the Buckland
003 | Vol_XII-0364
BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA
in this section are unnamed.West For k , which enters the main stream from the south
about 35 miles up from its mouth, and soon after the Buckland bends
sharply to the west, rises in an irregular group of hills north of the
Koyuk (q.v.) and east of the Kiwalik (q.v.) Rivers.Although there are a few mining camps on West Fork, the only
settlement in this vicinity is Buckland (65° 59′ N.Lat., 161° 10′ W.Long.)
about fifteen miles above the mouth of the river.
004 | Vol_XII-0365
BUCKLAND RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's
Strait ... 1825,26,27,28. Strait ... 1825,26,27,28. London, 1831. 2v.Collier, A.J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin
No.328)Mendenahall, W.C. Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to [ ?] Kotzebue Sound Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to [ ?] Kotzebue Sound
Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Professional
Paper Paper No.10)Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington, Fairhaven gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,
1905 1905 . (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No.247)Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula ,
Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Water-Supply
Paper Paper 314)
001 | Vol_XII-0366
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 CALIFORNIA RIVER, ALASKA
115 wds
CALIFORNIA RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, drains an area
between the Agiapuk and the Don Rivers, flows almost directly southward to empty
into a lagoon on the north side of Port Clarence. California is a prospector's
name, first reported by Gerdine, in 1901.The upp e r four miles of this river work s a southeasterly course
Sources: Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d. ed. Washington, 1902.
out of the mountains, after which it turns due south and continues in this direc–
tion to its mouth, a few miles west of Teller Mission. A narrow s and spit
cuts the lagoon into which the California empties off from the Port proper.
This lagoon is extremely shoal and is [ ?] navigable to only the smallest
craft.
001 | Vol_XII-0367
Ruby Collins
July, 1948 CARTER BAY, ALASKA
372 wds
CARTER BAY, a small eastern arm of Kuskokwim Bay, indents the
mainland about 15 miles north of Goodnews Bay (q.v.). This bay is
about 6 miles long on its north-south axis and is separated from Kusko–
kwim Bay on the west and south by Carter Spit, a low sand spit from 50
to 300 yards wide. Carter Bay is protected, therefore, on all sides
except the north. It is shoal and dotted with mud flats although the
channel around the point of the spit offers anchorage to launches and
small craft. Indian River, from which fresh water can be obtained by
boats at high tide, enters the eastern side of Carter Bay. This river is
formed by the confluence of North Fork and South Fork a few miles
inland from the bay. North Fork rises in the Ahklun Range northeast
of the bay and flows in a southwesterly direction to the valley separat–
ing Cot Mountain from Tooth Mountain, where it is joined by Nautilus
Creek. It then turns westward to follow a meandering course to its
junction with South Fork. South Fork rises in Explorer Mountain,
a 3,000-foot peak in the Ahklun Range northward of Goodnews Bay,
and takes a westerly and northwesterly course around Tooth Mountain
to its meeting with North Fork. Tooth Mountain has a sharp, rocky
pinnacle on the northern edge of its summit and is easily recognized
from Carter Spit. A few cabins grouped around the mouth of the
Indian River form the village of Carter which lies on the long winter
trail leading eastward to Dillingham and other Bristol Bay towns and
northward to Eek and Bethel (q.v.) on the Kuskokwim.An inland branch of the main winter trail which runs along
the shore of Kuskokwim Bay leads from a point midway of the north side
of Goodnews Bay, northward between Explorer Mountain and Carter Bay,
across South Fork and North Fork, past Island Mountain to a placer
mine on the Arolic River (q.v.) a few miles inland from Jacksmith Bay (q.v.).
002 | Vol_XII-0368
CARTER BAY, ALASKA
The vicinity around Carter Bay, with the exception of the
peaks mentioned above, is low, treeless tundra, which, although
unsuitable for agricultural purposes, is covered with moss and many
kinds of wild flowers during the summer months.---------
Sources: VSGB; USCP & Suppl
Baker; Colby
001 | Vol_XII-0369
Ruby Collins
March, 1949 CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA
Text - 910 wds.
CHAMISSO ISLAND (66° 14′ N.Lat., 161° 49′ W.Long.) at the
entrance to Eschscholtz Bay, Kotzebue Sound, off the north shore of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, was discovered and named by Kotzebue in August, 1816."The land that lay to our right," Kotzebue reported, "in sailing
up, was an island, seven miles in circumference. The open sea, indeed, lay
before us; but my hope of penetrating far in that direction was diminished,
when the boat that was sent out to sound, nowhere found the depth above five
or six fathoms...We took an excursion to the island, which I called after our
naturalist, Chamisso...We had an extensive prospect from the point of this very
high island; the land to the south seemed to join every where; in the north,
nothing was to be seen but the open sea: on the east, Chamisso Island is
separated from the continent by a channel, which is five miles broad in the
narrowest part. The surrounding land was high and rocky. Snow was no where
to be seen; the mountains were covered with moss; and the shore was clothed
in luxuriant verdure. Chamisso Island was of the same nature, where we had
now chosen a green spot, on which we intended to drink tea. I readily confess,
that I seldom felt myself happier, than on this spot; to which the idea of being
the first European that ever put his foot on this land, may have greatly con–
tributed. The weather was at 12° heat, (a height that the thermometer never
arrived at without the sound,) and extremely fine. We found in our tongue of
land, under ground, several store-rooms, lined with leaves, and filled with seals'
flesh. Probably, therefore, the Americans in their hunting parties, have their
station here; and to mark the place, have erected a small ill-built stone pyramid.
The island, which has only a small landing place, rises almost perpendicularly out
of the sea; the rocks round about, and the islands to the west, are inhabited by
numerous puffins; and the many egg-shells which we found on our way, were an
002 | Vol_XII-0370
CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA
indication that foxes destroyed the nests: hares and partridges were here in
plenty; and cranes, on their passage, rested on this island. On places pro–
te [ ?] ted against the north wind, grow willows from two to three feet high, and
these are the only trees that we saw in Beering's Straits. We perceived also
seals as we returned to our ship, which had taken their station on some large
stones on the west side of the island."Chamisso Island has a grassy hill about 231 feet high, and its
shores are rocky everywhere except at the north [ ?] ast end, which extends into a
low sand spit. Shoals extend half a mile or less from the north and east
sides.Puffin Islet, just west of Chamisso Island, which is probably one
of the outlying islands mentioned by Kotzebue, is [ ?] itself rocky and has two
conspicuous rocks southward of it. The water separating it from Chamisso
Island, is shoal and rocky, but the water off the north and west sides is deep.Before being driven out of this region by the oncoming winter,
Beechey left instructions and supplies for the Franklin Expedition, w h ich he had
hoped to find along this coast. Beechey writes: "It now remained for me to
consider how Captain Franklin could be most benefited in the event of his
party arriving after our departure. It was evident that we could do no more
than put him in possession of every information we had obtained, and leave
him a temporary supply of provisions and bartering articles, with which he could
procure others from the natives. To this end a barrel of flour was buried for
him upon the sandy point of Chamisso, a place which, from the nature of the
ground, was more likely to escape observation than the former one, where the
newly turned turf could not be concealed. A large tin case, containing beads
and a letter, was deposited with it, to enable him to purchase provisions from
the natives, and to guide his conduct. Ample directions for finding these were
both cut and painted on the rock; and to call the attention of the part y to the
003 | Vol_XII-0371
CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA
spot, which they might otherwise pass, seeing the ship had departed, her
name was painted in very large letters on the cliffs of Puffin Island,
accompanied with a notice of her departure, and the period to which she had re–
mained in the sound. Beneath it were written directions for finding the cask of
flour, and also a piece of drift-wood which was deposited in a hole in the cliff."Between Choris Peninsula and Chamisso Island, and immediately to
the north of the island, is Chamisso Anchorage, the only place on the arctic coast
of Alaska which can be called a harbor. Good shelter from all winds will be
found here. The deepest water is close to Puffin Islet. Finding almost
everywhere else in this region only shoal water, Kotzebue gratefully recorded
his discovery of this anchorage. "We found," he writes, "at fifty fathoms
from shore, from two and a half to three fathoms depth, on a very good bottom.
Ships may lie at anchor, and undertake repairs as safe here as in the best
harbour, particularly as the depth in many places permits them to lie almost
close to the shore."Early in the season fresh water will almost alw a ys be found on
Chamisso Island. The mean rise and fall of the tide here is four feet,
and the maximum range is five feet.
004 | Vol_XII-0372
CHAMISSO ISLAND, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's
Straits ... in the years 1815-1818. Straits ... in the years 1815-1818. Translated by H.E. Lloyd.
London, 1821. 3v.U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Pt.II. Alaska. Pt.II. Fifth (1947) Edi [ ?] tion.
001 | Vol_XII-0373
Ruby Collins
November, 1948 CLARENCE, PORT, ALASKA
2,425 wds - Text
50 wds - BiteCLARENCE, PORT, Alaska, the only good harbor along the west shore
of Seward Peninsula, and one of the earliest rendezvous for the whaling
fleetings of the mid-nineteenth century, lies south of Cape Prince of Wales
and north of Cape Douglas.The west side of the Port is formed by a narrow sand spit which
extends northwestward from the mainland for about eight miles, just north
of Cape Douglas, and then [ ?] bends northward for another nine or so
miles to Point Spencer, the southern entrance point to Port Clarence.
[ ?] Therefore, starting at Point Spencer, the shores of Port Clar–
ence run southward and then eastward to the mainland and so northward
to Cape Riley and Teller. Across the entrance to Grantley Harbor [ ?] from
Teller, the northern shoreline of the Port runs slightly north of west to
Point Jackson, the northern entrance point to the Port.In addition to the Point Spencer formation, several other sand
spits characterize Port [ ?] Clarence. One of these, a few miles
below Cape Riley, extends southwestward from the mainland into the
Port itself and terminates with Jones Point. Another forms most of the
north side of the Port and separates its waters from several shallow,
coastal lagoons. Point Jackson is on one of the arms of this north-side
spit.Port Clarence, unlike other arms of Bering Sea, is a good harbor,
free from ocean swell. The four-mile wide entrance is clear of danger and
carries 42 to 54 feet. A shoal, which widens as it continues southward,
runs along the west side of the Point Spencer sand spit, but the point
itself is bold, with depths of over forty feet less than one-quarter
mile offshore to the north and east. There is a safe, well p - protected
anchorage of twenty-five feet or more just inside the Point.
002 | Vol_XII-0374
CLARENCE, PORT
Southward , along the east side of the Point Spencer spit , another
shoal mak e s out into the Port itself, completely filling in the south [ ?]
end of the Port and enclosing Jones Point. Along the east side of the
Port, above the Jones Point sand spit, and all along the north side, relatively
deep water is found quite close to shore. The deepest water is [ ?]
generally found in the northern part of Port Clarence, where an average
of forty-two feet reaches to within a mile of the shore. The bottom is
regular throughout the Port, shoaling very gradually toward shore in
all directions.Point Spencer is marked with a flashing light, and there is also
a light on the north side of the entrance to Grantley Harbor.The only navigational dangers in this area are not in
Port Clarence itself, but in the approach to the Port. A ledge, with a
reported least depth of only about ten feet lies nearly five miles offshore,
about halfway between Cape Douglas and Point Spencer. Vessels approaching
Point Clarence from the south must give this ledge a berth of at least
five miles before hauling in for an entrance.Fog in this vicinity is frequent and particularly dense r during
the summer. Port Clarence is free from ice from the last part of June to
the freeze-up in October.Port Clarence leads into Grantley Harbor (q.v.), which in t e u rn
leads, by way of Tuksuk Channel, into Imuruk Basin (q.v.).Surrounding Although the sand spits forming so much of the shoreline
Country of Port Clarence are low, highlands approach the Port
fairly closely in those sections where the mainland forms the shoreline.
All along the east side of the Port, above the Jones Point sand spit, the
foothills of the Kigluaik Mountains, which in some cases rise to over
1,000 feet, begin to appear less than one mile from shore. Again, between
003 | Vol_XII-0375
CLARENCE, PORT,
the northern entrance point to Grantley Harbor and Point Jackson, on the
north side of the Port, the highlands associated with 1,527-foot
Mukacharni Mountain crowd close to the shore. Westward of this point the
foothills of the York Mountains rise several miles north of Port Clarence.Captain Frederick William Beechey, who visited and named Port Clarence,
in September, 1827, describes the surrounding countryside as follows:
"The northern and eastern shores of Port Clarence slope from the mountains
to the sea, and are occasionally terminated by cliffs compo a sed of fine
and talcy mica slate, intersected by veins of calcareous spar of a [ ?]
[ ?] pearly lustre, mixed with grey quartz. The soil is covered
with a thick coating of moss, among which there is a very limited flora: the
valleys and hollows are filled with dwarf willow and birch. The country
is swampy and full of ruts; and vegetation on the whole, even on the north
side of the harbour, which had a southern aspect, was more backward than
in Kotzebue Sound; still we found here three species of plants we had not
seen before. Plants that were going to seed when we left that island [Kotzebue Sound] were
here only just in full flower, and berries that were there over ripe were
here scarcely fit to be eaten...We saw several reindeer upon the hilly
ground; in the lakes, Wild ducks: and upon the low point of the inner harbour,
golden plover, and sanderlings, and a gull very much resembling the
larus sabini."
003a | Vol_XII-0376
Clarence, Port
Tributaries As would be expected, these various mountain systems
send streams into the Port. Four unnamed streams enter
south of Jones Point sand spit, and tiny Fox Creek enters just north of
this spit. Yellowstone and Willow Creeks drain into the east side of the
Port below Cape Riley. Along the north side, Mission Creek flows down
from the Mukacharni group, and California, Thompson, and Don River, from
the York group. These last three streams enter the lagoon inside Point
Jackson, but, since their waters do finally contribute to Port Clarence,
they may be spoken of as tributaries to the Port.Fresh water may be obtained at the Teller Reindeer Station, at the
mouth of Mission Creek. Except during the dry season, it may also be
obtained from Yellowstone and Willow Creeks, below Cape Riley.Settlements The only existing settlement on the shores of Port
Clarence is Teller (65° 15′ N.Lat., 166° 21′ W. Long.)
on the sand spit forming the southern entrance point to Grantley Harbor.
Teller, with a 1939 population of about 118, has a post office, a Territorial
and Alaska Native Service school, two general stores, a fur dealer, an
oil station, a light plant, a U.S. Commissioner, and a reindeer unit manager.
It is the seaport for Imuruk Basin, and the Kuzitrin, Kruzgamepa, and
Kougarok Rivers, all of which streams drain areas rich in gold, tin,
graphite, and copper. Teller is fortunate in having one of the finest,
natural harbors in [ ?] northwestern Alaska. Lighterage facilities are
available. Much of the Hollywood moving-picture The Eskimo was filmed
at Teller.
004 | Vol_XII-0377
CLARENCE, PORT
There is a Moravian Mission on the north shore of the Port.
According to latest information (1947), the reindeer station nearby is not
in operation. Bering City, which had a population of about 200 at the
height of the Bluestone Gold Rush in 1900, has now disapp [ ?] ared.There are several landing strips in the Port Clarence area: one
at Point Spencer, 8,500 foot long; and two at Teller, 1,000 and 1,400
feet long respectively. Port Clarence receives monthly air mail service
from November 1 to May 31, and semi-monthly water-borne mail service during
the rest of the year.Trails Several well-developed winter trails meet at Teller. From
Nome, one trail cuts overland northward and westward to Teller,
and the other follows the coast to Cape Douglas, and then takes a direct
northeasterly route first overland and then across part of Port Clarence
to Teller. At Iron Creek, the overland trail from Nome is joined by
several others from Solomon, Council, Golovnin, and points to the east.
Just above Pilgrim Springs, this same trail from Nome is joined by others
from the Kotzebue District, to the north and northeast, Another trail
runs overland and almost directly southward from Shisharef Inlet, while
yet another branch follows the coast down from the Inlet, passing around
Cape Prince of Wales and so eastward to Teller.History Port Clarence was known to the early Russian explorers
as Kaviaiak Bay .
005 | Vol_XII-0378
CLARENCE, PORT
Insert 1.In 1827, Beechey wrote in part: "Having passed the night off Cape York on the
31st, we steered to the eastward, and shortly discovered a low spit of land
[ Point Spencer ] projecting about ten miles from the coast, which here
forms a right angle, and having a channel about two miles wide between its
extremity and the northern shore. We sailed through this opening, and
entered a spacious harbour, [ Port Clarence ] capable of h l o lding a great
many ships of the line. We landed first on the low spit at the entrance,
and then stood across, nine miles to the eastward, and came to an anchor
off a bold cape, [ Cape Riley ] having carried nothing less than five and
a half fathoms water the whole of the way...To the outer harbour, which for
convenience and security surpasses any other near Beering's Strait with
which we are acquainted, I attached the name of Port Clarence, in honour of his
most gracious Majesty, then Duke of Clarence."The town of Bering, on the eastern shore of Port Clarence, was recorded
by Brooks [ ?] in 1900.
005a | Vol_XII-0379
CLARENCE, PORT
Beechey gives the following description of the native settlement
of Nooke, which existed at one time grew up on the present site of Teller: "Upon the low point
at the entrance of the inner harbour, [ Grantley Harbor ] called Nooke by
the natives, there were some Esquimaux fishermen, who reminded us of a
former acquaintance at Chamisso Island, and saluted us so warmly that
we felt sorry their recollection had not entirely failed them. They appeared
to have established themselves upon the point for the purpose of catching
and drying fish; and from the number of salmon that were leaping in the
channel, we should have thought they would have been more successful. They
had, however, been fortunate in taking plenty of cod, and some species of
salmon trout: they had also caught some herrings."As late as 1870 Dall identified this settlement as Nookmut, and
reported it as being one of the principle villages of the Kaviagmuts. In July,
1892, Sheldon Jackson brough 171 reindeer to this spot and established
a reindeer station there. He named the station Teller after Henry Moore
Teller, then
006 | Vol_XII-0380
CLARENCE, PORT
Secretary of the Interior, who had helped him with his reindeer project.
The station later moved to the north shore of Port Clarence, while the
settlement was officially established and given a post office in April,
1900. Beechey, in 1827, called this place Nooke, and I t is still known
locally as The Nook , although designated officially as Teller.Mining & Port Clarence District, the largest mining district of
Commerce Seward Peninsula, with a recording office at Teller, includes
the former Port Clarence, Blue Stone, Agiapuk, York, and Good Hope Districts.The Gold Run, or Blue Stone Country, so called after streams of
the same name, promised in 1900 to become the richest gold mining section
in all the Peninsula. The diggings, however, proved to be spotty, and,
although $20,000 was removed from the mouth of Alder Creek, a tributary
to the Bluestone, and, although the gold was coarse and several large
nuggets were found, subsequent developments proved disappointing.T he greatest single mining problem in this area has been that of
maintaining a reliable water supply. Early in the season the streams
do not supply enough water for mining operations; then, with the arrival
of the spring rains, these same streams turn into torrents which break
through any dams previously designed for their control. Harrison writes:
"When water is utilized by means of ditches and made available for all
parts of the open season, this region will produce its quota ofgold."Early in the [ ?] century, a great many people had faith
in a bright future for Teller. It occupies what has been called "the
best townsite in the peninsula," since the ground on which it is built
is dry, and since it faces the best harbor for hundreds of miles around.
Realizing the extreme disadvantages and dangers of the Nome roadstead
(see Nome article), it was even planned to build a railroad across the
sixty or so miles of grassland between Teller and Nome, so that all
007 | Vol_XII-0381
CLARENCE, PORT
cargoes might be unloaded at Teller and carried overland to Nome.
However, it was soon discovered that the deep water of Port Clarence did
not extend as far as Teller, any more than did the deep water of Norton
Sound reach to Nome, with the result that all cargoes had, at both
places, to be lightered ashore over one or two miles of shoal water. More–
over, it [ ?] soon became clear that the Nome roadstead was free of ice
several weeks before Port Clarence was open to navigation.Up to 1906, all supplies for the Kougarok District were sent
via Teller. From there they were brought by small steamer through Grantley
Har b or and Imuruk Basin, and so up the Kuzitrin River to Igloo, fifty
miles inland, at the head of steamboat navigation on the Kuzitrin. At Igloo
cargoes were transferred to flat-bottomed river boats and towed up the
Kuzitrin and its tributary, the Kougarok. With the completion of the
Seward Peninsula Railroad, no w called The Pupmobile, to Lanes Landing on
the Kuzitrin, about halfway between [ ?] gloo and the mouth of the Kougarok
River, most supplies for the interior were brought in by rail rather than
by water. This development was a serious economic blow to Teller.Bering City, a gold rush boom town just below Cape Riley on the
east side of Port Clarence, offered vessels some advantages over Teller.
Deep water steamers could approach much nearer to the shore and the
harbor was better protected from easterly and northeasterly winds.Soon after the discovery of gold in the Bluestone District in
1900, Teller had a population of over 1,000 people, and Bering City
had 200, but, by 1908, Teller had shrunk to 100 and Bering City had
disappeared.In 1927, although five individuals still held gold property near
Teller, the actual mining going on in the district was negligible.
Teller still has the only good harbor anywhere along this coast and may,
008 | Vol_XII-0382
CLARENCE, PORT
sometime, be developed as a port through which trade with Asia can be
carried on.Sources:
USCP. Alaska. Pt.II, 1947
VSGB; Colby; Baker; Tewkesbury; Sundborg
Dall, William H. Alaska and its resources Alaska and its resources . Boston, 1870.
Harrison, E.S. Nome and Sew [ ?] rd Peninsula. Nome and Sew [ ?] rd Peninsula. Seattle, Wash., 1905.
Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula,
Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok,
Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts .
Washington, D.C.,1908. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin Bulletin , No.328)Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton
Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington,
D.C., 1901. (U.S. Geological Survey)Alaska Life, Alaska Life, May, 1945
Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., 1925.Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's
Str a it ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 Str a it ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . London, 1831. Vol.II
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0383
Ruby Collins COVILLE, LAKE, ALASKA
23 April 48
50 wds
COVILLE, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska
Sources: US CP: World Aer onautical Chart No. [ ?] 136;
Peninsula, lies about midway between 155° and 156° W. Long. just northwest of Lake
Grosvenor (q.v.) with which it is connected by a short stream. It is
a narrow lake about 9 miles long and is fed by streams rising in the
foothills of the Alaska Range to the northeast.
° in VS GB
001 | Vol_XII-0384
Ruby Collins CRIPPLE RIVER, ALASKA
October, 1948 285wds.
CRIPPLE RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, the site
of considerable gold mining activity subsequent to the Nome Rush, empties
into Norton Sound about twelve miles west of Nome at the mouth of the Snake
River.Cripp o l e River drains an area of about ninety square miles and
has an average fall of twenty feet to the mile.The headwaters of the Cripple are cut off from the Kigluaik
Mountains by the broad basin of the upper Sinuk River (q.v.), and its
tributaries. Rising in a broad basin and then flowing between heights of
1,000 or more feet, the Cripple flows in a generally southwesterly direction
for about ten miles, and then, veering sharply, follows a southeasterly
course for about ten miles more to Norton Sound.From North to south the tributaries to the first half of its
course are: Gold Run (with its affluent, Slate Creek) Aurora, Oregon
(which receives Short Gulch, Nugget Gulch, Hungry c C reek, and Mountain
Creek), Cleveland, Willow, Stella, Elizabeth, and Fox Creeks.After turning to the southeast, Cripple River is joined by Sidney,
Arctic (with its tributary Buff Creek), Edward, and Bowhead Creeks.Where it crosses the coastal plain, here three miles wide, Cripple
River s becomes deeply entrenched and meandering with banks thirty or
more feet high.Although never equall y ing the gold mining activity on the Snake,
an estimated $50,000 in gold had been removed from the Cripple River region
by 1900. There are now no settlements along the river, the old mining
camps having almost completely disappeared.Sources:
VSGB; USCP & Supplement; Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome & Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome &
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900.
Washington, 1901.
001 | Vol_XII-0385
Ruby Collins DEERING, ALASKA
March, 1949
Text - 575 wds.
DEERING (66° 04′ N.Lat., 162° 44′ W.Long.) is a post office
and settlement at the mouth of the Inmachuk River, northern Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. The 1939 population was estimated at 230, and the town then had a
general store, a licensed fur dealer, an Alaska Native Service School, and
a Friends' Mission.Deering has lighterage service and telephone communication with
Candle (q.v.). There is a 2200-foot landing strip. Wheeled plane landings
can be made on the beach. Sea plane facilities are poor, but ski landings
are reasonably safe. Emergency anchorages, one immediately offshore from
the town, southeast of Cape Deceit, and one inside Kugruk Lagoon, a few miles
southeast of the town, are available. There are known to be several herds of
reindeer in this vicinity.Deering is only about 50 miles south of the Arctic Circle. The
Eskimos, who comprise a large percentage of the population, spend the long
winter months carving beads and other ornaments from walrus ivory. The
Eskimos of this part of Alaska are famous for the artistry of their products,
although they have e xchanged the tools of their ancestors for modern files,
hack saws, and steel drills. During the summer, the Eskimo men work for the
various gold mining companies in the district.Gold was first discovered in this region by miners who left Nome,
in 1900, for less crowded areas parts of the Peninsula. (See Inmachuk River
article.) As Mendenhall reported, in 1902: "Lat e in the fall of 1900 a
movement began from the Nome region towar d the shore of Goodhope Bay and
adjacent parts of Kotzebue Sound, and as soon as navigation opened in July,
1901, the supply station of Deering was established at the mouth of the
Ipnechuk River [the present Inmachuk] . Many prospectors and miners came in from the more southerly
areas at this time and the Fairhaven mining district was created, and so
002 | Vol_XII-0386
DEERING, ALASKA
defined as to include Goodhope, Cripple, Sullivan, Ipnechuk, Kugruk, or
Swan, and Kewalik rivers, together with the northwestern P p ortion of the
Buckland drainage system."From the white miners' point of view, Deering is a mining town,
as is proved by the fact that it [ ?] has the offices of the gold mining com–
panies now active on the Inmachuk River, as well as the offices of George Wallin's
coal company on the Kugruk River.The Deering Eskimos serve as good examples in refutation of the
popular conception of the lives of these people. Unless they have heard them
mentioned by the white man, these Eskimos have no knowledge of snowhouses. They
themselves, with very few exceptions, live in houses built of shipped-in
lumber and of standard design. Those few who do not own a frame house have
dwellings of drift-wood and sod. Most of the young Eskimos of this generation
have attended the Government school in Deering and are well educated. They
know their native tongue but speak English in their homes. They still eat
dried fish occasionally, but in all basic respects their diet is exactly the
same as that of the average family in the States. They all have radios,
all listen to the world news reports, and dance to the popular dance bands.
In other words, except for the skill with which they carve in ivory, and
the assurance with which they handle small boats, a nd firearms, they are
indistinguishable from the younger generation in any small Stateside town.
003 | Vol_XII-0387
DEERING, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska Life Alaska Life . August, 1944; May, 1945.
Mendenhail, Walter C. Reconnaissance from Fot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound Reconnaissance from Fot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound ,
Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional
Paper Professional
Paper No.10)Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index. 1947 ed.
U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. Aeronautical Chart Aeronautical Chart No.76.VS Guide book for Alaska. VS Guide book for Alaska.
001 | Vol_XII-0388
Ruby Collins DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA
March, 1949
Text - 1,105 wds.
Bibl - 50 wds.DEVIL MOUNTAIN is the only prominent feature of the bro [ ?] d, blunt
peninsula which separates Shishmaref Inlet (q.v.) from Kotzebue Sound (q.v.),
on the northern shores of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Kotzebue named this
880-foot peak Teufelsberg Teufelsberg , in August, 1816. "The summit, "wrote Kotzebue,
"looks as if the fragments of a ruined castle stood on it, of which some
towers were still remaining. These, however, I afterwards recognized to be
stone pillars, resembling those which Saritscheff found on the coast of the
Icy Sea. I called this mountain, Devil's Mountain." This peak has appeared
as Chortof (devil) Mounta i n on some Russian charts.Kotzebue noted that Devil Mountain is about 15 miles inland from
Goodhope Bay and that "the land is everywhere green, but has not a single bush
on it." The mountain itself is a basaltic lava mass m a ntled on all sides
by the gravels of the coastal plain. Collier reported, in 1908, that these
gravels are not known to be auriferous and that the streams are sluggish and
[ ?] follow meandering courses across the marshy, lake-strewn grasslands
of the plain.Several unnamed streams drain the southern flanks of the mounta in
while Cowpack, Kalik, and Espenberg Rivers flow northward into the Polar Sea.
Nugnugaluktuk, Lane (Kugachuk), and Pish (Kutuk) Rivers flow eastward from
the southern foothills of Devil Mountain into Goodhope Bay, Kotzebue Sound.Although there are no named towns along this stretch of coast,
it is the home of several hundred Eskimos who make their living hunting, fish–
ing, and trapping. Cape Espenberg, on the northeastern tip of the peninsula,
is marked by a flashing light. A shoal fringes the san d bars south of Cape
Es p enberg. It was probably this same shoal which gave Kotzebue considerable
trouble one night in August of 1816.Telling of his trip in a small boat northward from [ ?] Goodhope
Bay, he writes: "We had scarcely rowed half an hour, when we struck upon a
002 | Vol_XII-0389
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA
shoal; it was the time of ebb, and all the places which we had previously
navigated with ease, were now changed into sand banks, and we heard the
breakers roaring round us. We therefore rowed in another direction; but it was
not long before we were again on a shoal, where the breakers threatened to
swallow us up. A violent wind rendered our situation still more dangerous,
our boat drew much water, we were all exhausted by labour, a nd I saw no means
of escaping death, as we had every moment to expect that the boat would be
seized by the breakers and overturned. The baydare in which our scientific
gentlemen were, had got on before us, and some shots as signals of distress
horible, as - in original which proceeded from them rendered our situation horible. We answered them
with a musket shot, but were not able to go to their assistance. At last the
dawning day relieved us all, we could observe the way we had to take to
avoid the breakers...At last...after inconceivable difficulties, we reached the
Rurick on the morning of the 13th." This night journey back to the mother
ship was instigated by the arrival of eight native boats, each carrying twelve
men and numberless dogs. "Such neighbors," Kotzebue had instantly decided,
"might really prove dangerous to us, as my whole company on this excursion
consisted of only fourteen men, and the loss of some of my sailors would have
made it impossible for me to complete the expedition." However, since these
natives had merely landed nearby and peacably set up camp, Kotzebue's decision
to exchange their company for the dangers of stormy and unknown waters would
seem unduly precipitous. One is forced to the suspicion that some former
action of his own might have given hi [ ?] cause to fear reprisal on the p a rt of
these natives.Kitzebue gives what is probably still the best general description
of this part of Seward Peninsula. "As far as the eye could reach, " he
wrote, "everything was green; here and there were flowers in blossom, and
no snow was seen but on the tops of the mountains at a great distance; yet
003 | Vol_XII-0390
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA
one had to dig but half a foot deep to find nothing but frost and ice under
this verdant carpet." Of the Eskimos, or, 'Americans', as he quite correctly
calls them, he wrote: "They are of a middle size, robust make, and healthy
appearance; their motions are lively, and they seemed much inclined to sportive–
ness; their countenances, which have an expression o f wantonness, but not of
stupidity, are ugly and dirty, characterised by small eyes and very high
cheek-bones; they have holes on each side of the mouth, in which they wear
morse-bones, ornamented with blue glass beads, which gives them a most
frightful appearance. They hair hangs down long, but is cut quite short on
the crown of the head. Their head and ears are also adorned with beads.
Their dr e sses, which are made of skins, are of the same cut as the Parka in
Kamtschatka; only that there it reaches to the feet, and here hardly covers
the knee; besides this, they wear pantaloons, and small half-boots, of seal–
skin."Elsewhere he remarks: "They are very expert traders, haggle obstinate–
ly, always consult together, and are infinitely happy when they fancy they
have cheated any body. Some old women, who were in their baydares, understood
bargaining still better. There was so much laughing and joking during the
trading, that it appeared as if we were surrounded by the lively South Sea
islanders, instead of the serious inhabitants of the north. Their arms
consist of lances, bows, arrows,and a knife, two feet long, in a sheath;
this military equipment, which they never lay aside, proves that they are in
constant wars with other nations. Their lances, which are of iron, very well
wrought, resemble those which the Russians have sold to the Tschukutskoi; the
glass beads, also, with which they adorn themselves, are of the same kind as
those worn in Asia, which proves that they must be in commercial intercourse
with that continent."It does did not occur to Kotzebue that natives who live solely by
004 | Vol_XII-0391
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA
hunting, fishing, and trapping might keep their equipment with them at all
times for other reasons than for making war on their neighbors. Neither
does did it occur to him that these natives might be genuinely happy and satis–
fied with their lot in life, and that, having made an almost perfect adjust–
ment to their environment , they no longer felt "serious" about living in
the north.
005 | Vol_XII-0392
DEVIL MOUNTAIN, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska Life , May, 1945.
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Collier, A.J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,
1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 328)Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional
Paper Professional
Paper No.2)Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions,
Alaska, in 1900. Washington, 1901.Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's
Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's
Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Translated by H.E. Lloyd.
London, 1821. 3v.
001 | Vol_XII-0393
Ruby Collins DILLINGHAM, ALASKA
24 May 48
450 wds
DILLINGHAM, ALASKA, strategically situated between the mouths
of the Wood and Snake Rivers on the western side of Nushagak Bay (q.v.),
Bristol Bay, is the largest village in this vicinity. It was established
in August, 1905. Although the offical 1939 Census figure showed a
population of 278, the settlement had grown to an estimated 450 by 1947.Dillingham, like all the other settlements on Nushagak Bay,
is most active from mid-June to late July when several large red salmon
canneries operate in the Nushagak and Wood Rivers, at the head of the
bay, and in the Snake and Igushik Rivers which enter it from the west.
The Bristol Bay Packing Co. and Pacific American Fisheries maintain
canneries in Dillingham. The second of these companies has a 178-foot
wharf. This wharf has a depth of 2 feet at low tide and can be used
only by lighters even at high tide. Like other salmon companies in
the area, the cannery maintains a radio station and its own supplies of
gasoline and oil. The wharf is fitted with a marine railway capable
of hauling 100 tons.According to 1947 reports Dillingham has several other
facilities including a Territorial school, a high school, 5 restaurants,
4 taxicabs, 2 hotels, 5 licensed fur dealers, 3 general stores, 5 transfer
and storage companies, 2 literage services, a saltery, a light plant,
one aircraft and one electrical supplies and service store, a beauty
shop, gift shop, theater, and attorney at law. Two labor unions, the
Alaska Fishermen's Union (CIO) and the International Union of Fishermen
and Allied Workers of America, Local 46, (CIO) have representatives in
Dillingham. Two U.S. Commissioners are stationed in the town, one with
full powers and one acting as Justice of the Peace and coroner. Although
there are no dentists in the town, there is a large hospital staffed with
5 nurses and attended by a doctor from Bethel.
002 | Vol_XII-0394
DILLINGHAM, ALASKA
Since the waters of Nushagak Bay are too shallow for large
vessels, and since the territory around Dillingham is low, marshy tundra
making summer travel impossible, air service is especially important.
Six air carriers were in operation in 1947, one of which was certified
by the Civil Aeronautics Board. It was reported in November of the same
year that the local merchants had appointed an Airport Committee and
were sponsoring the construction of a 2200-foot runway. Work on
this project had been renewed after a summer delay during which most of
of the volunteer workers were off fishing or busy on Alaska Road
Commission jobs. Everyone in the Nushagak Bay area turns fisherman
during the canning season. The canneries supply boats, nets, and
credit to anyone who wants to fish so that other activities come to an
abrupt however brief hault. The chief activities for the remainder
of the year are hunting and trapping.Dillingham is on the long winter trail which connects points
on Kvichak Bay and Iliamna Lake (q.v.) with Owens, Togiak,and Goodnews
(q.v.) to the west.
001 | Vol_XII-0395
Ruby Collins DIOMEDE ISLANDS, Alaska
February, 1949
565 wds.
DIOMEDE ISLANDS, Bering Sea, Alaska, comprise Big and Little
Diomede. The former belongs to the U.S.S.R., and the latter is a possession
of the United States. The internationl boundary is the meridian which passes
between Big and Little Diomede Islands.Vitus Bering would appear to have described one or more both of this
group pair on August 16, 1728. There is some doubt as to whether [ ?] he named
his discovery after the holy martyr St. Diomede, who, according to the church
calendar, is was honored on August 16, or whether he named it after St. Demetrius,
whose day was August 14. The name Demetrius appears on some early maps,
but usage has established Diomede. Michael Gvozdef, a surveyor, who explored
Bering Strait in 1730, called these islands after himself, but this name was
used only briefly. Some recent maps id [ ?] ntify Big Diomede as Rotmanov Island.The cliff-like sides of the Diomede Islands rise abruptly out
of the water. There are no beaches, and their tops are a broken table-land.
Big Diomede is about three miles long by one mile wide and rises to a height of
1,758 feet, while Little Diomede is about one-third that area and about 1,200
feet high at the apex. Although the water in this vicinity is deep, the bottom
is rocky and the anchorage poor. There are some exposed rocks off the western
side of Big Diomede, and there is a flashing light on the northwestern corner
of this island.The villages on these two islands perch on the rocky slopes well
above the high water level. The chief settlement on Big Diomede is Nunebruk,
and Ignaluk is the principal village of Little Diomede. Ignaluk is constructed
on the steep hillside just above the sand spit which extends from the western
shore of the island. Vessels approaching the village from the [ ?] south and
east will find deep water and good anchorage off the southern side of this
002 | Vol_XII-0396
DIOMEDE ISLANDS, ALASKA
sand spit. From the end of the spit, however, a shoal and reef extend an
unknown distance toward Big Diomede Island. Small vessels may pass between
these islands, but large vessels are warned against the attempt.The Diomede Eskimos are Innuits. The y [ ?] are famous for their
seamanship and for their skill in hunting whales, walrus, and seal, and are
equally well-known for their carving of walrus ivory into beads and other items
of adornment. However skilled and courageous in the management of their tiny kayaks, these Innuit hunters are known
to be in the management of their tiny kayaks, they are not foolhardy, as is
clearly shown by the following quotation from Hooper's report of 1881: "Although
the passage from Siberia to America and back is made many times each year by the
natives in their skin boats, and is not considered by them to be attended with
any unusaual amount of [ ?] ager, I could not learn that it is ever made over the ice
during the winter. The natives say the ice is always broken and subjected to
great and sudden changes, rendering any attempts to cross it extremely hazardous.
It is said that open spaces occur from time to time throughout the winter, which
contain numbers of whales, but that owing to the sudden changes which take
place their capture is not attempted."For winter dwellings the natives dig caves into the face of the
cliffs. The entrances to these caves are covered with small wooden frameworks
not unlike the woodsheds indigenous to New England. These are the "fortified
places" to which Gerhard F. Müller referred in 1761.Ignaluk has a schoolhouse and a general store where the Eskimos
trade their ivory carvings [ ?] and seal mocassions for sugar, flour, canned goods,
and other staples to which the white man has introduced them.
003 | Vol_XII-0397
DIOMEDE ISLANDS,ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hooper, C.L. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenus Cutter Thomas Corwin Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenus Cutter Thomas Corwin
in the Arctic Ocean, 1881. in the Arctic Ocean, 1881. Washington, 1884.Müller, G.F. Voyages from Asia to America. Voyages from Asia to America. Translated by Thomas Jefferys.
London, 1761.VSGB
USCP
001 | Vol_XII-0398
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 115 wds DON RIVER, ALASKA
DON RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is a northern tribu–
tary to the lagoon on the north side of Port Clarence. The name originated
locally and was first reported by Gerdine, in 1901.The Don rises north of Brooks Mountain, in the York range, and
flows eastward [ ?] for about [ ?] four miles, then turns southward to work
its way for another sixteen miles out of the mountains, and across the lowland
bordering Port Clarence. Soon after turning southward, the Don is joined by
Anderson, and El k ington Creeks from the west and east respectively, and, about
six miles above its mouth, by Tozer Creek from the east. Several other streams
enter the D on, but they are unnamed.The lagoon into which the Don empties is extremely shoal so that
the river is not approachable to any except the smallest vessles. This same
is true of Thompson Creek, which enters this same lagoon at a point about half–
way between California River (q.v.) and the Don.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1902.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0399
Ruby Collins EGEGIK, ALASKA
21 April 48
150 wds
EGEGIK, ALASKA, is a fishing village, post office, and cannery
Sources: Baker; USCP: VSGB: SUNDBORG: TEWKESBURY
on the south bank of the mouth of the Egegik River, in the northwestern
part of the Alaska Peninsula. The village had a population of 125 in 1939.
Although the cannery is open only from late June to the end of July,
airplane service from Anchorage is available the year around. The Alaska
Packers Association and the Pacific American Fisheries Inc maintain canneries
and radio stations in Egegik. The winter trail which connects Kanatak,
[ ?] Portage Bay, on the northeastern side of the Alaska Peninsula,with
Naknek, Koggiung and other points [ ?] on Kvichak Bay, runs down
the northern side of the mouth of the Egegik River, just across from the
village of Egegik.
& Suppl.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0400
Ruby Collins EGEGIK RIVER, ALASKA
21 April 48
300 wds
EGEGIK RIVER, ALASKA (Egegak; Igagik; Ugaguk, etc.), drains from
the western end of Lake Becharof (q.v.), in the northern park of the Alaska
Peninsula, and flows in a northwesterly direction for about 25 miles to empty
into Bristol Bay. Tidewater is reported to run a considerable distance upstream.
Egegik River is narrow and rough with rapids for a few miles after leaving
Lake Becharof, after which it widens, then narrows again. The middle half
of its course is dotted with islands. In 1938, $5,000 were spent clearing
a channel through the rapids at the head of the river. The river is now
navi a gable to small boats for its entire length, and to ocean-going vessels
as far as Egegik (q.v.), the largest settlement on the river, [ ?] which is
situated at the mouth where the river widens to about 2 miles. The King Salmon River
(q.v.), largest tributary to the Egegik, enters from the north at a point approximately
opposite the village of Egegik.The Alaska Packers Association maintains a cannery and wharf on
the Egegik River. The 80-foot wharf has a 5-ton crane and supplies of fresh
water. The cannery operates a machine shop which will take on small outside
repair work, but the supplies of fuel on the wharf are for c [ ?] nnery use only.
Libby, McNeill & Libby also. maintains a cannery and wharf on the river.
This wharf is 180 feet long but is dry at low water and available only to
small boats even at high tide. This wharf has a 5-ton crane and a marine
railway.The Egegik River, which has been variously reported for over a
Sources: Baker; USCP & Suppl.; Colby; Sundborg; VSGB; Tewkesbury
century, was listed by Lütke in 1828 as the Ougagouk, from the Eskimo
name perhaps meaning swift .
001 | Vol_XII-0401
Ruby Collins ELDORADO RIVER, ALASKA
October, 1948
350 wds
ELDORADO RIVER, southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, enters Port
Safety lagoon,on the north side of Norton Sound, about midway between Rocky
Point and Cape Rodney.The headwaters of the Eldorado are separated only by an extremely
[ ?] low divide from the Kruzgamepa, a tributary to Port Clarence. The
Eldorado flo w s almost directly south, first through a wide gravel-filled
basin, then through a narrow valley, whose floor merges with the coastal
plain.In the highland section of its course, the Eldorado is joined
from the west by Boldrin, North, and Moonlight Creeks, and, from the
east, by Grassman, Venetia, San Jose, Carl, and Mulligan Creeks. Pajara
Creek enters the Eldorado soon after it reaches the plain, and Beaver
Creek, the longest of these tributaries, joins the Eldorado a few miles
above its mouth.The Flambeau River also enters Port Safety lagoon. The Flambeau
rises west of the Eldorado, across a low divide separating it from the
upper reaches of the Nome River, and flows southeastward through a wide
valley to Port Safety. The Flambeau is joined by Iron, and Discovery
Creeks from the west, and by several unnamed streams from both sides of
its course.Fox Lake lies just to the west of the mouths of these two vi riv ers,
and is joined to an arm of Port Safety by a narrow channel.Port Safety, itself, is a small anchorage for light draft vessels.
The narrow entrance is about eight miles east of Cape Nome and is marked
by four buoys during the season of navigation.
002 | Vol_XII-0402
ELDORADO RIVER
On the former site of the small town of Safety, at the entrance
to the Port, there is now Port Safety Roadhouse. This roadhouse lies on
the winter trail which skirts the southern shores of Seward Peninsula from
Norton Bay westward.Beaver Creek, on that tribuatry to the Eldorado, is the only
true settlement in the entire district. It had a population of 17 in 1939,
and a landing strip 1,100 feet long.
001 | Vol_XII-0403
Ruby Collins
March, 1948 ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA
Text - 1,820 words
Bibl. - 100 wordsESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, east of Chamisso Island and Choris Peninsula, and
north of Spafarief Bay, indents the northeastern shores of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. The entrance, between Chamisso Island and the mainland, through
Spafarief Bay, is six or seven miles wide but shoal. East of Elephant Point,
on the mainland, the bay is navigable only for small boats, and the shore at
the head of the bay is difficult of access because of the long, muddy flats
which are bare at low water as much as one-third of a mile offshore. It is
possible that the bay is gradually filling up, and vessels proceeding eastward
from Chamisso Anchorage should use caution.Beechey examined this bay very carefully in September, 1826, and
reported as follows: "Having now the assistance of the barge, I embarked in
her to examine narrowly the shores of Kotzebue Sound. Proceeding to survey the
head of Escholtz Bay, shallow water obliged the boat to anchor off Elephant
Point, where I left Mr. Collie with a party to examine again the cliffs in which
the fossils and ice formation had been seen by Kotzebue, and proceeded to the
head of the bay in a small boat. We landed upon a flat muddy beach, and were
obliged to wade a quarter of a mile before we could reach a cliff for the pur–
pose of having a view of the surrounding country. Having gained its summit we
were graitified by the discovery of a large river coming from the southward, and
passing between our station and a range of hills. At a few miles distance the
river passed between rocky cliffs, whence the land on either side became hilly,
and interrupted our further view of its course. The width of the river was
about a mile and a half; but this space was broken into narrow and intricate
channels by banks — some dry, and others partly so. The stream passed rapidly
between them, and at an earlier period of the season a considerable body of water
must be poured into the sound; though, from the comparative width of the
002 | Vol_XII-0404
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA
channels, the current in the latter is not much felt."The shore around us was flat, broken by several lakes, in which
there were a great many wildfowl. The cliff we had ascended was composed of a bluis h
mud and clay, and was full of deep chasms lying in a direction parallel with the [ ?]
front of the eminence. In appearance this hill was s i milar to that at Elephant Point,
[ ?] which was said to contain fossils; but there were none seen here, though
the earth, in parts, had a disagreeable smell, similar to that which was supposed
to proceed from the decayed animal substances in the cliff near Elepphant Point."The 'large river' described by Beechey was the Buckland, one of the
major streams on Seward Peninsula, which enters the extreme southeastern corner
of Eschscholtz Bay. The only other named tributary, the Kauk River, a much
shorter stream, enters the northeastern side of the Bay.It was in the vicinity of Elephant Point that Kotzebue, in August,
1816, found what he called 'icebergs' on the shores of the bay. "On the 7th,"
he writes, "at 8 o'clock in the morning, we [ ?] left the Rurick, with a fresh
south-east wind, to explore the eastern part of the bay. We had already advanced
so far at noon, that we could distinctly observe, that the land was united every–
where: at the distance of a full mile from the shore, the water had decreased
to five feet; and the hope of discovering a river also vanished. (In this
Kotzebue was wrong, but the cliff which Beechey ascended ten years later,
obstructed his view of the southeastern corner of the bay, and therefore of
the mouth of the Buckland River.) Happily we found a convenie n t place for
landing; the current having formed a small tongue of land, where there was
[ ?] epth enough for us to approach with our long-boat, and I resolved to remain
there for the night. There were two small huts, near ourlanding-place, which
were raised several feet, supported by four pillars, and covered with morse-skin.
These huts did not seem constructed so much for continual residence, as for
magazines for their instruments, and hunting utensils. We here found very
003 | Vol_XII-0405
ESCH [ ?] LHOLTZ B [ ?] Y, ALASKA
elegantly-made arms. I took several arrows, and put in their stead knives, and
a hatchet, on the handle of which, Rurick and the date of the year was carved.
Probably the Americans visit this place, at the hunting time. They perhaps also
keep rein-deer; as we saw many horns of these useful animals lying on the shore.
The land rises a little from t h e coast, but reaches to a considerable height;
and is only covered below with beautiful green, and above with moss...We had
climbed much about during our stay, without discovering that we were on real
ice-bergs. The doctor, who had extended his excursions, found part of the bank
broken down, and saw, to his astonishment, that the interior of the mountain, con–
sisted of pure ice. At this news, we [ ?] ll went, provided with shovels and crows,
to examine this phenomenon more closely, and soon arrived at a place where
the back rises almost perpendicularly out of the sea, to the height of a hundred
feet; and then runs off, rising still higher. We saw masses of the purest ice,
of the height of an hundred feet, which are under a cover of moss and grass; and
could not have produced, but by some terrible revolution. The place which, by
some accident, had fallen in, and is now exposed to the sun and air, melts away,
and a good deal of water flows into the sea. An indisputable proof that what we saw
was real ice, is the quantity of mammoths' teeth and bones, which were exposed to
view by the melting, and among which I myself found a very fine tooth. We
could not assign any reason, for a strong smell, like that of burnt horn, which
we perceived in this place. The covering of these mountains, on which the most
luxuriant grass grows to a certain height, is only half a foot thick, and con–
sists of a mixture of clay, sand, and earth; below which the ice gradually melts
away, the green cover sinks with it, and continues to grow; and thus it may be
foreseen, that in a long series of years, the mountain will vanish, and a green
valley be formed in its stead. By a good observation, we found the latitude of
the tongue of land 66° 15′ 36″, north...I called the bay after our physician,
Eschscholtz, as it was he that made the remarkable discovery there. It seemed
to be uninhabited, and only visited at a certain time of the year, on account
004 | Vol_XII-0406
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA
of the hunting. I do not doubt, that there was a river between the high
mountains, which the shoals, however, would not permit us to investigate."Kotzebue was correct in this assumption, as Beechey was to prove
ten years later. Beechey also examined and named Elephant Point, of which he
writes: "I found Mr.Collie had been successful in his search among the cliffs
at Elephant Point, and had discovered several bones and grinders of elephants
and other animals in a fossil state, of which a full description and drawings
from the remains will be found in the Appendix. Associating these two dis–
coveries, I bestowed the name of Elephant upon the point, to mark its vicinity
to the place where the fossils were found; and upon the river that of Buck [ ?] and,
in compliment to Dr. Buck [ ?] nd, the professor of geology at Oxford, to wh [ ?] m I am
much indebted for the above mentioned description of the fossils, and for the
arrangement of the ge o logical memoranda attached to this work."The cliff in which these fossils appear to have been imbedded is
part of the range in which the ice formation was seen in July. During our
absence (a space of five weeks) we found that the edge of the cliff in one
place had broken away four feet, and in another two feet and a half, and a
further portion of it was on the eve of being precipitated upon the beach. In
some places where the icy shi le el ds had adhered to the cliff nothing now remained,
and frozen earth formed the front of the cliff. But cutting through those parts
of the ice which were still attached, the mud in a frozen state presented itself
as before, and confirmed our previous opinion of the nature of the cliff. With–
out putting it to this test, appearances might well have led to the c l o nclusion
come to by Kotzebue and M. Escholtz; more especially if it happened to be
visi s t ed early in the summer, and in a season less favourable than that in which
we viewed it. The earth, which is fast falling away from the cliffs — not
in this place only, but in all parts of the bay — is carried away by the tide;
and throughout the summer there must be a tendency to diminish the depth of
005 | Vol_XII-0407
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA
the water, wich at no very distant period will probably leave it navigable only
by boats. It is now so shallow off the ice cliffs, that a bank dries at two
miles' distance from the shore; and it is only at the shingly points which occur
opposite the ravines that a convenient landing can be effected with small boats."In 1901, Mendenhall gave the definitive explanation of the formation
of these ice cliffs. "Many wirters since Kotzebue have discussed the origin of
these cliffs, but the explanation given by Mr. L.M. Turner, Messrs. E.W.Nelson
and C.L. Hooper, and Prof. I.C. Russell seems to be entirely adequate. It is
that [ ?] the numerous lakelets scattered about over the tundra are gradually buried
by the advance of their mossy borders toward the center. After their burial they
are frozen, as is the entire tundra, a few inches below its surface and are later
revealed by later [ ?] al river cutting, as in the Kowak delta, or by the work of waves,
as at Elephant Point, and appear as masses of comparatively clear ice in the
general deposit of frozen mud, sands, and vegetable matter."Of the north side of the bay, Beechey wrote: "In our return to the
ship to deposit the fossils, a calm obliged us to anchor on the north side of the
bay, where we landed with difficulty, in consequence of the shallowness of the
beach, and of several ridges of sa n d thrown up parallel with it, too near the sur–
face for the boat to pass over, and with channels of water between them too
deep to wade through without getting completely wet. The country abounded in
l a kes, in which were many wild ducks, geese, teal, and widgeon; and was of the
same swampy nature before described: it was covered with moss, and occasionally
by low bushes of juniper, cranberry, whortleberry, and cloudberry. Near this
spot, two days before, we saw a herd of eleven reindeer, and shot a musk rat."Eschscholtz Bay is about 27 miles long and 11 miles wide at the
greatest. Aside from several shelter cabins and a reindeer station, at the
mouth of the Kauk River, the only settlement in the vicnity is Baldwin, a few
miles in [ ?] and and west from Elephant Point. There is a 1100-foot landing area
near Baldwin, and the village is on the winter trail which leads from Deering
006 | Vol_XII-0408
ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA
and Kiwalik northward to the Kobuk River and to Kotzebue (q.v.), on Baldwin
Peninsula.
007 | Vol_XII-0409
[ ?] ESCHSCHOLTZ BAY, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voya [ g ?] e to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...in Narrative of a Voya [ g ?] e to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...in
the years 1825, 26, 27, 28. the years 1825, 26, 27, 28. London, 1 0 831. 2v.Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and Beering's
Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Translated by H.E. Lloyd.
London, 1821. 3v.Mendenhall, W.C. Reconnaissance from Frot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska. Reconnaissance from Frot Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska.
Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper, Professional Paper,
No.10)U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II. Alaska. Part II.
001 | Vol_XII-0410
Ruby Collins ETOLIN STRAIT, ALASKA
July, 1948
840 wds.
ETOLIN STRAIT, western Alaska, separates Nunivak Island
(q.v.) from the section of the mainland between the mouths of the Kuskokwim
and the Yukon Rivers (q.v.). For several miles offshore from the main–
land, mud flats and extremely shoal water obstruct navigation of the
strait all the way from Cape Avinof, [ ?] its southeastern entrance point,
to Cape Vancouver, Nelson Island. A few miles above Cape Avinof, Kinak
Bay indents the lake-strewn mainland. The head of this bay is divided
by a small peninsula point of land which separates the mouths of the two rivers, the
Kuguklik and the Kinak, which flow into the bay from the northeast.
The first of these rivers rises in an unnamed lake east of the bay
and about 18 miles inland. The native settlement of Kipnuk is on this
river a few miles up from its mouth. Some maps show the Kinak River
rising in Dall Lake about 20 miles northeast of Kinak Bay which lake also
drains into Kinia River. The Kinia flows in a generally southwesterly
direction to empty into Etolin Strait about 18 miles north of Kinak
Bay. In December, 1878, Edward William Nelson [ ?] v isited the two towns
on the Kinia, Chichinak and Sfaganuk, and reported their names [ ?] with
variants of their present form. A few miles north of the Kinia the southern
channel to Baird Inlet empties into the strait. This and the more
northerly channel to the inlet cut Nelson Island off from the mainland.
Agiukchuk, the only settlement on this southern channel was also
visited by Nelson in 1878.Baird Inlet, which, except for two narrow channels each
about 22 miles long, is cut off from Etolin Strait and Bering Sea by Nelson
Island. Baird Inlet is a large body of water about 36 miles long from each to west
and about 18 miles from north to south at the widest points. The
It lies somewhat south of midway of the stretch of coast separating
002 | Vol_XII-0411
ETOLIN STRAIT
the mouth s of the Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers. The country on all sides
of the inlet is low, marshy, lake-studded tundra. Many of these lakes
empty one into the other or drain into small rivers and stream, a
great number of which find their way into the inlet. Petrof named this
body of water in 1880 after Professor Spencer F. Baird, the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution. Very little is known about this part
of Alaska and most of the lakes and rivers, with the exception of Dall
Lake, about 10 miles south of the head of the inlet, are unnamed and
unexplored.Nelson Island fits closely into the mouth of Baird Inlet.
It lies northeast across Etolin Strait northeast of from the north end of Nunivak
Island. Nelson Island is about 43 miles from north to south and about
33 miles from east to west at the widest points. Mud flats obstruct the
southern channel to Baird Inlet and appear again just south of the
northern channel entrance . The northern, eastern, and southern sections
of the island are low, the southern being dotted with tiny lakes, but the
mid-western section is hilly, particularly along the peninsula which juts
out from this western side toward Nunivak Island. Cape Vancouver, the
westernmost tip of this peninsula, rises boldly 1,000 feet above the
water. The shoal water which extends northward from the mouth of the
Kuskokwim River persists along the southern side of this peninsula
past the settlement of Kaliukluk, on the south side of the cape. Deep
water lies directly off the c C ape Vancouver and continues along the north side
of the bite on which Tanunak, a native village of about 65 people, is
situated. From Tanunak northeastward along the shore of the island the
mudflats reappear and persist to the mouth of the northern channel to
Baird Inlet. Kashigaluk, in the center of the island, with a 1939
population of 10, and Kaioliuk, on the north shore a few miles east
003 | Vol_XII-0412
ETOLIN STRAIT
of Tanunak are the only other settlements on the island.Etolin Strait was discovered by Adolph Karlovich Etolin in
1821, twenty years before he was made governor of the Russian American
Colonies. He called it Cook Strait after Captain James Cook, but
Krusenstern proposed that it be called Etolin Strait, by which name it
is generally indicated on current maps.The mainland east of the strait is part of the 30,000–
square-mile stretch of marsh and tundra between the mouths of the
Kukokwim and the Yukon which is the major breeding ground for the
water fowl not only of Alaska but also for all of western Canada and
the United States. So many ducks and geese nest and rear their young
in this area that the natives collect their eggs by the boatload in
the spring and drive geese by the thousands of geese and half-grown birds into net corrals in July.
Annabel reported in 1948 that not only was their no adequate enforcement
of the laws to protect these fowl from destruction at human hands, but
also that coyotes had found their way into this part of Alaska within the
last few years and that they were adding considerably to the slaughter.
Since this is the major source of game fowl for the United States and
Canada both , it would seem most necessary that protective measures be
taken with all possible speed.-----
Sources: uscp;Baker; Annabel. Hunting and Fishing in Alaska; Tewkesbury
Colby; Sundborg
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0413
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 100 wds FAIRWAY ROCK, ALASKA
FAIRWAY ROCK (65°37′ N.Lat., 168° 44′ W.Long.) Bering Strait,
Alaska, lies nine or ten miles southeast of Little Diomede Island. Fairway
is a 200-foot steep-sided, square-headed granite rock with deep water on all
sides and no outlying dangers.According to W.T. Lopp, a late nineteenth century missionary to
Sources: Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissance in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, Reconnaissance in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska,
the Cape Prince of Wales Eskimos, and namesake of Lopp Lagoon, the top of
Fairway Rock is several acres in area and is absolutely flat. Since its
characteristics are similar and its altitude only slightl y less than that of York
Plateau, it is probably of the same period of erosion.
in 1900. in 1900. Washington, [ ?] 1901.
001 | Vol_XII-0414
Ruby Collins GOLOVNIN BAY REGION,
September, 1948 ALASKA
Revised October, 1948
2180 wds - Text
50 wds - Bibl.GOLOVNIN BAY (Golofnin), a northern arm of Norton Sound, western
Alaska, was discovered in 1821 by Kromchenko and named after his ship, which
in turn had been named for Captain Vasili Mikhailovich Golofnin, of the
Russian Navy.¶ Golovnin Bay cuts into the south side of Seward Peninsula
west of Norton Bay. The 12-mile wide entrance to this bay extends from
Cape Darby on the east to Rocky Point on the west. From these two points,
the bay extends northward for about twelve miles to its head, where a
two-mile entrance leads into Golovnin Sound. This sound extends about 9
miles in a northwesterly direction to the many-channeled mouth of the Fish
River. About 8 miles above Cape Darby tiny Carolyn Island stands about
one-quarter of a mile off the eastern shore of the bay.The foothills of the Darby Mountains extend along the peninsula
which forms the eastern side of the bay, but nowhere approach the shores
very closely except in the vicinity of Cape Darby itself. Inland from the
sand spit which ju ts out from the eastern shore of the bay at the entrance
to Golovnin Sound, the land is low and swampy, and, across the entire head
of the sound, extends a swamp which reaches several miles inland, completely
enclosing the tortuous channels of the mouths of the Fish and Klokerblok
Rivers.This swampland and tundra continues halfway down the western
side of the bay and reappears on the point of land , and on the tidal island ,
which extend [ ?] from the west side of the bay towards the sand-spit opposite ,
at the entrance to Golovnin Sound. For the five miles southward to Rocky
Point the western side of Golovnin Bay is high and bold, although fringed
with a low, sandy beach.¶ There is good anchorage with protection from all
winds in the vicinity of the southern sandspit in the entrance to Golovnin
002 | Vol_XII-0415
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION, ALASKA
Sound, but an extensive shoal cuts across this entrance from the western
side of the bay to within three-quarters of a mile of the eastern shore.
The channel runs around the eastern end of this shoal and so into Golovnin
Sound, which is extremely shallow thoughout and open only to small steamers.
McKee describes this sound as "a large and shallow body of water with
treacherous mud-flats, surrounded by great barren hills and the all-pervading
tundra." There is a mission and reindeer station a few miles above Cape
Darby on the eastern shore of the bay, but the only true settlement in this
area is Golovnin, (see below).The Kachauik River enters Golovnin Sound a few miles above Golovnin,
and the Fish River, major tributary to the sound, and one of the largest
streams in southern Seward Peninsula, enters at the head.The Fish rises in the Bendeleben Mountains about midway between
Death Valley and Mount Bendeleben. After about 7 miles, it works its way
southward out of the mountains, then, flowing [ ?] in a southwesterly direction,
crosses a twelve-mile stretch of low, marshy tundra, called the Fish River
Flats, then passes thro u gh a mountain chain of 1,000-foot peaks, and finally
veers southward to follow a meandering course down fifteen miles (airline)
of tundra to the head of Golovnin Sound. White Mountain, the main Fish
River settlement, (see below), lies about midway of this section of the river.The mountains of the upper Fish River rise to 3,500 feet, and the
valleys through which the main river and its tributaries flow are U-shaped
and glaciated. There is some timber along the streams in the Fish River
Flats area, but otherwise the country is barren of trees. From the west,
in the Flats section of its course, the Fish receives the waters of Boston
Creek, with its two tributaries Baker and Oregon Creeks, and of Pargon River.
It is also joined from the east by Mosquito Creek, Rathlatulik River,
Etchepak River, and Cache Creek.
003 | Vol_XII-0416
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION, ALASKA
Pargon River rises in the vicinity of Chauik Mountain, is
joined by Duncan Creek from the south after leavin g the mountains, and enters
the Fish a few miles above its junction with Cache Creek.Almost immediately after leaving the mountains below the Flats,
the Fish is joined from the west by its main tributary, the N iukluk River
(q.v.), and, a few miles farther south, by Fox River.The Fox rises in the divide separating the Fish River system from
the Solomon (q.v.), the next major river to the west, and flows first
northeastward and then eastward to the Fish. It is j oined by Horton, Slate,
Suiro, and Dewey Creeks at fairly regular intervals along its 17-mile course.A few miles below the mouth of the Fox, a group of low hills
diverts the Fish River, the main channel curving around to the west of these
hills, and Steamboat Slough flowing to the east of them. Both these streams
converge, together with Klokerblok River, immediately to the south of this
group of hills, to feed the branched, delta-like mouth of the Fish River.The [ ?] Klokerblok originates in the mountains to the west
of the Fish and just north of the Bluff Region (q.v.), at the junction of
O'Brien and Kentucky Creeks. Along the early,mountainous,nine-mile section
of its course, it is joined by Skookum River, with its tributaries, Boil,
Goldbottom, Sourdough, Eureka, and Dewey, and by Basin, Thompson, and
Colorado Creeks. It then continues for another nine miles across the
coastal tundra to the Fish River, being joined by several unnamed streams
on the way.Settlements
The only habitations along the first half of the Fish River are
Omilak, on an early tributary to Mosquito Creek, Telephone Shelter Cabin,
and Boston Shelter Cabin, but White Mountain, at the confluence of the Fish
and the Klokerblok Rivers, is one of the major settlements for the entire
Fish River area. [ ?]Around 1900, White Mountain was merely a group of log cabins
004 | Vol_XII-0417
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION, ALASKA
and a storehouse point for the Wild Goose Mining and Trading Company, which
Chales D. Lane was then operating with remarkable success on Ophir Creek,
in the Council District north of White Mountain.Leaving behind the disappointments, hardships, and confusion of
the Nome beach, Lanier Mc K ee made the trip, complete with a library of law
books, from Nome to Council City in July, 1900, stopping at Golovnin and
White Mountain on the way. At Golovnin (which he called Chenik), he and
his three companions built a narrow, shallow-draft boat of the type necessary
for the journey, and christened it the Mush-on . The Arctic Bird [ ?] , a light–
draft stern-wheeler, then making regular runs between Golovnin and White
Mountain, towed them the first twenty-five miles of their trip. McKee
writes: "The Mush-on was the last of the string in tow, which consisted of
a small barge or lighter, containing Wild Goose Company machinery, and the
boats of several others, who were also going up the rivers ... After running
upon and backing off various mud-flats, at midnight the Arctic Bird rested at
the delta of the Fish River ... It was, of course, daylight, — a weird,
grayish effect, — and fairly, but not disagreeably, cold. Then we entered
and pushed slowly up the swift and shallow stream, the mosquitos, for the
first time in our wanderings to date, making themselves manifest and felt ...
For the first time there was a semblance of "God's country." The beautifully
clear stream, — flanked on each side by scrub willows and an occasional small
spruce-tree, — whose tempting water one could dip up and drink ad libitum ,
seemed in places filled with fish, darting swiftly about above the gravel
bed. Hills that appeared more like mountains loomed up in the distance,
gray in the early light. There was the inevitable tundra, of course,
but it seemed less all-pervading — it had finally met with some competition ...
Many times the Arctic Bird would run upon a riffle (where the water runs very
shallow over the gravel), to be temporarily baffled and obliged to back off
005 | Vol_XII-0418
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION,ALASKA
and seek another course. The stream averaged hardly two feet in depth ...
By noon we were disembarked and camped at White Mountain, a few feet from
the river ... this was the best camping-spot yet. The scene was pretty;
it seemed a healthful place; and water, plentiful and good, was very near
at [ ?] hand."As this shows, even in those days, lighterage companies were
making regular trips between Golovnin and White Mountain, which was then,
and still is, head of light-draft navigation on the Fish River. Today
small craft still bring supplies into the district, but a great deal of
freight is carried by air. [ ?]White Mountain, with a 1939 population of about 200, now has a
1,500-foot runway for land planes, a post-office, and telephone connection
with Nome. Of the three general stores, two are r un by whites, and the other,
a cooperative, by a Native named Abraham Lincoln. The town also has one
of the few Alaska Native Service Boarding Schools yet established in the
entire Territory.Golovnin, on the east side of the bay, was formerly called Chenik, or Dexter's,
after the pioneer who settled there in the [ ?] late 1880's. The Indians
called this settlement Chenik (Cheenik), and Mckee described it, in 1900,
as a scattered settlement on a high hill containing a small Swedish Evangelical
Church Mission, which was caring for 50 or 60 natives. The summer of 1900
brought an epidemic of measles and pneumoni [ ?] which killed whole families,
and which turned the mission into a hospital for most of the natives of
the region.Golovnin is now a fishing and mining town of 116 or more people
with a school, post-office, roadhouse, licensed fur dealer, and a Mission
Convent Church. There are two general stores in the village, two herring
salteries, and two lighterage companies carrying freight up and down the
Fish River between White Mountain and Golovnin. In addition to several
006 | Vol_XII-0419
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION [ ?]
reindeer corrals, there is a cold storage plant for reindeer meat. The
town is connected by telephone with Nome, St. Michael, and Council, and
there is a 2,000-foot landing field for wheeled planes, as well as a
9,900-foot sheltered anchorage for seaplanes on each side of the spit upon
which the town is located.History
Golovnin Bay was an important starting point for a series of
expedition s which [ ?] culminated in the discovery of gold near Council,
on the Niukluk, and its subsequent discover y near Nome. The first explorers
of the interior of Seward Peninsula were the members of the Western
Union Telegraph Company Expedition of 1865-66, who, under the leadership
of Baron Otto von Bendeleben, were seeking a route from G olovnin Bay to
Port Clar ne en ce on Bering Sea for the proposed telegraph line from the United
States to Europe by what way of Canada, Alaska, and Siberia. This party27 [ ?]
007 | Vol_XII-0420
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION
ascended Golovnin Bay and the Fish River, turned up the Niukluk, crossed
the divide, and went down the Kruzgamepa. Then came the news that the
second Atlantic cable had been successfully laid in the summer of 1866,
and the Western Union explorers were hastily recalled. It is said
that they left behind them valuable machinery, piles of telephone poles,
and many fragile wire bridges. They left behind also the gold which Bendeleben
and several of his men had noticed along the Niukluk River. In 1881, John
Dexter, one of the employees of the Alaska Gold and Silver Mining, Milling
and Trading Company (later the Russian American Milling Co.) which
mined galena on Bering Sea and also worked a few gold placers on the
Fish River, left the company and opened a trading station at the present
site of Golovnin, then called Chenik or Dexter's. The galena-gold mining company
closed down, but Dexter stayed in the area and continued to prospect for
gold. Daniel B. Libby, who had been with Bendeleben in 1865-66, was
so forcibly reminded by the Klondike Strike of 1897 of the gold on the
Niukluk, that, despite his age and relative ill-health, he found a backer
and sailed from San Francisco for Golovnin Bay, arriving in August, 1897.
The silver-lead Omalik Mine was already in operation, and a Norwegian
named Johannsen , had panned gold on the Niukluk in 1894 , but had abandoned
it for the Yukon, so that Libby had some indication of the value of the
country. Tom Guarick, an Eskimo , whom Dexter had taught to pan, offered to
guide the Libby party to Ophir Creek, where he had reclaimed an ounce of
gold while on a hunting trip. Libby accepted this offer, and h [ ?] s party,
having made the trip and spent a winter prospecting the entire area,
in the spring of 1898 staked their claims and recorded the Eldorado
Mining District, in the vicinity of Ophir Creek. In so doing they founded
Council City which was to prove to be the first producing camp on Seward
Peninsula. It was from Golovnin Bay that Eric O. Lindblom, Jafet28 [ ?]
008 | Vol_XII-0421
GOLOVNIN BAY REGION
Lindeberg, and John Brynteson set out on September 11, 1898 for their
history-making prospecting expedition to the future Nome District during which
they staked Discovery claim on Anvil Creek. When news of this strike
reached Golovnin Bay , it started the Nome Gold Rush which affected first
Golovnin, and particularly John Dexter, then Council, St. Michael and the
Bristol Bay area, then Yukon, and finally the west coast of the United States, and thus
initiat ed ing the economic development of the entire Seward Peninsula.7 [ ?]
Sources: Colby, Tewkesbury; USCP; VSGB;
Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyschlennik, and Sourdough. Alaska, Promyschlennik, and Sourdough.
Norman, Okla., Univ. of Oklahoma
press, 1945.French, L.H. Seward's Land of Gold. Seward's Land of Gold. N. Y., Montross, Clarke & Emmons (n.d.)
French, L.H. Nome Nuggets. Nome Nuggets. N.Y.,Montross, 1901.
Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., Scribner, 1925.
Mckee, Lanier. Land of Nome. Land of Nome. N.Y., Grafton (c1902)
001 | Vol_XII-0422
Ruby Collins GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA
March, 1949
Text- 820 wds.
Bibl- 25 wds.GOODHOPE BAY, in the southeastern part of Kotzebue Sound,
an arm of the Polar Sea, indents the northern [ ?] hore of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska. Kotzebue named this bay in August of 1816. "I gave up for the
present," he wrote, "the farther examination of this arm, as it would cost
me too much time on account of the shoals, and put it off till next year,
when I might continue it by means of very small baydares from Oonalashka. I
called this bay, the Bay of Good Hope, as I might really hope to make a
very remarkable discovery here. The coasts on the northern part of the arm
rise to a considerabl e height, but gradually become lower the farther one
penetrates to the N., where there are many small lakes and rivers. The
southern coast of the arm is low, and continues so as far as the eye can
reach. It is only in the vicinity of the Devil's mountain, which is fifteen
miles from here, that it becomes mountainous. The land is every where green,
but has not a single bush on it."As Kotzebue was to discover, this bay is quite shallow. (See
Devil Mountain article.) It does, however, receive three good-sized tribu–
taries: the Nugnugaluktuk, Lane, and Pish Rivers. The first of these was
recorded by Witherspoon, in 1903. Lane is a prospector's name given to the
stream known to the Eskimos as the Kugachuk . The Pish, likewise, is known
to the natives as the Kutuk . However, neither of these original names
appears on recent maps.The Nugnugaluktuk [ ?] rises in a lake twenty or so miles
inland and flows through a divide south of 880-foot Devil Mountain, and
then continues almost directly eastward to the bay. Lane and Pish Rivers
rise in a low divide east of the Serpentine River system and flow northeast–
ward for about twenty miles to the bay.The arbitrary line separating the Port Clarence mining district
002 | Vol_XII-0423
GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA
from the Fairhaven precinct passes between the Pish and the Goodhope
Rivers. Goodhope River is the next more easterly affluent to Goodhope Bay.The Goodhope system drains an area of 500 square miles. The
main river rises among the lava flows a few miles northwest of Imuruk
Lake (q.v.), proceeds westward for about twenty-five miles, then turns
northward and northeastward for another twenty-five miles, and debouches into
Goodhope Bay. The river may be said to o riginate at the junction of Right
Fork and Cottonwood Creek. Cottonwood, with its tributaries, Trail, Divide,
and Noyes Creeks, are the most important early tributaries, while Esperanza,
placer, and Humbolt Creeks are the main streams in the western portion of
the Goodhope basin. The gravel in the beds of these streams is so coarse
and loose that almost all the low water flow sinks into it and out of sight.
Above placer Creek, the basin includes an area of interbedded limestone and
schist, covered with lava, into which the river has cut a fairly deep and
narrow valley. Below placer Creek the river valley broadens considerably and
merges with the coastal flats.R ight Fork has carved a narrow canyon in the lava and receives
part of its water supply from lava springs, which may in turn receive some
water from Imuruk Lake. Because of these springs, Right Fork is more plenti–
fully supplied with water during the summer than some of the other streams
in this system.About 1908, some gold was found in these early tributaries to the
Goodhope, but mining did not flourish in this region, probably because of the
lack of a reliable water supply during the summer months, which is the only time
[ ?] when [ ?] placer mining can be carried on [ ?] in this part of Alaska.
003 | Vol_XII-0424
GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA
Traveling eastward around Goodhope Bay, the next tributary is Cripple
River, which receives the waters of Oregon, Mystery, Hoodlu m , Polar Bear,
Excelsior, Long, and Eagle [ ?] (or Pot) Creeks. The Cripple is only
about ten miles long and takes a generally northwesterly direction from the
same lava flows as those in which the Goodhope rises.Still traveling eastward, Francis, Clifford, Rex, Sullivan,
and Fox Creek, all relatively short streams, flow into the Bay.Although considerable numbers of natives live in this region,
there are no named communities. The nearest settlement is Deering, east
of Sullivan Creek and Point Deceit, at the mouth of the Inmachuk River (q.v.).
The Eskimos here earn their living [ ?] by hunting, fishing, and trapping,
activities which are not hindered by the underlying permafrost in the soil,
as [ ?] are the mining endeavors of the white man.
004 | Vol_XII-0425
GOODHOPE BAY, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,
1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper 314)Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's
Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 ./ London, 1821. 3v.
Translated by H.E. Lloyd.
001 | Vol_XII-0426
Ruby Collins GOODNEWS BAY AREA
6 July 48
1824 wds.
GOODNEWS BAY, a small, southeastern arm of Bering Sea
south of Kuskokwim Bay, lies just north of 59° N. Lat. and across
161° 40′ W. Long. Two shingle spits, North Spit and South Spit,
reduce the entrance to less than a mile, but there is a deep channel
which leads through the entrance and for a distance of about one mile
inside. This channel affords good anchorage for ocean-going vessels,
but beyond it, for the remaining 8 or 9 miles to Goodnews, at the head
of the bay, the water is shoal and is swept by tidal currents reaching
a maximum of 2 1/2 knots, and, with southerly or easterly winds, by
dangerous rip tides. The tidal range is about 9 feet. Under Beluka
Hill on the north side of the bay 6 feet of water will be found at low
tide, and other deeper anchorages have been reported just inside the
entrance, but most parts of this bay have not been surveyed recently
so that strangers to the region should attempt it only in daylight,
on a rising tide, and with constant use of the lead.The largest tributary to Goodnews Bay is Goodnews River
which rises in Goodnews Lake and takes a meandering course southwest–
ward for about 45 miles to the head of the bay. The Ahklun Range
borders the river basin more closely on the northwest than on the
southeast although tributaries to the Goodnews rise in the heights
and mountain lakes on both sides of its course. Middle Fork and
South Fork, the two largest tributaries to the Goodnews, enter from
the east near its mouth. From north to south the main western tribu–
taries are Canyon, Bear, Slate, Olympic, Cascade, Wattamuse, Granite,
and Barnum Creeks. Of these, Barnum, which is joined by Camp Creek,
is the largest. In addition to these tributaries, many small streams
002 | Vol_XII-0427
GOODNEWS BAY AREA
unnamed streams drain from nearby lakes and mountains into the Goodnews
River.Beluka Mountain and Lump Mountain border the northern shore
of Goodnews Bay near its head, and several other peaks in the Ahklun Range
rise above the narrow strip of lowland which edges the southern shore of
the bay. These include: Red Mountain, just south of the village of
Platinum, at the base of South Spit; Thorsen Mountain, a few miles south of
Red Mountains; and Susie Mountains a few miles to the east. Crater Hill,
Pyramid Peak, and Dome Mountain lie northeastward from Susie Mountain.
Salmon River follows the valley between Red and Susie Mountains southwest–
ward to Kuskokwim Bay at a point about midway between Chagvan and Goodnews
Bays. The Salmon is joined by Clara Creek and Platinum Creek from the west
and by Medicine Creek from the east. Smalls River rises in a high mountain
valley between Susie Mountain and Crater Hill and flows northwestward into
Goodnews Bay. Tundra Creek joins Smalls River a few miles from its mouth,
and the town of Platinum is on the west side of the mouth.Between these peaks in the Ahklun Range and along the whole
extent of the Goodnews River Basin the country is treeless tundra which,
during the summer, is covered with moss and many kinds of wild flowers.
Although the soil is too acid and the climate too rainy for any kind of
crop, the vicinity supports large herds of reindeer and a variety of
other wildlife including fox, ducks, geese, mink, and muskrat.In 1926, Walter Smith, an Eskimo, confided to another Eskimo,
Henry Whuya, that he had found 'white gold' in Fox Gulch at the south
end of Red Mountain. Whuya told Charles Thorsen, an old resident and
[ ?] [ ?] miner, about this discovery. Thorsen collected some
samples from the same spot and sent them to Fairbanks for analysis. The
'white gold' was platinum. For many years gold had been known to exist
and had been mined in a small way north of Goodnews Bay, but Smith's find
003 | Vol_XII-0428
GOODNEWS BAY AREA
was the first indication that there was platinum south of the bay.
Thorsen continued his prospecting in the area and discovered platinum
in Clara Creek in 1928. That same year Edward St. Clair made a similar
find on Squirrel Creek. In October, 1936, while three Alaska miners
were hand-drilling on the beach near the head of Goodnews Bay they
hit a heavy layer of platinum gravel on bedrock at about 38 feet. This
gravel was said to be worth about $3.00 per cubic yard. The miners
S taked a claim and then went Outside to buy machinery and tools with
which to work it. News of their find leaked out, reached newspaper
headlines, and started another rush to Alaska. Goodnews River was
staked for miles upstream, new prospectors arrived daily by boat and
plane, and tent cities sprang up around Platinum and the old native
village of Mumtrak, near the head of the bay. Platinum, which had
previously been the site of a few native huts and a trading post,
grew to an estimated 50 in 1938 and to about 600 in 1947, by which
time the town had a general store, a third class post office, a road–
house, a radio sales and repair shop, a fur dealer, a liquor store,
and a bowling alley supported by the Goodnews Bay Mining Company.
Although the town lacked such basic facilities as a hospital or a
school, it did have a pet-shop and kennel specializing in springer
spaniels. The present landing field is 2,120 feet long by 100 feet
wide, and there is a second order CAA weather bureau station in the
town.
004 | Vol_XII-0429
GOODNEWS BAY AREA
The known platinum deposits south of Red Mountain are
important not only because they represent the first placers in Alaska
workable primarily for platinum, but also because they are much richer
than any others so far developed in the United States or its possessions,
despite the fact that the bedrock source of these placers has not
yet been discovered. An analysis of the 1945 platin um, production
figures: Alaska, 26,505 ounces; California, 43 ounces; Oregon, 3
ounces, making a total of 26,551 ounces, shows how slight is the
extra-Alaska contribution to the United States platinum industry.
The following table gives the history of placer platinum production
in Troy ounces:
005 | Vol_XII-0430
GOODNEWS BAY AREA
1927 - 17 ½ 1939 - 32,460 1931 - 506 1940 - 33,800 1932 - 720 1941 - 26,221 1933 - 793 1942 - 23,213 1934 - 3,101 1943 - 27,162 1935 - 8,685 1944 - 33,625 1936 - 8,825 1945 - 26,551 1937 - 9,823 1946 - 22, 882 949 1938 - 40,932
Since 1938 the United States has been the fourth largest
producer of platinum in the world, being preceded by Canada, the
U.S.S.R., and the Union of South Africa, in that order, and being
followed by Colombia, which up to that year had held fourth place.
with the suspension of the OPA price of $35.00 per Troy ounce
on April 29, 1946, the price rose to between $95.00 and $100.00
within the year.Platinum, once the supreme luxury metal, was put to hard,
practical use during the war in bomb sights, radar equipment,
magneto contacts, spark plug electrodes, and grids in high frequency
transmission valves. It was used as a catalyst in the manufacture
of nitric acid and for spinerettes and brushings in the manufacture
of rayon. Beginning in 1945 the percentage of sales for chemical,
electrical, dental, and medical purposes dropped markedly, and in
1946 the jewelry manufacturers took 61% of all the platinum produced,
reinstating the metal to its pre-war, primarily decorative status.In the early days of platinum mining in the Goodnews Bay
area, a great many individual operators worked separate claims.
Since no one profited under this system, a movement toward consolida–
tion began, so that T t he Goodnews Bay Mining Company now holds a controlling
interest in the area. Incorporated in 1935, this company held, by
1947, more than 150 claims covering 2500 acres of the vicinity around
006 | Vol_XII-0431
GOODNEWS BAY AREA
6 Platinum. The company maintains an 8 cubic foot dredge with a crew
of approximately 63, a gold-platinum placer with two 4 1/4 yard drag
lines, and a washing plant employing approximately 10 men. Mining
can be carried on in this area with a dragline excavator for about
5 1/2 months of the year. A December, 1947, report tells of the
Goodnews Bay Mining Company personnel flying out and the mine closing
down. The main plant at Platinum Creek is electrified. It has
power for the cleanup plant, the repair shop and the well-equipped
machine shop. There are bunkhouses for single workmen and about
11 small houses for married personnel. There is also a good gravel
road connecting the camp with Platinum.The amount of platinum recovered from this area is so great
that in 1938 the Goodnews Bay Mining Company entered into a sales
contract with one of the largest refiners and sellers of platinum in
the United States not only to refine their product but also to feed
it to the market gradually so as to hold up the price. The Goodnews
Bay Mining Company produces about $25,000 to $30,000 worth of platinum
and gold a month. Total 1939 production for the entire Goodnews
Bay area was $300,000 in platinum and $100,000 in gold. Analysis
of the rocks in the vicinity shows the presence of chromium, nickel,
and copper, but not in sufficient quantity to pay for their recovery.Efforts are still being made to discover the bedrock source
of the platinum in the Goodnews Bay area. Red and Susie Mountains are both composed of
ultrabasic rocks of the kind with which platinum is usually associated. Since the
northwestern side of Red Mountain was once covered by the Goodnews Glacier, a condition
which would tend to dissipate rather than concentrate any metallic elements which might
be present there, and since most of the placers have been found on the eastern side of
the mountain, it is felt that the lode deposits must lie along those eastern slopes.
However, according to Mertie's report of 1939, they had not yet been found.
007 | Vol_XII-0432
GOODNEWS BAY AREA
-7-
The only other towns in the Goodnews Bay area are Goodnews,
and Mumtrak near the head of the bay, Goodnews Bay, shown on some
maps at the base of North Spit, and Barnum, 8 or 9 miles up the
Goodnews River.Mumtrak had a population of about 161 in 1936 and a
Federal school. Barnum had a population of 27 in 1939, and Goodnews
Bay, with a population of about 48, is the post office for the area
north of the bay. These four towns are on or are connected with the long
winter trail which runs westward from two points on Shelikof Strait,
joining towns on Iliamna Lake, Kvichak and Nushagak Bays with villages
to the west. A branch of this trail connects Mumtrak with Platinum.
At Goodnews Bay the trail turns northward and follows the coast of
Kuskokwim Bay to [ ?] Eek and Bethel.In 1826 Sarichef gave this bay the Russian equivalent
[ Davis, Hubertw, & Grewspoon, Gerturde M. Platinium aelied [necials?]
of 'Goodnews,' Port Dobriek Vestei, and Lutke recorded it as Bonnes
Nouvelles Baie, adding "it might better be called the bay of false
reports ." His criticism may have been based on the difficulties
of navigating the bay, but no one, since Johnnie Kilbuck first told
of finding 'white gold'near Red Mountain has thought of Goodnews
Bay as "the bay of false reports."
1946.) Wash. GPO, 1947.
Sources: USCP & Suppl
Colby
US. Bus. of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, 1946 Wash. G.P.O. 1948
Mertie, J. B., Jr. "Platinum deposits of the Goodnews Bay District Alaska
Wash. GPO 1939 (U.D. Geol. Swu. Bulletin 910-B.)
?]
001 | Vol_XII-0433
Ruby Collins GRANTLEY HARBOR, ALASKA
November, 1948
1,000 wds - Text
50 wds - Bibl.GRANTLEY HARBOR, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is an almost
land-locked arm of Port Clarence ,which itself leads by way of Tuksuk Channel into Imuruk Basin (q.v.). . It can be entered by vessels drawing
less than twelve feet and provides an excellent, well-protected anchor–
age for such small vessels.Directly across from Teller, the northern sand spit at the en–
trance to Grantley Harbor is marked by a light, and buoys mark the channel
during the season of navigation. The small-boat landing in the Harbor
consists of floats which are raised or lowered on tracks. There are
no docks in the Harbor, and this float-landing is difficult during [ ?]
storms.
002 | Vol_XII-0434
GRANTLEY HARBOR
Captain Frederick William Beechey, having already sailed around
Port Clarence, entered Grantley Harbor on September 1, 1827. He was
the first white man to [ ?] do so, and [ ?] describes the place as
follows: "On examination with the boats, we found, as we expected, an
inner harbour [ Grantley Harbour ] , ten miles in length by two and a
quarter in width, with almost an uniform depth of two and a half and
three fathoms water. The channel into it from the outer harbour is
extremely naorrow, the entrance being contracted by two sandy spits;
but the water is deep, and in one part there is not less than twelve
fathoms. At the upper end of the harbour a second strait, about three
hundred yards in width, was formed between steep cliffs; but this
channel [ Tuksuk Channel ] was also contracted by sandy points. The
current ran strong through the channel, and brought down a great body
of water, nearly fresh...The boats had not time to pursue this strait;
but in all probability it communicates with a large inland lake [ Imuruk
Basin ] , as described by the natives of Kotzebue Sound. At the entrance
of the strait, called Tokshook by the natives, there is an Esquimaux
village, and upon the northern and eastern shores of the harbour there are
two others: the population of the whole amounted to about four hundred
persons. They closely resembled the natives we had seen before [ in the
Kotzebue District to the north ] , except that they were better provided with
clothing, and their implements were neater and more ingeniously made.
Among their peltry we noticed several gray fox and land-otter skins, but
they would not part with them for less than a hatchet apiece. In addition
to the usual weapons of bows and arrows, these people had short iron spears
003 | Vol_XII-0435
GRANTLEY HARBOR
neatly inlaid with brass, upon all which implements they set great value,
and kept them wrapped in skins. Among the inhabitants of the village on the
northern shore, named Choonowuck, there were several girls with massive
bracelets. One had a curb chain for a necklace, and another a bell
suspended in front, in the manner described the preceding year at Choris
Peninsula."These two ports, [Port Clarence and Grantley Harbor] situated so near Beering's Strait, may at some future
time be of great importance to navigation, as they will be found particularly
useful by vessels which may not wish to pass the strait in bad weather.
To the outer harbour, which for convenience and security surpasses any
other near Beering's Strait with which we are acquainted. I attached the
name of Port Clarence, in honour of his most gracious Majesty, then Duke
of Clarence. To the inner, which is well adapted to the purposes of repair,
and is sufficiently deep to receive a frigate, provided she lands her
guns, which can be done conveniently upon the sandy point at the entrance,
I gave the name of Grantley Harbour, in compliment to Lord Grantley."On the northern side of Grantley Harbour, Mr. Collie found a bad
of purple primulas, anemones, and of dodecatheons, in full [ ?] fresh
blossom, amidst a covering of snow that had fallen the preceding night."
004 | Vol_XII-0436
Grantley Harbor, Alaska
4
During the nineteenth century, Grantley Harbor, along with Port
Clarence, was an important rendezvous for the many whaling vessels which
sailed these waters. Whaling fleets are a thing of the past, and the
locality is now visited only by trading schooners and an occasional
freighter.The Harbor was surveyed by Beechey, in September, 1827, and
named Grantley, "in compliment to Lord Grantley."Several small streams rising in the plateau on which Mukacharni
Mountain stands flow southward into Grantley Harbor. From west to
east these are: Bay, Sunset, Igloo, Dewey, McKinley, and Offield Creeks.
From the time of the first strike in this area, in 1900, the
gravels of these streams have been known to be auriferous, but the output
has been small.A few streams rising in the foothills of the Kigluaik Mountain s , to
the southeast, also flow into Grantley Harbor. From west to east these
are: Coyote, and Dese Creeks. Very little prospecting has been done
along these streams because of their proximity to the Bluestone (q.v.)
005 | Vol_XII-0437
GRANTLEY HARBOR, ALASKA
-5- which gave, promise early in the century, of being a valuable gold stream.
One of the major difficulties in gold mining in this area has
been the problem of a reliable water supply. Early in the mining season,
the [ ?] streams are too small to support dredging or sluicing activities.
Then, with the spring rains, they [ ?] are transformed into torrents,
which destroy any dams previously contructed for their control. It
was originally intended to build a system of ditches to divert these
flood waters and put them to use, but then it was discovered that,
although the gold in the vicinity was coarse and characterized by
large nuggets, the deposits were not sufficiently rich to warrant the
expense of a ditch system. The mining activity in this area is now
negligible.Sources:
USCP. Alaska. Pt.II. 1947
Baker
VSGB
USC & G S Chart 9385
Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Gold Placers of Parts of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port
Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin. Bulletin. No.328)Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C., 1901.Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's
Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . London, 1831. Vol.II
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0438
Ruby Collins
21 April 48 GROSVENOR, LAKE, ALASKA
80 wds
GROSVENOR, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska
Sources: VS GB
Peninsula, is about 17 miles long by only about 2 miles wide. It lies
northeastward of the Bay of Islands, an arm of Naknek Lake (q.v.), and is
surrounded on almost all sides by the foothills of the Alaska Range from
which several small tributaries drain into it. Lake Grosvenor may be
reached by easy portage from the Bay is Islands, or by ascent of the
Savonoski River which connected with an eastern outlet of the lake.
in USCP and suppl.
001 | Vol_XII-0439
Ruby Collins
July, 1948 HAZEN BAY AREA, ALASKA
1008 wds
Hazen Bay, western Alaska, opens into Bering Sea north of
Etolin Strait (q.v.). The bay was named by Edward William Nelson
in 1878 for General William Babcock Hazen, Chief Signal Corps
Officers, U.S.A.The entrance to Hazen Bay is about 7 miles wide, and just
within this entrance the bay widens considerably. Several rivers
drain from the many lakes which dot this section of the Yukon delta
and flow into Hazen Bay. The Manopiknak River, shown on some maps
as an outlet of the Yukon River (q.v.), enters the southeastern
corner of the bay, and the Azun (Azoon) River enters farther up
its head. The mouths of these rivers are wide, shoal and completely
clogged with mud flats at low tide. The land which borders the northern
side of fo the bay is a marsh edged on the west by more mud flats and
cut by several small streams. Some maps show the settlements
Ukak and Anakak on the shores of Hazen Bay.¶ About 10 miles above
Hazen Bay the Manakinak River enters Bering Sea. The Kashunuk
River, thought to be another outlet of the Yukon, empties into
an unnamed bay a few miles north of the Manakinak. Kashunuk a
native settlement of 89 peoples in 1939 is in this vicinity.Because so little is known about this stretch of the Yukon
Delta, the coast northward from the Kashunuk is represented by a
dotted line. Most of the information concerning this part of Alaska
was obtained by Nelson in 1878 , and very little surveying has been
done in this area since that time.The entrance to Hooper Bay, about 22 miles up the coast
froms the Kashunuk River, is a narrow channel formed by two small
spits of land. Nelson named this bay after Captain Calvin Leighton
Hooper. Some maps show the Askinuk River flowing into Hooper Bay.
002 | Vol_XII-0440
HAZEN BAY AREA
Hooper Bay on the north shore of this bay is the largest town in this area. It had a reported population
of 299, in 1939, which was estimated to have increased to 325 by 1947.
Hooper Bay has a post office, and an Alaska Native Service school contained
in the new community house which has, [ ?] in addition to class–
rooms, a shop, clinic, laundry, showers, and teachers' quarters.
Mail service runs regularly from Mountain Village on the Yukon
except during the months of May and October.Askinuk which is the only other settlement on Hooper Bay,
The promentory between Hooper and Igiak Bays is known as Point Dall.Igiak Bay, a few miles north of Hooper Bay, is approximately
triangular in shape with its broadest side facing the sea. Two narrow
spits of land reach toward each other from the north and south to
leave a very narrow entrance into Igiak Bay. Dall Point is on the move southerly of these spits. The Kakechik River
flows into the bay from the mainland. The tiny native settlement of
Igiak on the south shore of the bay was reported both by Petrof and
by Nelson.Cape Romanzof, the most westerly point on the Yukon Delta,
is also the most northerly point of the land mass north of Igiak Bay.
By a strange coincidence, three men, Shishmaref, Kromchenko, and
Etolin, working independently named this Cape Romanzof in 1821. The name
has been variously written as Romantsof, [ ?] Roumiantsoff, etc.
This cape is made up of sheer, perpendicular shafts of rock rising
1,200 to 1,500 feet above the water. The Askinuk Mountains
end at Cape Romanzof, the highest peak of the chain, which attains 2,363 feet,
being about 5 miles in from the point of the cape. The land trends
eastward for about 15 miles from Cape Romanzof in continuous ledges,
nowhere lower than 1,230 feet, to the mouth of the Kun River which
enters the head of Scammon Bay.
003 | Vol_XII-0441
HAZEN BAY AREA
Scammon Bay is shoal and marked with sand bars laid bare
at low tide. The only settlements are Kutmiut, at the mouth of the
Kun, and Scammon Bay (population 88, in 1939) on the north side of the
bay. Scammon Bay is connected by trail with Kwikluak and Kotik at the mouth
of the Yukon and with other points up the Yukon and along the shores
of Norton S t ound.South Sand Island and North Sand Island lie outside the
entrance to Scammon Bay. Several small native settlements and their
associated streams lie on the shores of Bering Sea between the mouth
of the Kun and Black River, about 36 miles up the coast: Melatolik, a
village on a creek with the same name; Bimiut, an Eskimo camp and village
a few miles farther north; and Kwikak, an Eskimo village about 7 miles
south of the mouth of the Black River.Black River is shown on some maps as following an extremely
torturous, generally southwesterly 45-mile course, from one of the many small lakes
which sprinkle the mainland in this vicinity, for about 45 miles past the
village of Ulakakarvik, through Lake Nunawakanuk, to the village of
Black (population 15 in 1939), at its mouth. This may be the same
village which as appears on some maps as Kipniak.The entire stretch of coastline north of Scammon Bay is shoal
and for several miles offshore. The mainland for hundreds of miles
inland is a mass of marshes and lakes, most of which are connected by
streams and creeks of varying size. This enormous expanse of tundra is
the most important breeding ground for the waterfowl not only for
Alaska but also for all of western Canada and the United States.
Hundreds of thousands of ducks and geese come to this area every year to
lay their eggs and raise their young. The existing wildlife conserva–
tions laws are not yet enforced with sufficient strictness to stop the
004 | Vol_XII-0442
HAZEN BAY AREA
natives from gathering these eggs by the boatloads every spring
nor from clearing whole areas of nesting and half-grown birds by
driving them into net corrals in July. Added to this human threat
is the arrival, within the last few years, of the first coyotes to this
region. Annabel points out in his recent book that unless something is
done very soon to protect these birds from both these hazards they
will be in danger of ultimate extinction.Sources:
VSGB; USCP; Baker; Colby; Annabel. Hunting and Fishing in Alaska ; N.Y.
Knopf, 1948
001 | Vol_XII-0443
Ruby Collins
21 April 48 HOMER, ALASKA
450 wds
HOMER, ALASKA (59° 37′ N.Lat.; 151° 27′ W.Long.), a town and
post office on Coal Point, Kachemak Bay, Cook Inlet, 75 miles from Seward,
was established in November, 1895. It lies at the end of Homer Spit, a
narrow neck of land reaching southeastward into the bay. The increase in
population from 35 in 1930, to 325 in 1939, is one proof of the wealth of
resources in the vicinity and the progressive attitude of the people.Not only is the region rich in gold, copper and coal, but an
estimated 35,000 acres of relatively treeless "Homer Country" is easily
cultivated, deep, fertile soil. By 1937, 150 farmers, mostly from the
Middle West, had arrived in Homer. In 1938 the Alaska Cooperative Association
was incorporated to establish a 200-family settlement program. This, the
first cooperative movement ever started in Alaska, was the work of residents
of Cordova, a large town on the mainland 210 miles to the south. Neither the
climate nor the promise of the soil disappointed the settlers. The mildness
of the climate is well shown by the January, 1936, official weather report
which recorded five inches of rain and temperatures above 40° for eleven
days in succession. The region has 35 inches of rainfall a year and a
relatively long growing season. Wheat, oats, barley, and all the hardy
vegetables mature successfully. Cattle and sheep stay on pasture at least
six months of the year. In about 1945 demands from military establishments
on Kodiak Island caused a shift of emphasis from the raising of cattle to
truck crops suitable for immediate consumption. Most farmers are specializing
on potatoes, although lettuce, celery, cabbage, and berries are also in demand.
002 | Vol_XII-0444
HOMER, ALASKA
cabbage, and berries are also in demand . All available homesteading
land for five miles beyond the town is now taken; although more land is still
available in the outlying areas. In contrast with Matanuska Valley (q.v.) the
development of the Homer area has gone forward entirely without
government aid.Homer has a dock able to accom m odate large ships , and a road leads
from the dock to the town. Boats run regularly to Seattle, Anchorage,
and Seldovia. There is a fine CAA airport for land planes. A 1 1/2–
mile artificial lake beside the municipal airport for landing amphibian
and pontoon planes was nearing completion in October, 1947. There is
a radiotelephone station connected with Anchorage. An extension of the
Anchorage-Seward road is being built to Homer. This road will solve the
accute distribution problems of the Homer farmer , for Wwater transportation
is difficult, sometimes impossible , along the westernshore of Kenai
Peninsula. The new Anchorage-Seward-Homer road supplies the final
basic need for the development of Homer into a thriving community.
Homesteading land is still available along this road. The Cooperative
bought the cannery buildings at Kasilof, a town sixty miles to the north,
and moved them to Homer. The town has three schools (including a High
School), four churches, three restaurants, one theater, two mimeographed
weekly newspapers, two general stores, two cold storage plants, a
bakery, salmon packer, gift shop, insurance agent, and machine shop.
The newest school, completed in 1940, and the newest of the two hotels,
completed in 1947, the Alaska Cement Corporation announced plans
to build a $1,125,000 cement plant at Homer Spit capable of producing
600 barrels of cement a day. The plant will use native clay, gypsum,
limestone and coal. It is expected that proposed military construction
003 | Vol_XII-0445
HOMER, ALASKA
will use the entire output of this company for two years.Fishing, canning and fur-farming are other successful
projects in the region. Homer was once one of the most important
trapping areas in all Alaska. A decade of intensive settlement,
however, has greatly reduced the number of mink, beaver, otter, and foxes.
The mart ien has been exterminated. In place of the hunter and trapper,
therefore, has come the fur-farmer.Coal mining has always been important in the Homer area.
Early gold seekers around Cook Inlet found coal lying loose on the
beach. In 1890, five years before the town was established, a coal
mine operated in McNeill's Canyon, about ten miles up Kachemak Bay.
It is expected that present coal developments will soon be able to
supply all the towns on Cook Inlet.
001 | Vol_XII-0446
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 POINT HOPE, ALASKA
780 wds
[ ?] HOPE, POINT (68° 21′ N.Lat., 166° 36′ W.Long.),
one of the important promontories on the arctic coast of Alaska, is the
extreme westerly tip of a low, narrow finger of land projecting some sixteen
miles into the Polar Sea. Point Hope is about thirty miles south of Cape
Lisburne.Beechey named this point in August, 1826, in honor of Sir
William Johnstone Hope. It has been called Hoffnung (Hope) by German
cartographers and Golovnin , or Golofnin , by Russian voyagers, and the
Eskimo name, variously recorded as Tikira Tikira , Tikera Tikera , etc., is said to mean
"forefinger." The name Golovnin, or Golofnin, is now generally used to identify
the bay and sound on the north side of Norton Sound, Bering Sea.The surface of the land mass terminating in the Point is
broken by a number of lagoons, and its shores fall away in a steep shingle
beach. Most of these lagoons are not named on recent maps, but the largest,
known as Marryatt Inlet, has its entrance on the north side of the promon–
tory several miles northeastward from the Point itself. Vessels with a
draft up to ten feet can enter Marryatt Inlet, and some schooners have,
for several years, been using it as a wintering place. Pilots unfamiliar
with this anchorage should sound out the channel before entering. It should
also be remembered that during the first part of the season, when the ice
is breaking up in the inlet, there is a strong out-going current which carries
the ice along at a dangerous velocity. Point Hope proper is marked by a
fixed white light maintained from August 1 to November 1 each year.Very few climatological observations have been taken in this
area, but one set recorded by the U.S. Geological Survey between August, 1894,
and July, 1896, reads as follows:
002 | Vol_XII-0447
POINT HOPE, ALASKA
Maximum Minimum January + 23 -34 February + 6 -41 March + 38 -39 April + 35 -32 May + 55 -12 June + 58 + 21 July + 56 + 26 August + 62 + 36 September + 60 + 29 October + 39 -1 November + 34 -21 December + 28 -36
Mean total precipitation for the same period was 7.57″,
with some fall recorded for 64 days out of the entire year. Precipitation
was greatest during the summer months, relatively light from November through
March, with a sharp increase in April. The maximum number of rainy days
occurred in September.The first frost occurred on September 13 of 1894, and the first
killing frost on October 16. The bay opened on July 17 and August 1, in 1895
and 1896 respectively, and closed on November 19, in 1894.
002a | Vol_XII-0448
POINT HOPE, ALASKA
Writing in 1898, Lieut. E.P. Bertholf gave a good description
of summer at Point Hope. "In July it was difficult to imagine I was 125
miles north of the arctic circle, for the open sea showed nota sign of
ever having had ice on its surface, the land was covered with many varieties
of short-stemmed and brilliantly colored flowers, and the temperature, which
had been as low as -45 during the winter, was such that one could wander about
in shirt sleeves and not feel uncomfortable. And yet in spite of the fact
that we could walk around lightly clad and gather quantities of flowers,
with no ice or snow to be seen, if one were to dig below the surface of the
ground in the neighborhood of Point Hope from above the Kookpuk River to
about half way to Cape Thompson, solid glacial ice would be found at a depth
varying from 2, to 7 or 8 feet. How far down this ice extends is not known,
but under Mr. Nelson's storehouse an ice house has been chopped out to a
depth of 15 feet, and the ice is still clear and solid."
002b | Vol_XII-0449
POINT HOPE, ALASKA
The settlement at Point Hope had a 1939 population of 257, a
Federal school, and U.S. commissioner, and Episcopal mission, a post office,
and a store. Planes equipped either with wheels or floats may land at Point
Hope, and the settlement lies on the winter trail which runs southward to
Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula, and northward to Point Barrow.Point Hope is advantageously situated for trading purposes.
It is near the important sealing, whaling, and fishing grounds, while its
proximity to the mouth of the Kukpuk River (q.v.) offers an easy route into
the interior. Great numbers of Point Hope Eskimos travel the 150 or more
miles down the coast to Kotzebue in order to trade with other natives from
Cape Prince of Wales and from the far-distant interior regions of the Kobuk
and Noatak Rivers.
003 | Vol_XII-0450
POINT HOPE, ALASKA
Tigara (q.v.) is a small Eskimo village a little eastward from the
Point on the sand spit which forms the north side of Marryatt Inlet.References:
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Brooks, A.H. Geography and Geology of Alaska Geography and Geology of Alaska . Washington, 1906. (U.S.
Geological Survey. Professional Paper Professional Paper No.45)VSGB
USCP
Bertholf, E.P. Report of Second Lieut. E.P. Bertholf, R.C.S. Report of Second Lieut. E.P. Bertholf, R.C.S. July 15, 1898.
(U.S. Treasury Department. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue
Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the Cutter Bear and the Overland Expedition for the Relief of the
Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, from November 27, 1897, to September Whalers in the Arctic Ocean, from November 27, 1897, to September
13, 1898 13, 1898 . Washington, 1899. pp.18-27)
001 | Vol_XII-0451
Ruby Collins
April, 1949 HOTHAM INLET, ALASKA
Text-600 words
Bibl-50 words
HOTHAM INLET, east of Kotzebue Sound, an arm of the Polar Sea,
separates the upper half of Baldwin Peninsula (q.v.) from the mainland
of northwestern Alaska. This inlet was named by Capt. F.W. Beechey, in
1826, "in compliment to the Hon. Sir Henry Hotham, K.C.B., one of the lords
of the Admiralty."Capt. C.L. Hooper in his report of the second cruise of the
Corwin Corwin , which took place in 1881, gives a good description of this Inlet.
"Hotham Inlet...is between 30 and 40 miles in length and from 5 to 10
miles in width; and although connected directly with the salt water is
entirely fresh on account of the number of rivers which discharge int o it.
To the southeast of Hotham Inlet and connected by a narrow channel is
Selawik Lake, about 15 miles in width and 20 long, but very shallow. The
entrance to the inlet was sounded out by one of the Corwin's boats last
year, in the hope of finding a ship channel, but not more than one fathom
was found at the entrance, although much deeper inside. The land near the
inlet is low, but it is surrounded by a range of hills from 1,000 to 3,000
feet high, from 10 to 30 miles distant. Those to the northward were called
by Cook, Mulgrave Hills. To the eastward, in very clear weather, may be
seen two conical hills called Deviation Peaks."The general trend of this inlet is southeast. The entrance is
not only shoal but is also obstructed by wide mud flats and innumerable
sand bars some of which are bare at low water. The channel within the
Inlet is of considerably greater depth, having been reported as early as 1884
as v arying from 18 to 43 feet for a distance of 20 or more miles. Because
of the width of the mud flats which fringe both the mainland and the
peninsula, no landing can be made at most places o n the Inlet.Stoney describes the condition of the entrance and the channels
002 | Vol_XII-0452
HOTHAM INLET, ALASKA
during his visit in 1884: "Sounding out and temporarily buoying a channel
over the bar, a mud and sand-bank about one thousand yards wide with eight
feet depth on it at low water, we crossed over. At high water, and when the
wind is from the southward and westward, two fathoms can be carried over.
Winds from northward and eastward give the least depth. After crossing, a
depth of three fathoms was carried in the channel for twenty miles, increas–
ing in places to seven fathoms."Most of the mainland coastline of the Inlet is formed by the
many-channelled delta of the Kobuk River (q.v.). Recent maps show no per–
manent settlements on [ ?] this side of the Inlet, although there is a
c abin at the mouth of Riley Channel, one of the more northerly mouths of
the Kobuk.By way of Selawik Lake, Hotham Inlet receives the waters of
the Selawik River, from the east, while the Noatak River enters the north side
of the entrance at a point approximately opposite Kotzebue, on Baldwin
Peninsula.There are no named promontories on the mainland side, whereas
Pipe S p it, the northeastern tip of Baldwin Peninsula, Nimiuk Point,
several miles to the south, and Attiunik Point, the southern entrance point
to Selawik Lake, mark the peninsula side.The most important settlement in this entire region i s the large and
the thriving town of Kotzebue (q.v.), on the northwestern tip of Baldwin
Peninsula.
003 | Vol_XII-0453
HOTHAM INLET, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Beechy, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's
Strait ... 1825, 26, 27, 28. Strait ... 1825, 26, 27, 28. London, 1831. 2v.Hooper, Capt. C.L. Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas Report of the Cruise of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Thomas
Corwin, in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 Corwin, in the Arctic Ocean, 1881 . Washington, 1884.Stoney, Lieut. G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.
U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska United States Coast Pilot. Alaska .
Part II. Part II. 5th (1947) ed. Washington, 1947.
001 | Vol_XII-0454
Ruby Collins ✓HYDABURG, ALASKA
20 April 48
300 wds
HYDABURG, ALASKA (55° 13′ N. LAT.; 132° 50′ W. LONG.), a
native fishing village , had a population of 340 348 in 1939 1940 making it one of
the largest Indian villages of south [ ?] eastern Alaska. It is located
one-half mile inland on the west coast of Prince of Wales Island just
across the Sukkwan narrows from the northernmost tip of Sukkwan Island. The
town itself is on the low coastal strip which runs around most of
Prince of Wales Island, but is backed by elevations of from 2,000 to
3,000 feet. Insert (see Below)
Hydaburg was founded on November 11, 1911 by a group of Haida Indians,
from the little Indian village of Klinquan, lead by Mr. and Mrs. Charles
W. Hawkesworth and several government representatives. The town was
intended as, and has always remained, a strictly native settlement run
on a cooperative basis. No white man is allowed to set up any business
in Hydaburg. The site was chosen because of its fine harbor, nearness
to the fishing grounds, and prospects of excellent hunting and trapping
in the interior. From its outset Hydaburg, so named by Mrs. Hawkesworth,
has been a prosperous community. In 1939 the Hydaburg Cooperative
Association received
a loan of $145,000 under the Indian Reorganization Act. Using an all–
native crew, the Association built, equipped , and began the operation
of a modern cannery. From April 1 to September 30 there is a weekly
mail boat. There is a point to point r e adiotelephone and radio–
telegraph station connecting with Ketchikan.In 1947 the Department of the Interior expanded the land
reserves of Hydaburg by 101,000 acres. It also set up facilities for
clearing land titles in all southeastern Alaska. All income from
these land reserves will be credited to native villages, such as
Hydaburg, for their free use. This grant of land to Hydaburg clears removes
all native claims to the Tongass national Forest, (q.v.)
since the natives of Hydaburg
agreed to exchange it for the new land reserves.Hydaburg was founded on November 11, 1911 by a group of Haida Indians,
from the little Indian village of Klinquan, lead by Mr. and Mrs. Charles
W. Hawkesworth and several government representatives. The town was
intended as, and has always remained, a strictly native settlement run
on a cooperative basis. No white man is allowed to set up any business
in Hydaburg. The site was chosen because of its fine harbor, nearness
to the fishing grounds, and prospects of excellent hunting and trapping
in the interior. From its outset Hydaburg, so named by Mrs. Hawkesworth,
has been a prosperous community.
001 | Vol_XII-0455
Lee Collins ✓HYDER, ALASKA
20 April 48
300 wds
HYDER, ALASKA, is a town and post office at the head
of Portland Canal, about 150 miles northeast of Ketchikan, just
across the international boundary line from Stewart, British
Columbia. It was named in 1910 in honor of a Canadian scientist,
and is the American center of the Portland Canal mining district.
The population, mostly Indian, was 254 in 1938.There is a 400-foot wharf which bends inshore somewhat
for the last 215 feet. Depths off the wharf run from 22 to 30 feet.
There is no fresh water on the wharf and strong current eddies make
landing difficult. At the northern end of the wharf is a seaplane
float. There is communication by small craft to Ketchikan. In
1947 the Stewart telephone system was being rehabilitated to include
a line to Hyder. The Hyder Radio & Telephone Co. operates station KDF
A-1 emission, 425 kc.(705m.), 500 kc. (600 m.). Airplane transport
of winter fuel oil was being planned in October, 1946. A road along
the shore of Portland Canal connects Hyder with Stewart.Deposits of the natural gold-silver alloy electrum,
valued at $14,000 to the ton, have been discovered by tunnel l ing
under the glaciers which lie northwest of Hyder. These glaciers
and their surrounding mountains are extremely beautiful and little
explored. Tungsten has also been found in the vicinity. The
Riverside Tungsten mine northwest of Hyder operates a mill in the
town. The Premiere Mine, largest in the vicinity, renewed operations
in June, 1947, after an eight-month shutdown. The Salmon Gold Mine,
Portland Canal m ining area, reported in 1946 what appeared to be a
large new vein of electrum assayed at 0.61 ounces of gold and 5
ounces of silver per ton.
001 | Vol_XII-0456
Ruby Collins ILIAMNA LAKE, ALASKA
20 April 48
850 wds
ILIAMNA LAKE, Iliamna District, Alaska, just north of the Alaska
Peninsula, is the largest lake in Alaska. Lying about midway between 59° and
60° N.Lat., the lake extends northeast-southwest between 154° and 156° W.Long.
It is about 70 miles long by 15 to 25 miles wide and is famous for the size and
number of its rainbow trout. In recent years trout measuring up to 3 4 ″ have
been caught here, but these giants do not approach in size the mythical blackfish,
Iliamna, said to haunt the lake and to bite holes in the canoes of bad natives.
In 1802, the Russians named this Lake Shelekhov, but it is now universally
known as Iliamna Lake.For about one-half their length the north and south shores of the
western end of the lake are fairly even, but the eastern half is indented by
several small bays. Kakhonak Bay, with its five finger-like extensions, reaches
into the south shore of the lake like a great hand which, in general outline,
it resembles. The bay is about 7 miles long and about 5 miles wide at the
greatest points. It is formed by a narrow-necked peninsula which stretches
westward into the lake, partially cutting Kakhonak Bay off from the lake
proper. The waters north of this peninsula are dotted with small islands.
Kakhonak is a small settlement and post office on the shore just south of this
bay. There is a reindeer station on the tip of one of the finger-like extensions
at the head of Kakhonak Bay.Pile Bay, an extension of the eastern end of Iliamna Lake, is
about 9 miles long by 2 to 3 miles wide. It is almost cut off from the main
body of the lake by the largest of the many islands which are scattered here.Iliamna Lake is the source of the Kvichak River (q.v.) which drains
from its southwestern end. The lake receives the Pile and Iliamna Rivers
which rise in the glacier-covered mountains to the northeast, and many unnamed
tributaries from the highlands which surround the lake on all sides except
002 | Vol_XII-0457
ILIAMNA LAKE, ALASKA
the southwest. These mountains are all part [ ?] of the Aleutian Range and rise
from heights of 2000 feet close by the lake to giant peaks, such as Iliamna
Volcano, 10, 085 feet high, which lies only a little over 30 miles northeastward
from the head of Pile Bay. The Newhalen River drains from Lake Clark (q.v.)
and enters Lake Iliamna midway along the north shore. Kakhonak River enters
at the head of Kakhonak Bay. On all sides except the northeast the territory
around the lake is dotted with lakes. Gibralter, Kakhonak, Moose, and Meadow
Lakes lie southeast of the lake, while to the west and [ ?] outhwest, where the
land is low and marshy, intricate systems of tiny, unnamed lakes send tributaries
into Iliamna Lake.Depths of many hundred feet are reported in the east end of Iliamna
Lake. The lake is usually frozen over from late December to late May. In
this vicinity some snow falls in September, but the ground at low altitudes
is usually not completely covered for a few months thereafter. Most of the snow
leaves the low ground during April, but it remains until June in the pass between
Old Iliamna and Iliamna Bay, Cook Inlet.Old Iliamna, the largest settlement in the area, lies a few miles
above the mouth of Iliamna River which enters the eastern tip of Pile Bay.
It has a United States commissioner, three stores, a Government school, and
a U.S. w eather Bureau Station with one observer, which was established in 1939. All parts
of Iliamna Lake and the Kvichak River may be reached in gasoline launches available
at Old Iliamna. The population of the village was estimated as 100, in 1939,
In addition to gas and furs, the busy trading post in the settlement handles
about 400 tons of goods a year.Old Iliamna is only 10 miles from Iliamna Bay, Cook Inlet, on the
northeastern coast of the Alaska Peninsula, with which it is connected by a good
trail. This trail crosses a 900-foot summit a few miles west of Iliamna Bay.
At Old Iliamna the trail continues in two directions, southward to cabins in the
mountains southeast of the lake, and westward to Ped ro Bay, a small settlement
003 | Vol_XII-0458
ILIAMNA LAKE, ALASKA
a few miles from Old Iliam [ ?] , and to cabins along the north shore of the lake.
There is a second trail leading westward from the head of Cottonwood Bay,
just south of Iliamna Bay, which crosses three summits of 1700, 1500, and 1975
feet, to join the trail previously described connecting cabins southeast of the
lake with Old Iliamna. Horses and wagons can be used on these trails from
June to November and dogs and sleds for the remaining months of the year. old
Iliamna may also be reached by portage from the head of Kamishak Bay, at a point
south of Cottonwood Bay, to Kakhonak Bay, but this route is seldom used except
by natives because of the difficulty of landing supplies on the shores of this
part of Kamishak Bay.Seversens is a small settlement on the north shore of Iliamnan Lkake
which is connected by a winter trail to a village at the south end of Lake
Clark, about 13 miles north, and to the village of Iliamna. Iliamna is a post
office and native settlement on the north shore of Iliamna Lake only a few
miles from Seversens. Newhalen, a few miles farther east, at the mouth of the
Newhalen River, had a population of 55 in 1940. Recent maps show no towns
on the remainder of the northwestern shore of Iliamna Lake. Igiugig, a village
and post office on the lake at the head of the Kvichak River, had an estimated
population of 100 in 1938. From mid-May to late September small boats and
launches can navigate the Kvichak up to Igiugig, and, of course, beyond to
other points along Iliamna Lake. Flights to all these points are conducted
by planes equipped with floats.
001 | Vol_XII-0459
Ruby Collins I MURUK BASIN, ALASKA
November, 1948
470 wds
IMURUK BASIN (Imaourouk, Imurook, Imagazuk), western Seward Pen–
insula, Alaska, is a shallow body of water connected by Tuksuk Channel
with Grantley Harbor, which in turn leads westward into Port Clarence,
and so to Bering Sea. Beechey reported the Eskimo name as Imau-rook , in
1827, but it has also been called Cowvinik and Salt Lake.Several small streams flow into the south side of the Basin,
the longest and most westerly of these being Canyo w n Creek, followed by
White, Fall, Pond, Glacier, Snow, and Cobblestone Creeks. Several of
these streams enter Windy Cove r , which indents the southern shore of
the Basin.¶ Cobblestone Creek enters the Basin only a few miles below
the mouth of the Kaviruk, a wide stream which enters the head of Imuruk
Basin from the north. About the middle of the nineteenth century a
Franklin Search party recorded this stream as the Cov-vee-arak. Cov-vee-arak. The
name has also appeared as Covearak Covearak , Kaurveren Kaurveren , Ka-oovern Ka-oovern , and Kvuveren Kvuveren .
Some sources identify this river as with Mary's River Mary's River , but most modern
maps have dropped this name entirely.Having bent northward for about five miles to meet the Kaviruk,
the head of Imuruk Basin then veers southeastward, and, after about
five more miles, splits up into several channels which finally develop into
two well-defined forks.The southern fork, called the Kruzgamepa (q.v.), rises in the
vicinity of Mount Osborn, well within the Kigluaik Mountains to the
south. It flows southward until it leaves the Kigluaiks, then takes a
northeasterly course around the east end of the range, after which it
twists westward to its junction with the Kaviruk and Imuruk Bay.The northern fork, the Kuzitrin ( Koosetrien Koosetrien ) (q.v.), has its
source in a broad, flat drainage basin northeast of Imuruk Basin. It
002 | Vol_XII-0460
IMURUK BASIN, ALASKA
flows in a generally southwesterly direction for about sixty miles and de–
bounches very near to the mouth of the Kruzgamepa.A fairly large unnamed stream flows into the northeast side of
Imuruk Basin, but the main northern tributary, the Agiapuk River (q.v.),
enters about midway of that side.Imuruk Basin is navigable to light-draft vessels. It early in this century , formed one
link in the chain of water s ways , starting with Port Clarence and Grantley
Harbor, and continuing up the Kuzitrin, by which supplies were brought
into the Kougarok District early in this century. With the completion of
the Seward Peninsula Railroad, now called The Pupmobile, down the
Kruzgamepa and northward to Shelton, on the Kuzitrin, most freight ship–
ments were brought to the mining camps of the interior by rail from
Nome, rather than by water. However, a few supply ships still visit
Imuruk Basin.Except for two sections, the northwestern and south-central,
the Basin is surrounded by low, marshy grassland, usually called 'tundra.'
This marshland is particularly extensive around [ ?] and
eastward from the eastern end of the Basin, so that the streams entering
this end follow a [ ?] sluggish, meandering course for their
final few miles. In the main, however, the rivers of this area keep
to a remarkably straight course, except for the Kruzpamepa and the
Agiapuk, both of which are fed from several different watersheds with
axes running in different directions. For this reason, these two rivers
undergo major changes in direction.The lowlands and hills of this part of Alaska are timberless,
although small willow and alder grow along the banks of the streams.Although Imuruk Basin was once the center of the gold mining
excitement along the Bluestone River, a tributary to Tuksuk Channel,
003 | Vol_XII-0461
IMURUK BASIN, ALASKA
because of its extreme shallowness, there was never a settlement on
its shores. Supplies could be landed only with difficulty anywhere
in the Basin, and, since no remarkable gold strikes have ever been
made on the streams entering it, no settlement has grown up there.Sources:
USCP. Alaska. Pt.II.1947
VSGB
U.S. C. & G.S. Chart No.9380
Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsu- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsu-
la, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence, la, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence,
and Goodhope Precintcts and Goodhope Precintcts . Washington, D.C., 1908. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin, Bulletin, No.328)Dall, William H. Alaska and Its Resourc Alaska and Its Resourc es. Boston, 1870.
001 | Vol_XII-0462
Ruby Collins IMURUK LAKE, ALASKA
March, 1949
Text-420 wds
Bibl-25 wdsIMURUK LAKE, northern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is about 75
miles northeast of Imuruk Basin, near 65° 33′ N.Lat., 163° 10′ W.Long.
The Eskimo name, which has also appeared as Emuruk and Imourok was first
reported by Mendenhall, in 1901.This lake, whic h has an area of about 31 square miles and which drains
a basin of about 102 square miles, is the largest body of fresh water in
Seward Peninsula. It occupies a lava plateau with an elevation of 960 feet.Imuruk Lake supplies water to the Noxapaga (q.v.), an important
stream in the Kougaro k system, and to the Kugruk, on e of the main streams
in the Fairhaven mining district. Forty-mile Fairhaven Ditch, one of the
early efforts to bring a reliable water supply to the Inmachuk system, ran
from Imuruk Lake to the upper Pinnell River and from there to Arizona Creek.
This was one of the upper Pinnell River and from there to Arizona Creek.
This was one of the most extensive ditch-building enterprizes in all of
Seward Peninsula.The thin coat of lava over the plain gravels o f this region has
interested geologists since the area was first officially surveyed by Collier,
Mendenhall, and Moffit during the first decade of this century. The Imuruk
Lake region shows the effects of an older lava flow than is represented
in the upper Kuzitrin valley to the south and southwest. Geologists estimate
that the volcanic activity around Kotzebue Sound extended over a considerable
portion of the Pleistocene Age, ending only in comparatively recent geologic
times. The Pleistocene Age, ending only in comparatively recent geologic
times. The extruded lava occupied depressions and flowed down the river
valleys in broad streams of molten rock. "At times," Moffit writes, "the
cooling of the advancing front wall dammed back the flow and forced it over
the low, rounded divides between the watercourses in the next valley beyond,
or formed a lake which finally overflowed the obstr u ction and resumed its
original course, only to repeat the process a little farther on. In this
002 | Vol_XII-0463
IMURUK LAKE, ALASKA
way islands of bare ground were left between the great finger-likepro–
trusions along the edge of the sheet. At the same time a shifting of the
watercourses was br ou ght about, for when not of sufficient volume to fill it
the lava occupied the lowest part of the valley and the waters sought a new
channel parallel to the old one, along the edge of the hardened flow. A
number of lakes and ponds also owe their existence to the d amming of streams
by lava, among which may be mentioned Lake Imuruk, the largest body of fresh
water on the peninsula."
003 | Vol_XII-0464
IMURUK LAKE, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[ ?]
Baker, Marchs. Geo[g?]raphic Dictionary of Alaska Geo[g?]raphic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Brooks, A.H. Mineral Resources of Alaska, 1907. Mineral Resources of Alaska, 1907. Washington, 1908.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 345)Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,
1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)
001 | Vol_XII-0465
Text- [ ?] 1,380
Bibl-50 wds
Ruby Collins
March, 1949 INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA
INMACHUK RIVER, northern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises on the
western side of the divide separating it from Trail Creek, a tributary to
the Goodhope River immediately to the west. It then flows generally north [ ?]
eastward for about 30 miles to Kotzebue Sound, at Deering.Hannum Creek, from the northwest, and Pinnell River, from the
south, chief tributaries to the Inmachuk, each drain larger areas than does
the main river above these junctions. Below the Pinnell, several smaller
tributaries, Arizona, Fink, Washington, West, Cue, and Mystic Creeks,
enter the Inmachuk.The Hannum valley is deep and narrow. Its principal tributaries
are Cunningham, Milroy, and Collins Creeks. The Pinnell rises in a broad
swamp formed by the lava flow, but about seven or eight miles below its head,
the river has cut a deep narrow. Canyon through the laval-covered gravels,
and drops about 300 feet in half a mile. Mag n et, June, Perry, Old Glory
Creek, and Snow Gulch are the chief affluents to the Pinnell. These streams
rise in the vicinity of the 1800-foot peak called Asses Ears, so named by
Kotzebue in August, 1816, because of the appearance of its double summit.The Inmachuk Valley is characterized by a lava rim which follows
the left side of the Pinnell for several miles and then crosses to the right
side and continues down the Inmachuk to the coastal plain. Below the
Pinnell canyon this rim is generally 300 to 400 feet above the level of the
stream.The Inmachuk, below the Pinnell, and the basins of Hannum and
Old Glory Creeks contain gold placers which were first discd. worked in 1900. [ ?] Describ-
ing the mineralization of Hannum Creek region, Moffit writes: "Besides the
gold, the heavy concentrates from the sluice boxes show a large number of
001a | Vol_XII-0466
Ruby Collins
March, 1949 INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA
Writing in 1904 Moffit says: "The first prospecting in the Kotzebue
gold field was done in the latter part of the season of 1900 by William T. Fee
("Missouri Bill"), who discovered gold on Old Glory Creek in the fall of that
year. Mr. Fee seems to have prospected all the streams heading up toward the
east side of the Asses Ears, but did no staking, owing to the failure of his
supplies and the consequent necessity of returning to Nome as quickly as possi–
ble. Old Glory was staked on September 21 of the same year by William H. Davis
and Jessie Pinnell. Three days later, on September 24, gold was discovered
on Hannum Creek, a tributary of Inmachuk River, by Z.E. Foster and Fred Sand–
strum, who staked the creek on that day."No work done on the gravels in the fall of 1900, owing to the
shortness of provisions and the lateness of the season. Snow was already
falling, and the prospectors returned to Nome, the nearest recording place to
this then unknown region, to register their claims and prepare for active work
during the following season. Their reports on the region caused considerable
excitement among the miners wintering in Nome, and some time in the early months
of 1901 M.V. Perry crossed the country on the snow with a dog team and staked
the creek now known by his name, Perry Creek." With the opening of spring a considerable rush of prospectors to the
new field took place, and a large number of claims were staked on nearly all
the neighboring creeks, both to the west and to the east. The first locations
on the Inmachuk proper were made by Messrs. Applegate and Perry on Discovery,
at 'Hot Springs'... 2 1/2 miles above the mouth of the Hannum. Very little
work aside from the location of claims was done in the Inmachuk Valley during
1901, for in the latter part of the season the news of very rich finds on
Candle Creek drew many men away and notably retarded the development of the
[ ?] properties. This condition continued during the season of 1902,
001b | Vol_XII-0467
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA
but the summer of 1903 witnessed a revival of interest in the Inmachuk and
its tributaries, and a still further increase in the development in 1904 is certain."C andle Creek was staked about July 23, 1901, by Messrs. Enos Thomas,
Alexander Patterson, Robert Schneider, and Blankenship, and up to the present
time has produced a much greater amount of gold than any of the other streams
of this field. Although Mr. Blankenship was probably the first miner to
drive stakes on Candle Creek, Messrs. Thomas, Patterson, and Schneider were the
first to enter the region and made the original discovery of gold on Jump Creek,
a small tributary which comes in from the west and joins Candle Creek about
1 1/2 miles above Kiwalik River. These four men staked claims on the most
promising portions of the main stream and one claim each on the lower ends of
the t ributaries, thus acquiring right to a consider a ble amount of ground, part
of which has proved to be of much value."News of the strike spread quicly and was followed by a stampede
of miners in the late fall, so that the entire creek was soon taken up and
scores of men with rockers busied themselves in cleaning out the richer and
more readily worked portions of the gravels. As high as an ounce of gold per
day was paid to shovelers on some claims..."The total production of the Kotzebue gold field for the three years
during which mining operations have been carried on is probably not far from
$415,000. Of this amount Candle Creek alone has turned out over three-fourths."Describing the mineraliza t ion of Hannum Creek region, Moffit writes:
"Besides the gold, the heavy concentrates from the sluice boxes show a large
number of
002 | Vol_XII-0468
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA
rounded and polished pebbles of hematite or ' iron stones, ' some pyrite, and
a small quantity of galena, which is probably derived from the limestone area
west of Cunningham Creek, and will be referred to again. B lack sand is not
found with the gold, since magnetite occurs in very small quantity; the magnet
discovers only occasionally small pieces in the tailings from the sluice boxes.
' Gray sand ' or finely ground pyrite appears constantly in the pan. and larger
pieces up to 2 or more inches in diamet i er are not infrequent. The best gold
values are taken from the bed rock, which is usually a blue clay resulting
from the decomposition of the underlying schists. The gold is heavy and black
and is said to assay about $18 to the ounce when cleaned. Nuggets worth $2.50
are not uncommon, but no very large ones have yet been found."One of the major hindrances to the mining development of this dis–
trict has been the inadequacy of the water supply during the summer dry season,
which is the only time of the year when placers can be worked in this section.
Several ditches were constructed, the longest of which, Fairhaven Ditch,
brought water from Lake Imuruk into the Inmachuk basin, a total distance of 35
or 40 miles.By 1908 there was conside r able activity along the Inmachuk, some
of it fruitful, and some of it fruitless. As Henshaw explains: "In the fall
of 1908 water ri g hts were staked by two different parties at the springs
of the upper Inmachuk. The first locator posted his notice late in September,
and by an error in wording claimed 2,000 'cubic inches per second,' the water
to be used on claims on the Inmachuk above and below Hannum Creek. Before
an amended notice could be posted the water had been staked by others, who proposed to divert it around to tributaries of Old Glory Creek. Both parties
took steps to start construction work, but the first actual diversion of
water was made by the second locator. During 1909 work was being prosecuted
on two ditches, located less than 10 feet apart in elevation, so close that
the lower bank of the upper ditch was sloughing into the lower ditch. In
003 | Vol_XII-0469
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA
September steps were being taken by the owners of the lower ditch to procure
an injunction against the continuation of work by their rivals. This is a
rather unusual instance of the contro v ersies arising over conflicting claims
to water rights in the present unsatisfactory status of the law governing
the appropriation of water for mining purposes."Gold mining has continued in this region ever since this time,
and the placers give no indication of failing. However, since World War II,
gold mining in Alaska has been an unprofitable activity. For an explanation
of this conditions see article on Nome, Alaska.
004 | Vol_XII-0470
INMACHUK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Henshaw, F.F. Mining in Seward Peninsula. Mining in Seward Peninsula. (Brooks, A. H. Mineral Resources
of Alaska, 1909. Mineral Resources
of Alaska, 1909. Washington, 1910. U.S. Geological Survey.
Bulletin Bulletin 442)Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,
1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Pape Water Supply Pape r 314.'Moffit, F.H. F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska . Washington,
1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)
VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska
001 | Vol_XII-0471
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 IPNOT, ALASKA
90 wds
IPNOT, a small Eskimo v illage near Cape Thompson, on the
shores of the Polar Sea, northwestern Alaska, had a population of 40 in
Petrof's report of 1880. Since this settlement does not appear on the 1939
Census, it may be assumed that it has decreased in size since that time,
although it continues to appear on recent maps of the [ ?] region. The long
winter trail [ ?] which runs southward to Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula
continues northward from Ipnot on its way to Point Barrow.
001 | Vol_XII-0472
Ruby Collins
July, 1948 JACKSMITH BAY, ALASKA
458 wds
JACKSMITH BAY, ALASKA, is a large, open indentation
of the mainland on the eastern side of Kuskokwim Bay, about 14 miles
north of Carter Bay (q.v.). The section of shoreline between these
two bays is marked by two spits each forming a tiny bay. Into the
more northerly of these two bays flows Cripple Creek which rises in
Twin Mountain, c urves southward and westward around Cone Mountain
and thereafter follows a meandering northwesterly course to the bay.
A few miles north of the spit which forms this small, unnamed bay
is a third and larger spit forming the southern entrance point to
Jacksmith Bay. This bay is shoal throughout and is entirely bare at
low tide. Jacksmith Creek enters the bay from the south. Several
creeks rising in Figure Four Mountain and in other heights of this section
of the Ahklun Range join just north of Twin Mountain to form Jacksmith
Creek which then follows a generally northwesterly course to the bay.
The prominent heights in this part of the range are only a few miles
inland, being considerably closer to the water than are the mountains
associated with Carter Bay. From south to north, the named peaks
grouped near Jacksmith Bay are Cone Mountain, Twin Mountain,
Figure Four Mountain, Yoke Mountain, and Yukon Hill. These range from
800 to 2600 feet in [ ?] height, These peaks and form a north-south
chain which is cut from east to west only by Jacksmith Creek. The
inland side of this chain is the western watershed for the headwaters
of the Arolic River (q.v.), the first major stream north of Jacksmith
Bay. Separated from this mountain chain by a valley from 4 to 8 miles
wide lies Island Mountain, a [ ?] cluster of peaks about 7 miles long and
002 | Vol_XII-0473
JACKSMITH BAY, ALASKA
2 miles wide, which form the eastern watershed for another group of
tributaries to the Arolic River. The valley between these peaks is
cut by numberless creeks and streams flowing northeastward from the
chain and northwestward from Island Mountain into an unnamed stream
which trends northward along the valley floor to join the Arolic
about 5 miles southeast of Yukon Hill.A branch of the long winter trail which connects point son
Kuskokwim Bay with others on Bristol Bay (q.v.) and Iliamna Lake (q.v.)
leads from the north side of Goodnews Bay (q.v.) northward along this
same valley to a placer gold mine a few miles east of the junction of
this early tributary to the Arolic.The territory between the mountains and the shores of Jack–
smith Bay is low, treeless tundra which, in the summertime, is
covered with moss and a variety of wild flowers.--------
Sources: VSGB; USCP & Suppl.
° in Baker; Colby
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0474
Ruby Collins
July, 1948 KANEKTOK RIVER, ALASKA
216 wds
KANEKTOK RIVER, southwestern Alaska, enters Kuskokwim Bay
about midway of its eastern side. The river drains from glacier-fed
Lake Kagati in the Ahklun Mountains, follows a generally northwesterly
course for a few miles and then turns west to run through a low , narrow
valley bordered with peaks 2400 to 4100 feet high. For the duration
of its 65 - 75-mile course the Kanektok carves a rapid and occasionally
branched course through treeless, tundra country to Kuskokwim Bay.The only settlement on the river is the Eskimo village of
Kwinhagak (sometimes spelled Quinhagak or Kwinak) at the mouth of the
river which had a population of 224 in 1947. Because of the wide
mud flat bordering the shore in this vicnity the smallest craft some–
times fail to reach the village at low tide and launches can enter
only on the highest tides. Supplies are landed with great difficulty,
although they may be obtained in limited quantities in the town which
has, besides a native store, a Moravian Mission, [ ?] a Government
school, and a fourth class post office. Fresh, clear mountain water
is available at all stages of the tide. Kwinhagak is on the long winter
trail which runs from points on Bristol Bay and Iliamna Lake to Bethel and
other Kuskokwim Bay villages.--------
Sources: VSGB; USCP & Suppl; Colby; Tewkesbury
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0475
Ruby Collins KASAAN, ALASKA
21 April 48
KASAAN, ALASKA (55° 33′ N.LAT.; 132° 24′ W.LONG.) is an Indian
village and post office on the south shore of Kasaan Peninsula which pro–
jects into Clarence Strait from the west coast of Prince of Wales Island.
Since its establishment in December, 1899, it has grown to a population
of 110, as reported in 1939.The cannery and radio station in Kasaan are usually operated by
the Pacific Alaska Fisheries, but are sometimes leased to other companies.
There is fresh water on the wharf and fishing supplies are available [ ?] from
the general stores in the town. The cannery maintains a machine shop and
its own supplies of oil and gasoline. The main wharf is 125 feet long with
a low water depth of 32 feet.Motor launches connect Kasaan with Ketchikan and Wrangel. In 1939,
under the Indian Reorganization A r ct, the town was granted $12,000 for
village improvements.Kasaan is sometimes designated as New Kasaan to distinguish it
from the original native village, Old Kasaan (q.v.) on another arm of the
peninsula.At the close of the short cannery season each summer, the natives
of the village live by fishing and trapping in the mountainous interior.
They have adopted a constitution and by-laws which were ratified on October
15, 1938.* * * * * * * * * * * * *
Sources Baker, Marcus. Geographic dictionary of Alaska Geographic dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Prepared by James
McCormick. Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Bulletin No.299. Series F, Geography 52)
U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Pt.I. Dixon Entrance to Makutat Bay Alaska. Pt.I. Dixon Entrance to Makutat Bay . [ ?] 9th (1943) ed.
Washington, D.C., G.P.O. 1943.
Colby, Merle. A guide to Alaska A guide to Alaska . N.Y., Macmillan, 1942.
Sundborg, [ ?] George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., Macmillan, 1945.
Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. Guide book for Arctic and sub-Arctic Alaska. Guide book for Arctic and sub-Arctic Alaska. Oct., 1940.
Tewkesbury, David. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index.
Vol. 1947 I. Juneau, Alaska, Tewkesbury publishers, c1947.
001 | Vol_XII-0476
Ruby Collins
November, 1948 KAVIRUK RIVER, ALASKA
390 wds - Text
25 wds - Bibl.KAVIRUK RIVER (Covearak, Ka-ooveren, Kvuveren) central
Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises south of Kougarok Mountain and [ ?]
follows a generally southwesterly course for about twenty miles to
enter the head of Imuruk Basin near 65° 15′ N. Lat., 165° 20′ W.Long.This stream, which lies between the Kuzitrin-Kougarok
system and the Agiapuk River, was formerly called Mary's River by the
Kougarok miners, but the orginal Eskimo name has since been reinstated.
Variants of this name have been recorded by some of the Franklin search
parties, l i n 1850, by Billings, in 1790, and by the Russians, in 1802.The Kaviruk is joined early in its course by Johnston,
and Winter Creeks, and, just above the present site of Davidson, by
Hunter Creek.The upper K aviruk is a mountain torrent, but, a few
miles above Davidson, the river leaves the mountains and enters upon the
lake-strewn marshland which encloses the eastern end of Imuruk Basin.
Here the Kaviruk gradually widens out, until, [ ?] by the time it reaches
the Basin , it is almost two miles from shore to shore.Davidson, formerly Davidson's Landing, at the head of
light draft navigation on the Kaviruk, was established, in 1906, by
J.M. Davidson, and Andrew J. Stone, both large-scale Kouga r o k gold
mine operators, as a transshipping point for freight coming into the
Kougarok District vi a Teller, on Port Clarence. Hoping to solve for all time, the
harassing problem of [ ?] transportation to the Koug ra ar ok for all time,
they then built a road from Davidson , northward along the Kaviruk, over the
divide, and then down Lincoln Creek to the mouth of Taylor River, an
important tributary to the Kougarok. In this way, Davidson became a
busy trading post and supply base for the entire Kougarok mining district.
002 | Vol_XII-0477
KAVIRUK RIVER, ALASKA
As long as the miners were prospering, so also did [ ?]
Davidson, but with the slump in Kougarok gold mining from about 1910
to 1930, the town dwindled. It was not reported in the U.S. Census
for 1939, but it still appears on recent maps of Seward Peninsula.
It is now connected [ ?] by sled road with Taylor and by
winter trail with Shelton, on the Kuzitrin River, and from there
with Kotzebue Sound, Port Clarence, and Norton Sound points.There are no other settlements on the Kaviruk.
Sources:
U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper. Water Supply Paper. Plate I.
Baker, Marcus. Geographical Dictionary of Alaska Geographical Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington,
D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No.299)Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula. Nome and Seward Peninsula. Seattle, Wash., 1905.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0478
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KILIMAK, ALASKA
50 wds
KILIMAK (67° 17′ N.Lat., 163° 46′ W.Long.) is a small Eskimo
village on the coast of the Polar Sea, northwestern Alaska.The long winter trail which connects this part of Alaska with
Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula , to the south, and with other coastal towns ,
to the north, passes through Kilimak.
001 | Vol_XII-0479
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 KING ISLAND, ALASKA
Text - 145 wds.
KING ISLAND, Bering Sea, Alaska, lies just south of the junction
of 65° N. Lat., and 168° W. Long.This small island was discovered by Cook on August 6, 1778, who
named it after Lieutenant James King, a member of the Cook expedition. The
native name, which Nelson gives as Ukiwuk , has appeared in a great many variations,
e.g. Okiben Okiben , Oo-ghe-book Oo-ghe-book , etc.King Island is about 700 feet high and two miles square. The
cliffs are nearly perpendicular and descend into deep water on all sides. The
bottom is generally rocky, but, offshore from Ukivok, a small native village
on the south side of the island, vessels will find anchor in about 90 feet,
with muddy bottom, and good protection from northwest winds. The houses making
up the village are built on the sides of the cliffs but well above high water.
In clear weather this island makes a very good landfall for vessels northbound
for Port Clarence (q.v.)Sources:
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
VSGB
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0480
Ruby Collins
23 April 48 KING SALMON RIVER (Egegik River)
50 wds
KING SALMON RIVER, in the northwestern part of the Alaska
Sources: Baker; [ ?] Aeronautical Chart No.136
Peninsula, rises in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes (q.v.) in the
Alaska Range and takes a generally westward course across the
Alaska Peninsula to enter the mouth of the Egegik River (q.v.) from
the north. Over 50 miles long, the King Salmon River drains the
complex lake system of the coastal lowlands between Becharof and
Naknek Lakes (q.v.). It was named by Osgood in 1902.
° in VSGB; Sund o b b o rg; USCP & Suppl.
001 | Vol_XII-0481
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KIVALINA, ALASKA
340 wds.
KIVALINA, [ ?] is a small village on the long sand spit
forming the west side of Corwin Lagoon, an [ ?] arm of the Polar Sea off the
coast of northwestern Alaska.Kivalina is the first town north of Kotzebue (q.v.) known to
be the home of any white people. According to a 1930 report, the Bureau of
Education had already established a school here, and the Eskimos operated a
cooperative store in connection with their reindeer business. In addition,
there was a branch of one of the Kotzebue stores, which also was in the charge
o a f a native. At that time, the schoolhouse and the homes of a few of the
native families were the only framed buildings in the town, all others being
constructed either of driftwood or sod.The old site of this settlement would seem to have been at the
north end of the lagoon about ten miles away. The present site offers no
particular natural advantages, although it is well-situated for getting back
into the country by way of the Kivalina River (q.v.). It is also almost
directly across country from Noatak (q.v.), on the river of the same name.
It is approximately midway of the reindeer range used by the local herd, and
fish are said to be particularly numerous near the mouth of the Kivalina
River. Except for the occasional driftwood and scrub by willows that grow for
about ten or twenty miles up the river, however, there is no fuel supply any–
where in the vicinity.In 1939, Kivalina had a population of 98 or more, a post
office, an Alaska Native Service school, one general store (the Kotzebue branch
002 | Vol_XII-0482
KIVALINA, ALASKA
store apparently having gone out of business), a Friends' Mission, and a
1500-foot landing strip. The store is still run by the Eskimos in connection
with their reindeer business, so that fresh meat is almost always obtainable
in the town. The Coast Pilot remarks that the red-roofed school house is
visible five miles offshore, constituting a valuable landmark for pilots
in these waters.26
003 | Vol_XII-0483
KIVALINA, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska.
Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, 1947. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, 1947. Juneau, Alaska, 1947.
U.S.C.P.
V.S.G.B.
001 | Vol_XII-0484
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KIVALINA RIVER, ALASKA
130 wds
KIVALINA RIVER, northwestern Alaska, debouches about midway
between Cape Krusenstern and Point Hope (q.v.) into Corwin Lagoon, which is
separated only by a long narrow sand spit from the Polar Sea.The Kivalina rises in the vicinity of 1630-foot Mount Jarvis
and follows a generally southwesterly course for about twenty miles before
entering the lagoon.Scrub willows, the tallest less than ten feet high, fringe the
lowland sections of this stream but disappear from the early mountainous
regions. This growth of willow has been found sufficient for ordinary camp
needs, but not enough for many people or for long sojourns in one place.The nearest settlement is Kivalina (q.v.), at the south end
of the sand spit.
002 | Vol_XII-0485
KIVALINA RIVER, ALASKA
References
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska .
Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)U.S.C.P.
V.S.G.B.
001 | Vol_XII-0486
Ruby Collins
March, 1949 KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
Text - 1,885 wds
Bibl - 100 wdsKIWALIK RIVER, the largest river on the north side of Seward
Peninsula, Ala [ ?] ka, rises in a low ridge which separates it from the Koyuk
(q.v.) drainage basin, and flows almost directly northward for about 70
miles to empty into Spafarief Bay, a southeasterly arm of Kotzebue Sound.The first thirty miles of this river crosses a low, flat area which
is several miles wide, but this valley narrows considerably in the vicinity
of Candle, about four miles u f rom the mouth of the Ki w alik. Below Cand e l e
the river widens into a lagoon, perhaps ten square miles in area, and covering
a region of mud flats, most of which are exposed at low tide.The early western tributaries to the Kiwalik drain long narrow
basins, roughly parallel and separated by low ridges. The chief western
tributaries are Canoe, Gold Run, Glacier, Dome, Bonanza, Eldorado, Candle,
and Minnehaha Creeks. Kirk Creek enters the west side of the lagoon, a few
miles below Minnehaha Creek.Of these, Glacier Creek carries the most water. It rises in the
eastern sope of Monument Mountain, the highest point in this part of Seward
Peninsula, and flows to into the Kiwalik at a point about twenty-five miles from
its mouth. During periods of low water this stream is fed by limestone springs
and by the water from the melting " glacier " which forms below these [ ?] springs
during the winter months.Gold Run, a few miles above Glacier Creek, also derives some of
its water from springs, but it does not have as well-sustained a supply as
Glacier Creek. All the other western streams in the Kiwalik system are reduced
to mere trickles during the summer, while Candle Creek, which has a drainage
area of sixty square miles at the mouth, frequently reaches a stage of zero
flow.
002 | Vol_XII-0487
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
Candle Creek, economically the most important stream in this
system, receives a great many tributaries most of which flow in from the west.
Reading downstream these are: Ptarmigan, Potato, Thomas, Willow, Patterson,
and Jump Creeks. Gold placer operations began on Candle Creek in 1901 and have
yielded a large percentage of the total production of the Fairhaven mining dis–
trict ever since. The creek is about 18 miles long and is worked for the
greater part of its length. Up until 1910, the principal produci o ng ground
was between Patterson and Jump Creeks and extended to the third tier of benches
on the left side of the valley. Subsequently, gold was found on the right side
of the valley and farther upstream. Successful mining in this region has always
been handicapped by lack of water and is [ ?] sometimes for this reason stopped
altogether.The largest eastern tributaries to the Kiwalik are Quartz and
Hunter Creeks, both of which rise in a mountainous mass separating the Kiwalik
from the Buckland River (q.v.) system.Quartz Creek joins the main stream about 60 miles above Glacier
Creek and has a larger drainage area than any other tributary to the Kiwalik.
The Quartz Creek valley is generally hilly and even mountainous along its
eastern and southern borders. The slopes of the basin are steep and only
thinly covered with moss , so that water derived from rain runs off quickly. In
addition, the river bed is loose gravel which probably thaws considerably during
the summer, so that there may well be an appreciable underflow.Hunter Creek drains an area north of Quartz Creek and flows through
a narrow, tortuous valley to the Kiwalik about 8 miles above Quartz Creek. Its
basin resembles that of Quartz Creek but is not so mountainous. The water
supply in Hunter is less, but more reliable than that in Quartz Creek.Lava Creek, the only other named easter n tributary to the Kiwalik,
drains a flat lava area north of Hunter Creek. It has a very small run-off
003 | Vol_XII-0488
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
except during the high water period in the spring and immediately after a rain
at any time of the year.As early as 1884 and 1885, Lieutenant C. Cantwell described the
Eskimos of this region in his account of the cruise of the Corwin. In the
spring, Eskimos come to the larger rivers in the vicnity to trade, hunt seals,
and catch salmon. At that time, dried salmon was the most important article
of food both in summer and in winter. Cantwell found several families at the
present site of Ki q w alik, on the lagoon, and several more at Candle . a few
miles upstream. Some of these natives had been employed by the white miners,
b y u t the arrangement did not seem to work out very well, and only a few Eskimos
returned the following summer for this kind of [ ?] activity. The Eskimo
preferred to remain dependent on the country for his food and clothing. In
addition to caribou meat and hides, these were supplied in many ways. In
winter, the Eskimo snared ptarmigan and arctic hare; in spring and summer he
killed seals and walrus, and in the early fall he caught and dried fish and
hunted geese and ducks.Very soon after the arrival of the white man, however, the Eskimo
learned new ways of living and new things to want. More and more he traded
skins, fish, and handmade skin clothing for flour and other kinds of imported
foods. In summer, the Eskimo began to wear the white man's clothing, although
he returned wholly or in part to his native dress during the winter. The
Eskimo also adopted the white man's tent as his summer home, but he continued
to desert the coast during the winter for some inland region where game,
especially ptarmigan, was plentiful.Such were the beginnings of the present settlements, Candle and
Kiwalik, which are described below in greater detail.Timber & Vegetation A narrow band of spruce timber lines the Kiwalik and the banks
of its larger tributaries, Hunter and Quartz Creeks. Early M m iners on
004 | Vol_XII-0489
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
Candle Creek cut this timber in early the spring and floated it downstream during
the season of high water for use as [ ?] building material and fuel in
the Candle Creek camps. The exposure of large spruce logs in the muck and gravel
of the valleys of this region suggests that the [ ?] distribution of timber
was once much greater than it is at present. The spruce line extends farther
west on the south side of the Bendeleben Mountains than it does on the north
and farther generally in the interior than it does anywhere along the coast.Cottonwoods do not appear with any frequency in the Kiwalik River
valley, but small willows, averaging six to eight feet in height are almost
everywhere found close to the streams. These offer the only fuel supply for a
great part of Seward Peninsula. During the summertime, surfaces everywhere,
except in the tops of the higher hills and mountains, are covered with moss and
grass, so that there is no difficulty in finding feed for horses. However, [ ?]
these grasses do not have time to mature because of the shortness of the season,
so that they afford very little nourishment after being cured. In order to
keep pack animals alive during the winter, it is therefore necessary to import
feed for them. The marsh berry and salmon berry, which are indigenous to these
regions, make an agreeable addition to the diet, but, to the Outsider, perhaps
the most surprising characteristic of the flora of this region is the great
variety and abundance of the flowers which flourish during the springtime.
This, if nothing else, gives the lie to all preconceptions concerning the
so-called "snow-swept, cold, barren wastes" of the Arctic.Mining Placer gold was discovered on Jump Creek in July, 1901.
By the following year the easily worked gravels had been exhausted
so that the miners turned their attention elsewhere. Gold was ultimately discovered
on practically every creek claim for over ten miles up Candle Creek, and, by
1908, a total of $2,245,400 had been removed from the region. This was a
005 | Vol_XII-0490
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
remarkable sum considering that the water supply to this entire region is
notably unreliable and that for several of three years in question the summer season had been
unusually dry. By 1930, one company had six camps and fifty men at work on
Candle Creek, and mining was also going forward on Quartz and Gold Run Creeks.
By 1940, both dredges and hydraulics were being used on Candle Creek by the
Arctic Circle Exploration, Inc., which owned extensive tracts not only along the
stream itself but also along the bench gravel high on the slopes of the valley.
Work was still much handicapped because of the shortage of water, but the Candle
district was still the chief producer of the Fairhaven [ ?] precinct.
With the inception of World War II and the subsequent labor shortage, plus the
removal of gold from the essential metals list, gold mining became an unprofitable
business, and mining declined to the vanishing point not only an Candle Creek
but also throughout the Territory of Alaska. (For a more detailed explanation
of this condition see article on Nome, Alaska.)Settlements & Communication Aside from several roadhouses and shelter cabins, the only
settlements along the Kiwalik are Candle, at the mouth
of that stream, and Kiwalik, on the sandbar which extends eastward across the
entrance to the lagoon, at the mouth of the Ki q w alik River.Candle (65° 55′ N.Lat., 161° 55′ W.Long.) is the recording office
for the Fairhaven mining precinct and had a reported 1939 population of 119.
This sum is increased during the summer by the arrival of Eskimo and white
temporary inhabitants. The town has a territorial school and a third class
post office. In addition, there are two general stores, a hotel, a roadhouse,
and a restaurant. A U.S. Commissioner , and the manager of a reindeer unit
live in the town. Winter trails connect Candle with Nome, Solomon, Council,
and Norton Bay points to the south, with Deering, to the west, and with all
parts of Kotzebue Sound and the mainland coast to the north. There is a
1400-foot landing field, and mail comes in [ ?] by boat twice a
006 | Vol_XII-0491
KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
month from June to October, and is delivered once a week by dog-sled for the
duration of each year.Kiwalik is smaller than Candle, but it has a 1600-foot emergency
landing field and is con n ected with other points on the Peninsula by the same
trails which run through Candle.A 1947 report mentions that George Hellerich, as successor to
James S. Robins, has taken over the management of Arctic Circle Exploration,
Inc. properties in the Candle area. He expects to use two dredges and one
hundred men in the district starting in 1948. Along with the gold properties,
he also acquired several barges for freight, lighterage, and transportation on
the Kiwalik, jade and asbestos properties at Shungnak, on the Kobuk River,
and the Arctic Air Service, which operates six planes. He does not intend to
work the jade or asbestos properties, and may sell the barges and airplanes,
since his principal interest is in the gold mining possibilities of the district.From this forward-looking report, it may probably be assumed
that the Candle, Creek placers may resume their place as the foremost
gold producers of the Fairhaven district.
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KIWALIK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bain, H.F. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis ofor Industry. Was h ington, 1946.
& (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular 7379)Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Jessens Weekly. Jessens Weekly. 11 April 47
Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Sewar [ ?] Peninsula, Alaska. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Sewar [ ?] Peninsula, Alaska.
Washington, 1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)Smith, P.S. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska...in 1930. Mineral Resources of Alaska...in 1930. Washington,
1933. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bul l etin Bul l etin 836)S m ith, P.S. Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940. Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940. Washington, 1942.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 933-A ) Bulletin 933-A )VS Guide Book for Alaska VS Guide Book for Alaska
001 | Vol_XII-0493
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
Read June, 1949 by O.R.W. & H.B.
Corrected by RC 15 Je 49
Text - 6,030 words
Bibl. - 150 wordsTHE KOBUK RIVER, which gives its name to a large an extensive area in
northwestern Alaska, is one of the largest waterways in this part of the
Territory. The Kobuk District lies west of the Koyukuk and Alatna Districts, in
the Yukon River system, north of the Selawik District, and south of the
Noatak District.This great river, whose course which is over 400 miles long, rises
in in the vicinity of Walker and Nutuvukti Lakes in the vicinity of near 67° N.Lat., 154° 30′ W.Long.,
and flows in a generally westerly direction to enter the east side of Hotham Inlet.Lieutenants George M. Stoney and J.C. Cantwell, both of the
U.S. Navy, ascended the Kobuk du ring the 1880's. Much of the following
account is taken from their reports and findings, since the exhausting
trip of up the Kobuk has not having been attempted in its entirety by very many only a few white
men since their time. The airplane has opened all of the Kobuk to the
Outside, [ ?] obviating the necessity of
travel l ing up from its mouth in order to reach the headwaters.In such quotations as shall be given, it may be noticed
that Stoney refers to the Kobuk as the "Putnam," the name which he assigned
to it, while Cantwell calls it the "Kowak." It will be understood that
they are both referring to the Kobuk, the name by which this major waterway
is now generally known.Walker Lake, which Stoney also calls Kal-lu-look-to-ark or
Big Fish, from which one of the headwaters of the Kobuk drains, is a long ,
tapering , horn-shaped lake about fourteen miles long , lying northwest-southeast, but only about two
miles wide at the greatest. It lies in a valley in the southeastern
section of the Schwatka Mountains, and, except for its southern end, is
completely surrounded by peaks ranging from 3,000 to 3,600 feet in height. 24
002 | Vol_XII-0494
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
The hills immediately bordering the lake are about 300 feet high. Cantwell
found no shallow places anywhere in this lake anywhere except in at the mouth of the
outlet at its southern end. Elsewhere he did not find bottom with a 40-fathom
line.Eskimo tales of the immense fish to be found in Walker Lake
inspired one of Cantwell's party to bait bate the antlers of a reindeer with a
goose in a semi-serious attempt to catch one of these mythical monsters.
Although that attempt failed, more no rmal fishing methods produced trout over
three feet in length. The natives assured Cantwell, however, that these
were tiny in comparison with the boat-devouring creatures living fish that lived in the depths
of the lake.A short stream connects the southern end of Walker Lake with
the Kobuk. A few miles above this junction, near the mountain - ringed headwaters source of the Kobuk,
the Kichaiak enters from the east. This section of the Kobuk passes through
a gorge. The river here is white with rapids, the bed bristling with boulders
and drift-wood. Navigation of this part of the Kobuk is possible only with very
small boats and a s t out tracking line, but and then only with the greatest diffi–
culty and danger. [ ?] This upper section of the Kobuk is not more than only about 20 or
25 miles west of the Alatna, in the Yukon River system, and there is a
portage over the intervening mountains to that stream. It was by way of this
portage from the Alatna (which he called the Allen), that Mendenhall reached
the Kobuk i h n August of 1901.Mendenhall found that the Kobuk was about 125 feet wide and
6 to 8 feet deep at the mouth of the Kichaiak and that it occupied a level
valley about three miles wide.For more than twenty miles below Walker Lake, the river bends
veers to the southwest, thereafter keeping to maintaining its generally westerly direction.
Its course is tortu r ous, passing through two more deep gorges. At a point
between24
003 | Vol_XII-0495
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
between these gorges the Kobuk receives a tributary from Nutuvukti
LakeN utuvukti Lake is a little less than one-half as extensive as
Walker Lake. It is roughly crescent-shaped and lies along a northwest-southeast
axis. Its sides are formed by relatively high hills, but the valley in which
it is situated extends far beyond the ends of the lake.Norutak Lake, south of the Kobuk, between the lower gorge
and the headwaters of the Hogatza River (q.v.), is visible from the hills
bordering this part of the Kobuk. It is approximately oval in shape and drains
southward into the Hogatza.Below the lower gorge, the Kobuk valley is from ten to twenty
miles wide. This width is maintained for over a hundred s of miles until just above
the mouth of Squirrel River where a spur [ ?] from the Baird Mountains on the north
and a small group of scattered hills on the south suddenly contract the valley
to a width of only a few miles. Below this point the valley gradually broadens
again to the head of the delta, where it enters a great flat extending from
near the mouth of the N o atak to south of Selawik Lake.Tributaries All along its middle course the Kobuk receives many tributaries,
the most importa n t of which flow out of the Schwatka and
Baird Mountains north of the stream.Travel l ing downstream from the point at which we have noted
that the Kobuk turns westward, these tributaries are: Reed, Beaver, [ ?]
Sulukpowik, Mauneluk, Kogoluktuk, Dahl, Wesley, Cosmos, Shungnak, Ambler,
Jade, Hunt, Kaliguricheark, Tutuksuk, Salmon, Kallarichuk, Trinity, and
Squirrel (q.v.).At the head of Reed River are the hot springs explored by
Ensign Reed of the Stoney expedition, from which the upper Noatak may easily
be reached in winter. Lake Selby, the source of the Sulukpowik, is about [ ?]
004 | Vol_XII-0496
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
six or eight miles long , and lies only about five or six miles north of the Kobuk.
High mountains fo r m the valley wall at the north end of the lake, and a
short portage from its head leads to Avaterat Lake, the source of the
Mauneluk. The Kogoluktuk enters the Kobuk a few miles east of 157° W.Long.
The pass leading from the head of this river to the Noatak is one of the
shortest and easiest routes to that river from the Kobuk.The Ambler, one of the most important affluents of to the Kobuk,
flows out of the Schwatka Mountains and diagonally a cross the broad east-west
valley bordering the last twenty-five miles of its course to enter The Ambler enters
the Kobuk near 158° W. Long. Its principal tributary, the Redstone, was so
named by Stoney because of the color of the rock debris which it carries."The country on both sides [ of this section of the river Kobuk ] ,"
Cantwell wrote on July 25, 1884, "was, as usual, spongy tundra backed by
rolling country to the mountains, sixteen to twenty miles distant. The banks
of the river are moderately high, and composed of a dark-colored soil of
a clayey nature, above which lies a thick layer of black earth in which the
fiber of decayed vegetable matter can be seen in great quantities. The
banks seem to be undergoing a continual change of form, as we frequently
saw portions twenty-five to fifty feet square become detached and fall into
the water. Sand-bars and shoals abound in many places, and the current re–
mained about as usual...We chased a flock of geese into a small lake which
has an outlet into the Kowak this afternoon and killed half a dozen, and as
we had had no fresh meat of any kind for some time they proved a welcome addi–
tion to our larder...Temperature, 90°."On July 30, having decided determined to return to his supply [ ?]
launch before proceeding farther upstream, Cantwell repassed the mouth of
the tributary flowing down from Jade Mountain, some twelve miles to the
north. Since his boat was in need of a day's repair, Cantwell decided to27
005 | Vol_XII-0497
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
walk to the moun t ain. The native shamans believed it to be the home of
evil d a emons who destroyed all trespassers. Cantwell found trouble and d an ger
not in the mountain itself but in its approach. "Our walk across to the
mountains," he wrote, "was attended by excessive fatigue. Ou r way lay across
the soft, yielding tundra through lagoons, around lakes and dense thickets of
tangled willows and cottonwood, and long stretches of pine woods, where
fallen trees caused us constantly to turn aside and travel by a circuitous
route. At one moment exposed to the burning heat of the summer sun, and the
next floundering, plunging, and struggling waist-deep in dark pools of stag–
nant water where the light of day never penetrates, we reached at last the
banks of a high rugged peak of the same range roaring torrent wh [ ?] ch sweeps
around the base of the Jade Mountain and separates it from a high rugged peak
of the same range."The bed of the stream was filled with stones, and huge heaps
of them had been piled up with human-like intention by the ice. André and
I began at once our search for the green stone, but the heart of Natorak failed
him here and he could not be induced to go any nearer to the supposed
residence of his satanic majesty...Large quantities of green stone were found
in the bed of the stream and scattered along its banks. The whole mountain
seems to be composed of it, and the sides of the cliffs are like polished glass,
so smooth have they been made by pressure or friction. Following the course
of the str e am we collected a number of specimens of stone aggregating in
[ ?] weight about seventy-five or one hundred pounds and returned to the camp...
Average temperature, 90°."The next day, at 3:30 a.m., the small party started on the
return journey. The cold early morning air invigorated them, and they fairly
ran down the side of the mountain, despite their heavy loads of stone and camp
equipment. After about five miles of easy walking, however, they came upon26
006 | Vol_XII-0498
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
a dense pine forest. "Here," Cantwell wrote, "we were beset by myriads of
mosquitoes and sand-flies, which attacked us with a persistence and violence
utterly beyond description. Sometimes in crossing a morass I would be com–
pelled to steady myself by holding on to the limbs of a fallen tree. At such
times the horrible pests would attack my face, neck, and head with venomous
force which no pen can describe. After about two hours of this kind of work
we emerged upon the open tundra, and a fresh breeze springing up we threw
ourselves down and buried our heads in the yielding moss and grass until the
wind had blown the mosquitoes away. I can not tell how much I suffered dur–
ing this day. I only know that when we reached the river at 5 p.m. I was
almost insensible from pain and exhaustion."From this account it will readily be understood that , in the opinion of the first white men in this region, whatever
were the difficulties of summer river travel in this country , they were as
nothing when compared with the horrors of summer overland travel. which, At that time of
because of year, the nature of the terrain , the complete lack of trails, and the then had at that time to be slowly and
laboriously on foot. existing ignorance of the equipment and technique necessary for
such tips, combined to discourage even the hardiest explorer.
Mendenhall reports that serpentines
The Squirrel River system is complicated and of sufficient
economic importance to be written up separately. There are, of course, other
unnamed northerly tributaries to of the Kobuk.The southern tributaries to the Kobuk are much f ewer in
number. Just south of the Sulkpowik River, which drains from Lake Selby,
T he Lockwood Hills and a spur r from the Zane Hills approach the south side
of the upper Kobuk. Between these two groups of hills [ ?] the Pah River flows north–
ward into the Kobuk, entering it a few miles below the mouth of the Sulukpowik.
No P A few miles below Wesley Creek, the Kuikcherk and Pick Rivers
flow in from the south, while and Black River enters a few miles below the
Shungnak.25
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KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
Cantwell's party ascended Black River, which Cantwell called
the Umakalookta, on July 27, 1884. Its course they found to be tortu r ous
and its banks covered with a "dense and impenetrable thicket of Arctic willow
and rank grass." The lower section of the stream was between fifty and seventy–
five yards wide, but, after a little over five hours of travel l ing upstream,
it had turned into "a roaring mountain torrent of some twenty-five feet in
width." With the help of some local natives, many of whom had never before
seen a white man, Cantwell carried his boats and equipment over the portage
leading northeastward from the head of Black River to the Kobuk, at a point
about thirty-five miles above the mouth of the Black. This portage took the
party directly across the marshlands, across two small lakes, and then
across more marshland. "Over stumps and through mud and water sometimes
knee deep we floundered," Cantwell w rote. It was with considerable joy and
relief that the party finally achieved the Kobuk, "whose broad, unobstructed
surface seemed to welcome us back," Cantwell adds, ascribing to the river
his own feelings at seeing it again.Between Ambler and Hunt River, Tunutuk Creek comes in from
the south, and Kavet and Nigeruk Creeks enter a few miles farther downstream.The Nigeruk is the last named southern tributary to the Kobuk,
although, as with the streams coming in from the north, there are many more
whose names have not yet found their way on to maps of the region.Reed River, known to the Eskimos as the An-ne-lag-ag-ge-rack,
was named by Stoney after a member of his expedition, Ensign M.L. Reed, who
explored it in 1886.Omit
Beaver Creek was so named by Stoney in 1885 apparently from
the translation of the Eskimo name. Sulukpowik is an Anglicized version of
the Eskimo name for a small fish. Both Stoney and Cantwell visited the
Kogoluktuk during the summer of 1885. Cantwell recorded a variant of26
008 | Vol_XII-0500
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
this name and reported that it was also known as Rocky River. Mendenhall
named Cosmos Creek after Stoney's winter camp of 1885/86, Fort Cosmos,
which was located at the mouth of this stream. Stoney also gave the name
Sh ungnak to a stream known to the natives as Shingnek. Since Shungnak Creek
enters the Kobuk many miles below the site of the town of S h ungnak, Stoney would
seem to have confused the names. This mistake, however, has never been cor–
rected. The present site of Shungnak would seem to be where Stoney located
the village of Sulukpowik. Menden ha ll identified this stream as the Shingnek,
but more recent maps have reinstated Stoney's possible error.Omit
Stoney substituted Ambler for the native name of that
river in mem o ry of Dr. James M. Ambler, U.S.N., surgeon on the ill- fated De Long
arctic expedition (q.v.). Hunt River he named after one of his 1885 party.
The Tutusuk he recorded as the Too-look-sook, or Labret River. Mendenhall
changed this to Tootooksook, claiming that the name means "river of caribou
pelts," from tutu or tootoo , "caribou."Kallarichuk and Trinity Rivers appear as dotted, unsurve y ed
streams on a U.S. Geological Survey reconnaissance map dated 1930. Stoney,
Cantwell, and Mendenhall all agree on the name Squirrel for that northerly
tributary to the Kobuk although they disagree with each other and with them–
selves as to the Spelling of its Eskimo name.Delta Below Squirrel River the Kobuk separates into a number of
channels, making a maze of sloughs of the lower section of its broad delta.
Local pilots have favorites among the reported twenty-seven or twenty-eight
channels and will use one or the other of these depending on the direction
of the wind at the time of their approach from Hotham Inlet. Riley Channel,
which appears on so many recent maps, was named after the S.S. John Riley ,
which used this particular approach to the Kobuk early in the twentieth century.
This channel is still in use but would not seem to be any more popular than
certain others.
009 | Vol_XII-0501
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
Relief The most noticeable feature of the relief of the Kobuk dis–
trict is the considerable height and almost unbroken contin–
uity of the mountains north of the river and the relatively low and spotty
character of the hills to the south of it.The Endicott Mountains, which merge without a break into the
Schwatka Mountains, enclose the headwaters of the Kobuk. They retreat from
the river quickly enough, however, to leave the southern ends of Walker and
Nutuvukti Lakes pretending projecting into the Kobuk valley, which here
measures only a few miles in width. An 8,800-foot peak, the highest point
in the Schwatka Mountains, lies rises only about eighteen miles northwestward from
the upper end of Walker Lake.For about one hundred eighty-five miles (airline) below the point at
which the Kobuk turns westward, that is, from a few miles above Reed River
to the mouth of the Ambler, a series of isolated groups of hills, known as the
Cosmos Hills, separates the Kobuk from the Schwatka Mountains. These hills,
hilly clumps , most of which rise to well over 2,000 feet, are completely sur–
rounded by lowlands except in the two instances in which they are connected
on the north with the Schwatka Mountains. The Reed, Beaver, Sulukpowik, Mauneluk,
Kogoluktuk, Dahl, Wesley, Cosmos, and Shungnak Rivers work their way out
of the Schwatka Mountains, and through the valleys segmenting the Cosmos Hills
and so to the Kobuk. Lake Selby lies between two of the most easterly of
this group of hills, and Avatarat Lake is only a few miles northwest of Lake
Selby, between the hills and the Schwatka Mountains.Just west of Ambler River, at about 158° W.Long., the
Schwatka Mountains merge into with the lower chain known as the Baird Mountains.
This system continues along an east-west axis in line with the general
direction of the Kobuk but from ten to twenty miles distant from it, until
just above the mouth of the Squirrel, where they send a ragged point of hills27
010 | Vol_XII-0502
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
southwest southward to within a few miles of the river.Westward from this point, however, the Baird Mountains veer
northwestward away not only from the Kobuk but also from the Squirrel.The only high land south of the Squirrel and north of the
Kobuk is a narrow chain of hills containing among which rises 2,675-foot Deviation Peak.
This small group runs along a southeast-northwest axis parallel to the
Squirrel but several miles away from it, and T he lower Southern end of the group does
not approaches to within nearer than two or three miles of the Kobuk.The relief of the southern half of the Kobuk valley presents
a much different aspect from that to the north.The hills separating the extreme upper course of the Kobuk
from the Alatna are generally 1,000 feet or less in height and are marked only
occasionally by isolated higher peaks. It is across this low sprawling range
that Mendenhall reached the Kobuk from the Alatna early in this century,
using the ancient and much trave l led portage discovered by the natives.Southeast Southwest of this group of there hills lies Norutak Lake,
which, as we have seen, drains southward into the Hogatza.Westward of Norutak Lake scattered clumps of hills , usually not
more than 2,000 feet high, but sometimes containing isolated peaks between
3,000 and 4,000 feet in height, continue to skirt the Kobuk along with, but at an ever-increasing
distance from it the Kobuk. . As we have seen, Pah River finds an easy course
between two of these groups, known as the Lockwood and Zane Hills. West of
158° W.Long., the terrain south of the Kobuk sinks into a stretch of lake-
strewn marsh land stretching almost without interruption to the delta. The
only break in this expanse is a straggling chain of isolated groups of
hills known as the Waring Mountains. The easterly members of this chain lie
ten or more miles from the Kobuk, but, opposite the spurr sent hills jutting down from the
Baird Mountains north of the river, they approach to within a few miles of27
011 | Vol_XII-0503
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
it, completing the constriction of the Kobuk valley . mentioned above. At
a point approximately due south of the mouth of the Squirrel, the Waring
Mountains give way to the conditions surrounding the delta, which reinstate
the typical arctic marshy grassland, described by some writers as "tundra,"
except that in the case of the Kobuk a growth of spr u ce extends to the very
shores of Hotham Inlet.Climate Stoney describes the month of July on the Kobuk as "one of
incessant rain," sometimes combined with a heavy fall of
hailstones and violent thunder and lightning. During the day temperatures
taken in the sun rose to between 80° and 100° F., with one record-breaking
reading of 110°. At the same time it was between 60° and 70° in the shade.
August, on the other hand, Stoney reports as being perfectly dry, so that the
level of the water in the Kobuk and all its tributaries fe l l several feet,
exposing bars and sand - banks where none had been before. During August and
September temperatures fell markedly at night so that frost formed and a
thin skin of ice covered small, still pools of water.At Fort Cosmos, several hundred miles up the Kobuk, the river
was clogged with ice on October 1. By November 1 this ice was everywhere at
least sixteen inches thick. The lowest recorded temperature for the entire
winter, ࢤ70° F., occurred during January, 1886. From then on, both extreme
and mean temperatures gradually increased. Highest readings for April and
m M ay were 49° and 65° respectively, the lowest ࢤ22° and 14° respectively.On April 26, geese flew over Fort Cosmos and snow-buntings
appeared. By April 30, the first signs of buds were noticed on the trees
and bushes. On May 19, the river ice cracked along the edges, and a few
days later the midstream masses began to break up and float down-river.25
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KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
By May 30, the entire body of ice was moving, and on that day an ice-jam
somewhere below the Fort raised the water in the river five inches in fifteen
minutes. The first mosquitoes, scourge of the arctic summer, appeared about
this time, and the grass began to show green. By June 3, the river was
practically clear of ice, and on June 8, Stoney started downstream in the
Explorer , reaching the delta without mishap.Fish and Game Throughout the late summer and fall great numbers of salmon
throng the Kobuk. It is the women's work at this time of
year to dry and store the fish for the winter. White fish, gr e a yling, and pike
are also caught during the summer months.Waterfowl breed in the numberless lakes and ponds dotting
the marsh land on both sides of the river. Mendenhall found that these ducks
and geese, although wary and difficult for any but the professional hunter
to [ ?] capture, existed in sufficient numbers to supply an agreeable
variety to the bill of fare several times a week.Just before their winter migration young fat ducks are much
easier to catch. Other birds in this section are the widgeon, green wing
teal, pintail, butterballs, and harlequins. The willow ptarmigan, most generally
distributed of all the food birds, is abundant on the marshy grasslands,
but somewhat less frequent in the mountainous sections. A smaller and less
num erous , smaller ptarmigan inhabits the rocky heights and tops of the mounts, and a
few Canada grouse live in the spruce forests bordering the middle and upper
sections of the Kobuk.At the time when Mendenhall visited this section the
caribou were gradually working farther eastward and northward, away from the
Kobuk, so that it was often necessary for the natives to cross over to the
Noatak and Wild Rivers in order to get caribou skins for clothing.
More recent reports seem to indicate that the caribou have increased since26
013 | Vol_XII-0505
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
Mendenhall's time. Moose are scarce everywhere. A few white mountain sheep
are to be found in the uplands surrounding the head of the Kobuk, and there
are some black and brown bear in the region of the delta. Muskrat, which the
Eskimos use as food, are very numerous in the delta. Their skins are also
used for clothing when caribou hides are scarce. Some red and white foxes,
marten, beaver, and mink are known to live in the district, but the Eskimos
[ ?] use these skins for trading rather than for their more immediate needs.Vegetation As will be seen from comparing the Kobuk district with most
of Seward Peninsula and the coastal regions to the north,
it is extraordinary in having a growth of spruce all along its course, and for
a good distance down the delta. This growth is ample for the building of
cabins all along the river. anywhere in the district. The spruce These spruce trees average one foot
in diameter, but Stoney found one tree with a base eighty inches in circum–
ference, and a trunk measuring sixty-eight inches around in circumference six feet above the ground. base.
This tree was about eighty feet tall, an unusual growth for the spruce of
the Kobuk district. Birch trees also grow along the river but never reach
the size sufficient for use in building. These spruce and birch trees will are
be found only in the valleys. Because of the high northern latitude of the
region, they do not extend very far up the sides of the mountains. However,
since the Kobuk valley is from fifteen to twenty miles wide throughout most
of its extent, timber is available in good supply to residents, miners,
and prospectors.Poplars, including balm of Gilead and the aspen, appear
on gravel knolls and ridges in the lower regions. Scrub willows, varying in
size from small trees to shrubs only two or three inches high, line the
waterways, the larger varieties forming the typical willow thicket along the
banks. Alders occur not only on the lower levels but also on the mountain
slopes well above the timber line.26
014 | Vol_XII-0506
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
A wide variety and great abundance of grasses cover the
lowland marshes. These grasses may be used as fodder for pack animals, but,
because they seldom have time to mature during the short growing season,
they furnish very little sustenance after being dried.Myriads of several kinds of berries, including the salmon
berry and bilberry grow everywhere in the lowlands. Mountain and high bush
cranberries as well as the red currant will be are also found, but less frequently.Mosses, particularly the white or cream-colored reindeer
moss , combine with the dark green, red, and black of other varieties to
form an unbroken , irregularly patterned covering over the lowlands, while the
more hardy varieties of mosses and lichens continue up the slopes and to the
very tops of the mountains, completing the blanket of vegetation which
masks the entire region. Small, and often showy , and brightly-colored flowers
bloom persist throughout the short summer, adding a gay note to an otherwise rather
somber landscape.Transportation As will be easily understood after reading Cantwell and
Stoney, transportation on the Kobuk was difficult and
primitive in the 1880's. Except for the portages mentioned above, trails
were nonexistent and to step away from the river was to project oneself
into the pathless marshes and forests bordering the river. Communities along
the Kobuk developed slowly , so that for the first few years of this century
travel summer travel kept to the waterways and winter travel was exclusively
by dog tre team. By 1910, however, the demand for ready, year-round communica–
tion between the several mining camps in the Shungnak area emphasized the
need for a system of summer trails. Under the direction of the U.S.
c C ommissioner for the district , a trail one trail was built from Shungnak to
the placers on the upper Dahl Creek, another up Wesley Creek, and a third
from Dahl to Wesley Creeks, along the southern slopes of the Cosmos h H ills.
27
015 | Vol_XII-0507
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
These three trails improved the local conditions around Shungnak but
hardly constituted a system for the entire Kobuk district. Despite this
lack, the members of the Geological Survey expedition of 1910 found that
it was possible for anyone familiar with the terrain and its conditions to
take a group of men and pack animals practically at will wherever the work
required them to go.One cannot help but compare the assurance implicit in this
statement with Cantwell's reports concerning his summer overland trips . in the
Kobuk district. During the quarter of a century succeeding Cantwell's
pioneer ventures, the white man's knowledge and understanding of actual conditions in
this part of the Arctic had achieved a certain complacency. The emphasis,
however, was clearly placed on conformity with these conditions rather than
on stubborn, however brave, attempts to ignore them.The introduction of air travel into Alaska has shifted
attention somewhat away from the problems of overland transportation. As
will be noticed below, even the smallest villages now have a landing strip
or some area which may be used as one. Scheduled flights are or supplemented
by the work of the expert and ingenious bush pilots, who more often than not
succee d at assignments which official airlines might class as impossible.Settlements Aside from the many shelter cabins and temporary native
villages on the Kobuk, the chief settlements are Kalla and
Kobuk, respectively a few miles east and west of the Kogoluktuk; Shungnak,
at the mouth of Wesley Creek; Kiana, at the mouth of the Squirrel; and
Noorvik, on what is known as Nazuruk Channel, one of the more southerly
entrances to the Kobuk.Kala does not appear on the 1939 census, but the other four
villages are good-sized towns when one considers their distance from main
transportation lines.25
016 | Vol_XII-0508
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
Kobuk , the smallest of the group, has a population of only
about 31, but there are two general stores and a 1,300-foot landing strip in the town.During the 1898 gold rush to the Kobuk there were several
hundred persons in the Shungnak area, but, by 1910, only a dozen or so still
lived there, although the village had a United States commissioner and a
recorder for the Shungnak mining district, as well as a post office during
the six winter months of each year. No regularly scheduled boats came this far up the Kobuk, and S s ummer overland transportation was still
so [ ?] difficult that mail could not reach the district during that season.
There were also a Friend's Mission, a government school teacher, and a
reindeer herd superintendent in the settlement. The small store had some
supplies, but these were usually exhausted by or before the [ ?] end of the
winter.¶ A group of native camps had grown up within a short distance of
the white men's cabins, and these hundred or so natives remained in the
vicinity except for their annual migration downstream during the summer
fishing season. For the next twenty years Shungnak gradually developed
into a permanent village, appearing on the 1939 census with a population of
19 3 . By this time the town also had an Alaska Native Service school, a
unit of the Alaska Radio Communication System, and a 1,500-foot landing strip.
Shungnak is about 250 miles from the mouth of the Kobuk which is navigable
throughout this distance for boats drawing up to three feet. Boats of
much greater draft could be carried this distance except for the bars at
the mouth of the river and the occasional shallowness of the channel. Kobuk and
Shungnak are usually considered the head of navigation on the Kobuk, although
small boats may be carried as far upstream as the first gorge.Kiana has two general stores and an Alaska Native Service
school for a population of 167. The main landing strip is 1,200 feet long,
but there is another landing area in what is known as South Kiana. This town
is the supply and transfer point for mining camps farther up the Kobuk and29
017 | Vol_XII-0509
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
particularly for the mines on Klery Creek, a tributary to the Squirrel.Noorvik, the largest of these towns, had a 1939 population
of 211, an Alaska Native Service school, a cooperative general store, and a
1,500-foot landing strip. Noorvik also has a government hospital for natives.
It is the home of Twok, the Eskimo artist, who turned a crippling accident
of his youth into an opportunity to develop his talent for line drawings.
He is probably the only professional artist in Alaska. He uses reindeer
skins for canvas, incorporating such imperfections and discolorations as
they may contain into the design of his pictures. One of his large drawings
hangs in the lobby of the Hotel Anchorage and many others will be found in
curio shops throughout the t T erritory.Except for the few miners, teachers, missionaries, and white traders
living in these villages, they are exclusively native settlements. During
July and August, the majority of these natives travel down the Kobuk to a
spot on Baldwin Peninsula between Kotzebue (q.v.) and Cape Blossom where
they trade with other natives from as far north as Point Hope, on the arctic
coast of Alaska, and as far west as Cape Prince of Wales and the Diomede
Islands. These annual trading trips to this particular spot and from these
same areas were already a long-established custom when the first white men
visited Kotzebue Sound. They may date back to extremely ancient times.[ ?]
[ ?]Mining A sample of ore which a native gave to Captain B. Cogan
caused the 1898 stampede to the Kobuk. Captain Cogan took
the sample Outside where it was assayed at the enormous valuation of $4,700 to the ton. The native
had told him that there was "a mountain" of this ore. Cogan died after
several years of unsuccessful searching for this golden mountain, and, but,
24
018 | Vol_XII-0510
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
by the summer of 1898, about 1,200 other miners had stampeded to the Kobuk
to join in the search. Only about 800 remained there over the winter of
1898/99, and the following summer most of these abandoned the district for
the new fields at Nome and along the Koyukuk (q.v.).The few who remained in the Kobuk District took out enough
gold to support themselves year by year, so that, by 1910, between $50,000
and $75,000 had been removed from the area. Although most of this early
mining took place in the Shungnak area, the most recent activity has been
on the Squirrel and its tributaries, particularly Klery Creek.An addition to gold, Gold is not the only valuable deposit to be found in this region, g G alena, vein quartz, magnetite,
and some dolomite [ ?] have been found discovered along the Kobuk. Certain non-metallic
deposits, notably coal, asbestos, serpentine, and green quartzite are also
known to exist. No jade of gem quality has ever been discovered there,
although nephrite, a jade of poor quality, has recently been found on Jade
Mountain and the Kobuk asbestos fields, where it may well become a by - product
of the mining there. This nephrite occurs in the form of surface boulders
and h as been found in the gravels of the streams flowing into the Kobuk as
far east as Dahl Creek. It is now being recovered by the Arctic Circle
Exploration Co. in connection with the mining of asbestos. Bain suggested,
in 1946, that these deposits might develop into a native jade-cutting
industry, but , since this is largely a matter of building up a demand where
style is important, the value of these nephrite deposits has yet to be de–
termined.By 1946, there were five small-scale gold mining operations
in the Shungnak area. At this same time one company constructed a dredge
on Klery Creek where a hydraulic and a shovel-in operation equipment were also in
operation at work.25
019 | Vol_XII-0511
KOBUK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska. Dept. of Mines. Report of the Commissioner of Mines for the Report of the Commissioner of Mines for the
Biennium ended December 31, 1940, 1946 Biennium ended December 31, 1940, 1946 . Juneau, Alaska,
1941-47.Alaska. Governor. Annual report...to the Secretary of the Interior. Fiscal Annual report...to the Secretary of the Interior. Fiscal
year ended June 30, 1947 year ended June 30, 1947 . Washington, 1948.Alaska Life. Alaska Life. May, 1945.
Bain, H.F. Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry Alaska's Minerals as a Basis for Industry . Washington, 1946.
(U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circulation Information Circulation No.7379)Brooks, A.H. (and others) Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 . Washington,
1911. (U.S. Geological survey. Bulletin Bulletin 480)Cantwell, J.C. A Narrative Account of the Exploration of the Kowak River, A Narrative Account of the Exploration of the Kowak River,
Alaska, under the direction of Capt. Michael Healy Alaska, under the direction of Capt. Michael Healy .
Washington, 1889. (H. Mis. 602)Colby, Merle. Guide to Alaska, last American Frontier Guide to Alaska, last American Frontier . N.Y., 1942.
Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.
Mendenhall, W.C. Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound,
Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.10)Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska .
Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 815)Stoney, G.M. Naval Explorations in Alaska Naval Explorations in Alaska . Annapolis, Md., 1900.
Sundborg, George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., 1946.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0512
Ruby Collins
21 April 48 KOGGIUNG, ALASKA
150 wds
KOGGIUNG, ALASKA, is a village and post office on the south bank
of the mouth of the Kvichak River (q.v.), Kvichak Bay, a northeastern
arm of Bristol Bay. It was reported in 1940 that a new airline, to be
called Naknek Airways, had been organized, which would base at Koggiung
and serve Bristol Bay points. Such a project would require not only a
landing field, but a commercial airways radio station in the town, since
all passenger planes in Alaska are required to have two-way communication.
The Alaska Packers Association and Libby, McNeill & Libby maintain
canneries and company radio stations in Koggiung.Two extensive winter trails meet near Koggiung. The more southerly
Sources: Baker; Colby; USCP & Suppl.; VS GB
of these trails leads from Portage Bay, Shelikof Strait, on the north–
eastern side of the Alaska Peninsula, northwestward to Egegig (q.v.)
and then northward to Naknek and Koggiung. Near Koggiung this trail
crosses the head of Kvichak Bay to join the other more northerly trail
which runs from Iliamna Lake down the Kvichak River and westward to
Dillingham, Owens, Goodnews and other Bristol Bay points.
[ ?] in Sundborg; T [ ?] wkesbury
001 | Vol_XII-0513
Ruby Collins
April, 1949 KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
Text - 1,615 words
Bibl - 75 wordsKOTZEBUE (66° 53′ N.Lat., 162° 37′ W.Long.) on the northwestern
tip of Baldwin Peninsula, Kotzebue Sound, lies on or very near to the
site of one of the oldest native summer trading points on the northwestern
coast of Alaska. Because of its position near the mouths of the Selawik,
Kobuk, and Noatak Rivers, and its availability by water from the northern
sections of Seward Peninsula, and the Diomede Islands, this town still
retains its importance as a trading center.In the report of his 1884 exploration of the Kobuk River, Cantwell
gives the following description of the activities in this region on August
21 of that year: "From the middle of July to the latter part of August the
natives of the Nöitoc [ Noatak ] , Kowak [ Kobuk ] , and Selawick Rivers meet
those from Cape Prince of Wales, Diomedes, and Point Hope for the purpose
of trade. The beginning of the season is celebrated by dancing, feasting,
and story-telling, which occupy one day, and after that is accomplished the
real business of the occasion is prosecuted with surprising tact and ability.
In this community of uncivilized beings the same methods of business are
adopted whereby prices and values are made to vary in proportion to the
demand as are used by their more enlightened brothers in the civilized world.
Rifles are always in demand, and next to whisky obtain the readiest sale.
The chief of the Prince of Wales Eskimos is probably the most powerful
magnate of this region, owing no doubt to the fact that his settlement is
a convenient stopping place for vessels having these articles of contraband
trade on board. His method of becoming rich is simple and effective. Upon
the opening of business he offers the Indians whisky in exchange for rifles,
and will not trade for anything else, and is generally successful in
obtaining a 'corner' in rifles in this way. I was informed that it was not an
unusual thing for an Indian to sell and buy his rifle twice or three times
002 | Vol_XII-0514
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
in this way during one season, or as long as the whisky lasted. It is
gratifying to learn that whisky as an article of commerce is becoming scarcer
every year. It is exceedingly difficult to obtain any reliable information
as regards the number or amount of anything. Generally speaking, the native
system of notation is limited to the fingers and toes, and any very large
number is expressed by a handful of sand. The village consists of a straggl–
ing line of tents along the beach. Some were composed of a number of poles
arranged in a conical fashion and covered with deer-skins; others of blue,
white, or red drilling were seen, and one more gaudy than the rest was
covered with the remanants of a cheap bed-quilt ... on which was printed in
glaring colors the picture of a man sitting up in bed with a [ ?] candle
in one hand and a fifteen puzzle in the other. The tents of the 'omaliks'
are generally more imposing affairs, made in the United States and brought
here by the traders."Cantwell returned to the village the next day, adding: "I visited
the village after dinner, and found the whole place in an uproar of
excitement. Tents were being pitched, boats hauled out and converted into
houses, skins and trade goods thrown together in large piles, and above
all the noise and bus tl e the howling of three or four hundred dogs tended
to increase the Babel-like confusion. When I arrived there was a momentary
lull in the proceedings. Many of the natives had seen me on the Corwin
and recognized me now. They crowded around me, and were evidently anxious
to know the c ua au se of my presence. Upon being assured that I did not come
with any malign intentions they welcomed me with every evidence of joy,
and kept me hemmed in until one or two drunken Eskimos had been hustled
out of sight, and then resumed their preparations for trade, allowing me to go
wherever I pleased. I was followed by a mob of boys, who showed the same
propensity for mischief as the small white boy does on similar occasions.
003 | Vol_XII-0515
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
After taking a rapid census of the population, which I estimate [ ?]
at about fourteen hundred, I returned to our camp."Kotzebue acquired a post office in 1903, at which time it was also
a headquarters for a reindeer station and for a Friends' Mission. These
three attributes of the town have have never been lost, and it is good to
report that the Friends have succeeded in their fight against the sale
of hard liquor to the natives. In this, as well as other respects,
Kotzebue is now one of the model settlements in all of northwestern Alaska.By 1910, Kotzebue had become the major supply post for the mining
then going forward on the Kobuk River. P.S. Smith visited this section
in August of that year. He gives the following description of the town:
"Kotzebue is the seaport of the entire Kobuk region and is nor [ ?] ally the
home of a missionary and family, three white traders, a few boatmen and
mechanics, and a small settlement of natives. After the break up in the
spring, however, missionaries, school-teachers, and prospectors,
together with a great number of natives from all the neighboring rivers, con–
gregate for the trading and fishing in preparation for the coming winter, so
that during July and August there are 600 to 700 people living in the town,
which then stretches for more than 3 miles along the coast. A ma i l-boat
servi c e from Nome to this place is maintained every 10 days during the summer.
The boats, however, are only 30 to 50 ton schooners with auxiliary gasoline
power, and the passenger accommodations are cramped and inad e quate, although
the food is good. The trip from Nome by one of these boats [ ?] takes
about three days, as stops are made at many way points, and the charges in
1910 were $25 apiece for passengers and about $20 a ton for freight. It is
not possible to use boats drawing more than 5 to 6 feet of water, as the
channel up to Kotzebue is narrow, crooked, and shallow. Some larger boats
from Seattle enter Kotzebue Sound, but they can not approach nearer than
004 | Vol_XII-0516
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
Cape Blossom, which is 10 to 12 miles south of the town of Kotzebue. In
the winter a mail service by dog sledge once a month is main t ained from
Nome overland to Candle and Kiwalik and thence along the coast and on the
sea ice to Kotzebue."By 1945, Kotzebue was not only one of the oldest established
settlements on the northwestern coast of Alaska, but it had become the
largest as well. Its centralized position, so early recognized by the
Eskimos, had raised its permanent population to an estimated 400. The
Friends' Church and Mission, the Catholic Church, the Alaska Native Service
School, and the ten-bed U.S. Government Hospital for natives were all housed
in handsome substantial frame buildings.By 1945 this time the post office had been advanced to second class rank;
the U.S. Army maintained a telegraph and radiotelegraph station of the
Alaska Communication System in the town; a Deputy Marshal and a U.S.
Commissioner resided there; and the Territorial Weather Bureau maintained
an office there. In addition to all this Kotzebue has several business
establishments including a lighterage company, two river transportation
companies, two restaurants, and a theater.Most of the permanent Eskimo population themselves came from the interior or
are descendants of the i n land natives along the Kobuk, Noatak, and
Selawik Rivers, but Kotzebue is still the summer meeting place for natives
from sections hundred of miles distant in and from all directions.Despite its centralized position, the value and convenience of
Kotzebue as a distribution point for the Kobuk mining district and for
others points on the north side of Seward Peninsula and the mainland
co a st to the north is qualified by the fact that seagoing vessels cannot
approach close to the town. Freight must be transferred to lighterage
vessels of six-foot draft or less. These boats can reach the town if
005 | Vol_XII-0517
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
their pilots know the channels. Channels into the Hotham Inlet are
continuously changing and, although buoys are planted during the season
of navigation , they are hard to pick up in the fall, and therefore cannot
be relied upon. Pilots are available at Kotzebue.There is a small wharf at the town and [ ?] launches will
find shelter nearby. Provisions of all kinds, as well as gasoline and
oil are available at Kotzebue.The general anchorage for ocean-going vessels is off Cape
Blossom. Here five fathoms will be found with protection from northerly
and easterly winds. This anchorage lies about fifteen miles from Kotzebue
and the trip to that town is endangered by the possibility of sudden blows
which are said to incr e ase within a few minutes to 25 or 30 miles an hour
raising a choppy seas in the Sound. The trip is further endangered by
the many sandbars and shoals which make off from the northwestern point of
Baldwin Peninsula. These bars are constantly shifting, so that local
help should be obtained before attempting a passage.Because of the large great number of reindeer in this vicinity,
large quantities of this meat are available in Kotzebue. In this particular
section of Alaska, not lack of supply but transportation difficulties
to the United States have hindered a full-scale development of the
reindeer meat industry.The accompanying chart for 1947 will give
some idea of the weather at Kotzebue. The
extremes of ࢤ48° F. in February and 79° F. in July
would seem to represent a wide range until they are
compared with readings for interior Alaska in the
same latitude. On the upper Kobuk, for instance,
winter temperatures sometimes fall to the -70°.s
and the summer temperatures rise to the upper.
005a | Vol_XII-0518
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
90's. The relatively low amount of precipitation
is amply balanced by the high humidity, so that
the over-all impression is one of considerable
dampness
005b | Vol_XII-0519
Kotzebue Weather Report – 1947
Temp. of the Air Mean Relative Humidity Total Precipitation in Inches Wind Clear Days Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days Snow fall Total in Inches Maximum Velocity Average Hourly Velocity MPH Prevailing Direction Max. Date Min. Date MPH Direction Jan. 30° 4th -43° 25th 62 0.51 - - - NW 13 18 5.0 Feb. 35° 26 -48° 5 76 0.37 - - - E 8 20 2.9 Mar. 27° 19 -37° 12 69 0.24 - - - E 14 17 2.6 Apr. 35° 24 -15° 10 82 0.04 31 SE 11.4 NE 13 17 0.4 May 74° 29 5° 3 80 0.25 31 W 12.0 E 3 28 0.7 June 69° 20 35° 1 82 0.38 34 W 13.6 W 8 22 0.0 July 79° 22 46° 28 79 1.89 28 SE 11.4 SE 2 29 0.0 Aug. 67° 25 39° 16 83 1.98 36 SE 13.2 NW 1 30 0.0 Sept. 54° 7 22° 30 81 1.27 34 W 12.0 NW 6 24 0.2 Oct. 40° 7 1° 22 80 0.21 45 SE 12.0 NE 8 23 1.8 Nov. 35° 22 -13° 15 84 0.80 38 E 13.0 SE 7 23 7.6 Dec. 30° 6 -31° 26 82 0.40 38 E 31.1 NE 2 24 4.0 Kotzebue
5B
006 | Vol_XII-0520
KOTZEBUE, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska Life Alaska Life . May, 1945.
Brooks, A.H. Mineral Resources of Alaska ... 1910. Mineral Resources of Alaska ... 1910. Washington, 1911.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.480)Baker, Marcus. Geographic Diction a ry of Alaska. 2d ed. Geographic Diction a ry of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Cantwell, John C. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer
Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. Washington, 1889.Tewkesbury, David. Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business
Index Index . 1947 ed. Juneau, Alaska, 1947.U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II.
5th (1947) ed. Washington, 1947.
001 | Vol_XII-0521
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
1,790 words
KOTZEBUE SOUND, an arm of the Polar Sea, indents the northwestern
coast of Alaska between 66° and 67° N.Lat., and 162° and 164° W. Long.This Sound is bordered on the south by Seward Peninsula, on
the east by Baldwin Peninsula, and on the north by the mainland of Alaska.
The entrance is in the northwestern part of the Sound and lies between Cape
Espen b erg, on Seward Peninsula, and Cape Krusenstern, on the mainland. The
intervening distance between these two points is about forty-two miles.
The Sound extends about forty-nine miles in a southeasterly direction and is
continued in this direction by Spafarief Bay (q.v.), and Eschscholtz Bay (q.v.).
Passing across the northern part of the Sound and through a two-mile entrance
between Baldwin Peninsula and the mainland one passes into Hotham Inlet.
By way of Hotham Inlet small boats may sail into Selawik Lake and Inland
Lake (q.v.), or up the three major streams tributary to the Inlet: the Noatak,
the Kobuk, or the Selawik (q.v.).A shoal carrying from one to two and one-half fathom obstructs the
entrance to Hotham Inlet and continues down the Sound side of the Peninsula as
far as Cape Blossom. This shoal extends for several miles offshore at this point.
Equally shallow water borders the west side of the Sound, south of Cape
Espenberg to the mouth of the Goodhope River and then eastward for a few
miles toward Cape Deceit. Elsewhere in Kotzebue Sound the soundings are
uniform, varying from seven to nine fathoms.A point just off Cape Blossom is the anchorage for ocean-going
vessels with freight for the trading and supply center of Kotzebue, on the
northwestern tip of Baldwin Peninsula. The anchorage with the finest pro–
tection in all of this part of Alaska water lies between Chamisso Island
and Choris Peninsula, in the entrance to Eschscholtz Bay. The best anchorage
in this harbor is between Chamisso Island and Puffin Islet, just to the west.
Here there is protection from all winds and easy access to land either on
002 | Vol_XII-0522
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
the Peninsula or on Chamisso Island. The water shoals close to shore very
very rapidly close to shore along the south side of the Sound east of Cape Deceit,
and it is recommended that vessels make constant use of the hand lead in all
parts of the Sound so that as to avoid standing in too close to shore.The major tributaries to Kotzebue Sound are the Nugnugaluktuk,
Lane, Pish, Goodhope, and Cripple Rivers into G oodhope Bay in the southwestern
part of the Sound; the Inmachuk, and the Kugruk, into the southeastern part,
between Cape Deceit and Spafarief Bay; and the Kiwalik into Spafarief Bay
itself.Starting around the Sound from Cape Espenberg the chief
settlements on or very near its shores are: Deering, at the mouth of the
Kugruk; Candle, and Kiwalik, near the mouth of the Kiwalik; Kotzebue (q.v.),
on Baldwin Peninsula; and Shesualek and Talikoff (q.v.), both mainland towns
on the north side of the Sound, just below Cape Krusenstern. Of these,
Kotzebue, which is the trading center and distribution point for much of the
northern part of Seward Peninsula as well as for the interior of this part of
Alaska, is by far the most important. Candle and Deering are the chief towns
in the Fairhaven mining district, while Kotzebue is the supply center for the
Kobuk district.The winter trail which connects Deering with Nome mee t s,
at Candle, the trails connecting that town with Council, Golovnin, and Koyuk
in the southeastern part of Sewar d Peninsula. From Candle, this winter trail
continues northward to Kotzebue, whence branches continue for hundreds of
miles up the Kobuk and along the arctic coast of Alaska to Point Barrow.Like other partially enclosed bays in this region, Kotzebue
Sound is blocked by ice later than the open shoreline to the north. Its clearing
depends upon the prevailing winds. Heavy drift ice maybe expected coming
out of the Sound may be expected until the middle of July. The current between
003 | Vol_XII-0523
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
Cape Blossom and Point Hope is rapid and carries this ice along at a rate of
about two or three knots. The Sound is closed to navigation by ordinary vessels
about the middle of September.Reports on the weather in this region are as yet incomplete.
From October through April, northerly and northwesterly winds prevail at Candle.
Between May and September there they are variable, although southeasterly winds are
frequent. At Kotzebue, westerly winds prevail in May and June, and easterly
winds prevail for the duration of the year. July temperatures above 80° are
sometimes experienced throughout this region and extremes of 85° and 87° have
been recorded in Kotzebue. The average daily maximum temperature at Candle
is about 50° for June and July, while the mean monthly maximum exceeds at
Kotzebue exceeds 50° during June, July, and August.There is considerable fogginess over the area, with a maximum
of dense fog with about 8% of all mid-summer observations and a minimum of
about 2 % of the observations in the fall at Kotzebue.Currents From Bering Strait to Point Barrow the current sets northward
along the shore, being stronger inshore, and, when not stopped
by the ice or affected by winds, has a velocity of one knot or more. The
current in the Strait turns northeastward along the north shore of Seward
Peninsula and is joined, north [ ?] of Cape Krusenstern, by the current from
Kotzebue Sound. On the eastern side of the Sound a northerly current from
Eschscholtz Bay sets along shore. This current has a velocity of from one-half
to one knot at Cape Blossom. The It continues past Cape Krusenstern, where,
increased by the flow from Hotham Inlet, it reaches a velocity of one to two
knots. Northward of the Cape it joins the current from Bering Strait,
where in late July and in August its velocity is from one and one-half to
two knots.Otto von Kotzebue discovered this Sound on August 1, 1816.
004 | Vol_XII-0524
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
From his position off Cape Espenberg, he noticed that the land fell away
to the e astward. Concerning his feelings at this discovery, Kotzebue wrote:
"We perceived to-day, that the coast took a direction very much to the E.;
the land continuing low. At eleven o'clock, we were at the entrance of a broad
inlet: the coast vanished in the E., and high mountains showed themselves to
the N. Here the wind suddenly abated, and we were obliged to cast anchor on
a clayey bottom, in seven fathoms' water: the nearest land lay to the S.E., four
miles distant from us, the current running strong into the entrance."I cannot describe the strange sensation which I now experienced,
at the idea that I perhaps stood at the entrance of the so long sought N.E. passage
and th [ ?] t fate had chosen me to be the discoverer. I felt my heart oppressed;
and, at the same time, an impatience, which would not let me rest, and was
still increased by the perfect calm."For the next two weeks, Kotzebue explored the various arms
of the Sound, discovering Chamisso Anchorage and ascertaining that the tributaries
to the Sound were much too shallow to give promise of the hoped-for northeast
passage. He named many of the promontories in this area, including: Cape
Espenberg, Cape Deceit, and Cape Krusenstern. He also named Goodhope, Spafarief,
and Eschscholtz Bays, as well as Chamisso Island. Finally, just before
leaving the Sound, he named that body of water after himself, but only after
being requested to do so by his crew. His disappointment at having failed to
discover the northeast passage was strong, but he mentions, in the following
passage, his hope that Chamisso Anchorage will prove of help to future naviga–
tors of these waters: "In compliance with the general wish of my companions, I
called this newly-discovered sound by my own name, Kotzebue's Sound. Incon–
siderable as the discovery of this sound may be, it is an acquisition to geography,
and may serve the world as a proof of my zeal; for, in truth, even Cook has
treated this coast rather negligently. I certainly hope that this sound may
lead to important discoveries next year, and though a north-east passage, may
005 | Vol_XII-0525
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
not with certainty be depended upon, yet I believe I shall be able to
penetrate much further to the east, as the land has very deep indentures.
This sound must in time afford essential advantage to the trade in furs, as they
are in abundance; we ou r selves should have returned home with a rich cargo,
if trade had been part of our plan. In my opinion, our government might es–
tablish several settlements on the coast of Beering's Straits to the north,
like the English Hudson's Bay Company, which extends its trade far to the west of
Hudson's Bay. It possesses colonies in the interior of the country, at a very
little distance from the new-discovered sound, and will, wi thout doubt, take the
advantage of trading there. The navigation of Beering's Straits has hitherto
been dangerous, because ships, in case of a storm, or other accidents, knew
of no port where they could find protection. This difficulty is now removed,
and ships which in future intend to visit Beering's Straits, will find the
essential benefit of this d i scovery. The inhabitants of this country, who have
all a very healthy appearance, seem to subsist entirely on the flesh of marine
animals, which they, for the most part, eat raw. We saw no fish on all the
American coasts; we often threw out our lines, but all in vain; I believe,
therefore, either that there are no fish here at all, or that they do not resort
here at this time of year. These people are exceedingly fond of tobacco: they
chew, snuff, smoke, and even swallow the smoke."Ten years later, in 1826, Captain F.W. Beechey completed his
mapping of this Sound. He named Puffin Islet and Cape Blossom on Baldwin Peninsula
He also discovered and named the Buckland River, which enters the head of
Eschscholtz Bay. Kotzebue had suspected the existence of this vier river,
because of the freshness of the water in the bay and the strength and speed
of the current at its entrance, but he had not been able to achieve its dis–
covery.Kotzebue was also the first white man to report the existence
006 | Vol_XII-0526
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
of high bluffs on Elephant Point, in Eschscholtz Bay. Although his
explanation of the nature of these cliffs was later challenged by Beechey,
they have continued to the present time to be a source of speculation and
interest to geologists Kotzebue's trust that Chamisso Anchorage might prove
of value to ships sailing these waters was well-founded. This anchorage is
the only true harbor on the arctic coast of Alaska.
007 | Vol_XII-0527
KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's
Strait....1825,26,27,28. Strait....1825,26,27,28. London, 1831. 2v.Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery, into the South Sea and Beering's
Straits...in the years 1815-1818. Straits...in the years 1815-1818. London, 1821. 3v.U.S.C.P.
001 | Vol_XII-0528
Ruby Collins
November, 1948 KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
2,940 wds. - Text
200 wds - BiblKOUGAROK RIVER, (Koogrock, Kougrok, Kugrock, Kugruk, Coogrock),
central Seward Peninsula, Alaska, the principle stream in the Kougarok
Mining District, drains a large area between Imuruk Basin (q.v.) and
Kotzebue Sound (q.v.), and empties into the Kuzitrin River (q.v.), about
eight miles above Lands Landing, and about seventeen miles above Igloo,
the head of steamboat navigation on the Kuzitrin. The Kougarok is about
sixty airline miles long.The Kougarok rises in the southeastern watershed of Kougarok
Mountain and flows eastward for about ten miles to the mouth of Macklin
Creek, where it makes a right-angle bend to the south, after which it
flows in follows a southeasterly course to its mouth. For T t he first
fifty miles of its extent, the Kougarok Valley is incised in the upland
plateau, which here has an elevation of 1,000 to 1,500 feet above sea
level. In its lower For its final ten miles, the Kougarok meanders
across the Kuzitrin Flats.The main tributaries are Taylor Creek , and North Fork from the
east, and Henry, Coarse Gold, and Windy Creeks from the west.Taylor Creek rises in the divide between the Kougarok system
and that of the Goodhope River, a tributary to Kotzebue Sound to the
north, and follows a fairly straight twenty-mile course to its mouth.
North Fork rises in the divide between the Kougarok and the Noxapaga
River (q.v.) at the junction of Alder and French Creeks, and is joined
by Harris Creek about midway of its approximately eight-mile course.The most complex of the western tributaries is Henry Creek, which
rises receives the waters of Grant , and Lincoln Creeks from the south ,
about midway of its seven- or eight-mile course.Travelling downstream, the less er important tributaries to the
002 | Vol_XII-0529
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
Kougarok are Washington, Columbia, Macklin, Homestake, Goose,
California, Arctic, Arizona, Louisa, Galvin, and Dan Creeks, and
Left Fork.Quartz Creek, with its tributaries Coffee, Dahl, Checkers,
Carrie, and Independence Creeks, which enters the Kougarok from the
west less than five miles from its mouth, were, up to 1909, the most
important gold producers of the entire Kougarok District.General Description In his report "The Kougarok Region", Brooks gives
a good description of the Kougarok. "Though the
general trend of the different parts of the valley is in one direction,
its course in detail is tortuous. Within the valley walls the river
flows in a very irregular channel, and many of the meanders are separ–
ated by well-defined benches whose flat surfaces mark former stages of
water level. This is especially evident above Taylor Creek, where the
river flows through a continuous series of oxbow curves, which are sep–
arated by sloping benches."At the point where the Kougarok enters the Kuzitrin lowland both
valley walls show well-marked benches. Two levels are here noticeable —
one 50 feet and one 25 feet above the stream. These can be traced for
several miles above Windy Creek; the walls then become steeper and the
river occupies a canyon-like valley up to Left Fork. From this point
to Washington Creek, 20 miles above, some evidence of benching can be
observed in most places, though the benches are not continuous. The
individual levels have not been traced, but in the part of the
valley below Taylor Creek there are at least two high-level gravels and
possibly three."Kougarok River is a swiftly flowing stream that carries at its
003 | Vol_XII-0530
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
mouth probably 5,000 to 8,000 miner's inches of water, and has an
average gradient of about 20 feet to the mile. Most of the material trans–
ported is coarse, ranging from fine gravel to coarse cobblestone."The most extensive deposits of auriferous alluvium yet discovered in
the district are on the main Kougarok both in the present stream bed and in
the benches. Gold has been found in the gravels of this stream for about
40 miles of its length. It is not known how much of this stretch carries
commercial values, but it is probably not more than 50 per cent."Mining Although prospectors may have visited the Kougarok District
as early as 1899, the first locations were not made there
until the winter of 1899-1900. There was a rush f rom Nome to Harris
Creek in March of 1900, and another to Quartz Creek in July of the same
year, and, by the end of that season considerabl e gold had been taken out
of the shallow placers on these two streams. Gold was also found on the
Kougarok itself during the summer of 1900, but no claims were opened up.
Because of the shallowness of the deposits and the difficulty of getting
supplies and machinery into the district, the 1901 season was a poor
one. Although there were no bonanzas to give them impetus, small
mining operations continued for several years, chiefly on Dahl Creek.However At this time , mining along the Kougarok was possible only during periods
of low water. The many mountain torrents entering the main stream were
unreliable and extremely sensitive to precipitation anywhere along their
course. A seemingly minor rainfall turned such tiny streams as Windy,
Dahl, and Coffee Creeks into surging floods which destroyed equipment
and carried it away. This condition discouraged large operators from
developing the district.The success of the Nome ditch system renewed interest in such out–
lying districts as the Kougarok, where similar control methods were
004 | Vol_XII-0531
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
needed, and, in 1903, T.T. Lane, who had constructed some of the first
ditches on Seward Peninsula, moved up to the Kougarok and built a ditch
from the head of Coffee Creek to a bench at the mouth of Dahl Creek.
Many more miners follows his example, so that, by 1906, upward of
one hundred miles of ditch was planned, and about half of which was com–
pleted.Some of the most famous of these ditches were North Star Ditch,
from Arctic Creek to the mouth of Taylor Creek, and up that stream about
ten miles for a total length of 15.2 miles; Cascade Ditch, from about six
miles up Taylor Creek to the mouth of that stream; and Homestake Ditch,
from the Kougarok about three or four miles above Macklin Creek to the
mouth of Homestake Creek.The s e and many other ditches were constructed by T.T. Lane, by
the Kougarok Mining and Ditch Company, the Irving Mining Company, and
the Northwestern Mining Company.The amount expended on ditches and the purchase of claims during
1905 and 1906 alone exceeded $1,000,000, whereas the total gold output
for the entire region up to 1905 was estimated at about $600,000. The
magnitude of this gamble can be equated only with the faith in the future
of gold mining in Alaska on the Kougarok on the part of such men as J.M. Davidson,
Albert Garvey, Joseph Turner, Nels Leding, E. Anderson, R. Anderson, and
Andrew J. Stone, whose money it was that went into the improvements in
the Kougarok District.By 1906 the problem of transportation also seemed on the way to a
solution. As Brooks explains: "The Kougarok district up to 1906 could
be reached from Nome only by an overland journey of about 100 miles or by
a very circuitous water route via Teller, Imuruk Basin, and Kuzitrin
River. From Lanes Landing, [the present Shelton] at the head of scow navigation on the Kuzitrin,
005 | Vol_XII-0532
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
freighting by wagon to the creeks costs 6 to 15 cents a [ ?] pound in
summer, but the winter rates are much lower. J.M. Davidson and Andrew
J. Stone, who are among the largest operators in the district, have es–
tablished a transshipping point on Kaviruk (Marys) River called Davidson
Landing and have built a road from that point to the upper Kougarok region,
a distance of 40 miles. Small lighters can be towed directly from the
ship's side at Port Clarence to Davidson Landing, so that at least one
handling of freight is avoided."In 1906 the Seward Peninsula Railway was extended northward to
the head of Nome River, and thence down the Kruzgamepa to Lanes Landing.
Surveys have been made looking to an extension of this line farther up
Kougarok Valley. This railway will bring the district into close com–
munication with Nome and will do much to accelerate its development.
Two telephone lines connect many of the camps with Nome. The recording
office is at Lanes Landing."Drift mining was successfully and profitably developed during
1909. The problem of a reasonably-priced coal supply for drifting was
solved by laying down a shipment at Davidson's Landing, to which place
freight charges were the same as to Nome, and then bringing this coal over–
land to the Kougarok during the winter. Transported in this manner, coal
sold for $60.00 per ton, whereas , brought extra freight charges had
previously inflated the price to $80.00 and to $100.00 per ton.The ditches previously described added little to the production
of the region during the 1909 season, for, although the snowfall in the
upper Kougarok was not excessive, the drifts were so deep that the ditches
were not cleaned out and ready for a use until about June 20, and
Homestake Ditch was clogged until July 9. By July 15 all the ditches
were short of water and were very little use d after that date.
006 | Vol_XII-0533
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
The Kougarok is not mentioned in the 1911 U.S. Bureau of Mines
report, and, in 1913, is described as at a near standstill because of
the exceptionally dry summer and the early freeze-up. In all, about
75 men worked the area, and the total gold produced was negligible.1914 was a much better season. A total of thirty-four plants
operated during the summer, employing about 130 men, and the total value
of the gold produced was about $150,000. Hydraulicing had now been
introduced, while drifting, sluicing, and dredging continued.During 1917, two dredges were at work on the Kougarok, and the total
output was estimated at about $55,000, as compared with $2,600,000
for all of Seward Peninsula. The big producers were still, of course,
the Nome, Council, and Solomon Districts.In the report for 1919, the problem of transportation to the
Kougarok reappears. The thirty-six-inch guage Seward Peninsula Railroad
had not been repaired for several years. Neither had the it been extended
northward into the heart of the Kougarok and on to Kotzebue Sound.
Indeed, it was no longer truly a railroad, but now carried flange-wheeled
flat cars drawn by teams of dogs, because of which it became known as
the "dogmobile." In later years, the line was even [ ?] further
demoted and became known as the "Pupmobile." (See Kuzitrin article.)
Equally serious was the fact that the wagon road, which had formerly run
northward from Shelton to Coffee Creek, Dahl, and Baldy Mountain, was
now imp o assible. Only a few years later, the "Pupmobile" was purchased
by the Territorial government and repaired by the Alaska Road Commission.
Today it is still being used to transport machinery and supplies into
the interior of the Peninsula. It operates not under railroad rulings,
but rather as a highway. Although several companies have obtained
permission from the Territory to transport freight over the line,
007 | Vol_XII-0534
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
individuals may also use it if they have the proper equipment , and
if they comply with regulations as to size and weight of load, speed of
travel, etc.The 1920 placer gold production along the Kougarok and its tribu–
taries was again $55,00 $55,000, and, in addition, two dredges, one
on Taylor Creek operated by the Bering Dredging Co., and another on
the Kougarok owned by the Kelliher Dredging Co., and one deep placer
mine were in operation. Tom Ward worked three men for part of the
summer on his copper property near Kougarok Mountain.Transportation charges, particularly overland out of Nome, were
again mentioned by the Bureau of Mines as being exhorbitant — $2.50 to
$5.00 per mile per ton — to which the companies had to add the freight
rates from Seattle to Nome or Teller, which came to between $19.00 and $23.50,
and the lighterage charges at either place, amounting to between $7.50
and $10.00, for each ton of equipment or supplies received. One writer
estimates that 29% of the value of the total gold produced on the
Seward Peninsula in 1920 was eaten up by freight charge s in 1920 . This is, of
course, [ ?] an overall figure. The percentage would be higher
for the Kougarok operators than for the miners at Nome.During the 1920's, mining in the Kougarok District was at a low
ebb. In 1927 there were two small camps of one man each on Dahl Creek,
and only about ten other men were at work elsewhere in the area. No
one outfit earned more than $1,000 during the entire season. Hydraulic
and open-cut methods were the only techniques in use until about 1936
when two dredges, one under the management of C.B. White, of the Fox
Bar Dredging Co., and the other under Carl Halberg, of the Kougarok
Consolidated Placers, Inc., were in use. Halberg broke call records
in the area with T t he speed with which he Halberg transported the two 68-horsepower
008 | Vol_XII-0535
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
Diesel engines and other equipment required for his dredges from
Davidson Landing to the mouth of Henry Creek, assembled his plant and put
it to work broke all previous records.By 1940 the Kougarok District was producing more gold than any
other district except Nome. Smith adds: "Mining in the district has
s hown a great increase and does not yet appear to have reached the expan–
sion of which it is capable." Although the two dredges were responsible
for some of this improvement, they by no means tell the whole story.
Mining in the Kougarok District still ranged from camps with elaborate
equipment, yielding thousands of dollars worth of gold, to one-man camps outfits
employing only crude hand methods. The success of the Kougarok mining
district must be attributed not to revolutionary methods, but entirely
to the continuing faith, the experienced judgment, and the endless hard
work of the miners themselves.This upsurge in activity was brought to a sudden stop when, on
October 8, 1942, gold mining throughout the United States and its
territories was declared nonessential. Both men and materials were
needed for wartime purposes, and much of the equipment and almost all
of the personnel of Alaskan gold mines went to war. (See Bluff and
Nome articles.) As of this writing (1948), gold mining has not recovered
from this blow. Some men and much of the equipment has been released,
of course, but the high cost of labor, taxes, and new equipment has
discouraged the reopening of most Alaskan gold mines. The best that can
now be said for gold mining in the Territory is that it is temporarily in
abeyance [ ?] awaiting the turn of national and international events.Settlements Two early towns in this district, Checkers, at the
mouth of that tributary, and Kougarok, or, as Gerdine
recorded it in 1901, Kugruk City, which had a post office in 1905, have
disappeared, although there may are now be mining camps on their former
009 | Vol_XII-0536
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
sites.The only true settlements on the Kougarok at present are Taylor,
at the mouth of Taylor Creek, and Dahl, at the junction of that
stream with the Kougarok.Taylor, with a reported summer population of 29 and a winter
population of 4, is a mining camp and the headquarters for the Kougarok
placer mining district. It has a post office, a roadhouse, a store,
and a 1,800-foot landing strip. Dahl, [ ?] although it
was not reported in the 1939 Census, has a 1,500-foot landing strip.There are, in addition, several mining camp landing fields
throughout the Kougarok District. These are: Macklin Creek, 800 feet;
Keenans, 1,500 feet; Harris Creek, 900 feet; Neva Creek, 800 feet;
Kougarok, 1,200 feet; Fox Bar, 1,400 feet; Coffee Creek, 1,300 feet;
and Quartz Creek, 800 feet.Since the development of Alaska aviation, the circuitous, slow,
and expensive water route into the Kougarok District by way of Port
Clarence, Imuruk Basin, and the Kuzitrin River, has been little used.
However, all parts of the area are connected by winter trail with Nome,
and other Norton Sound points to the south, with Teller, to the west,
and with the Kotzebue District to the north.Climate & Vegetation The Kougarok District is only about seventy miles
south of the Arctic Circle. Although the midnight
sun is not visible, of course, the winters are long and dark and the
summers short but light for twenty or so hours a day.This area is also beyond the timber line, although small willow
and alder will be found growing along the sides of the streams, par–
ticularly in the more southerly section of the Kougarok Basin. This
same section could be spoken of as 'tundra', but is more exactly des-
010 | Vol_XII-0537
KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
cribed as grassland, since it is completely overgrown with grasses,
mosses, and a variety of low shrubs and bushes. Lying entirely within
the permafrost zone, the ground in the Kougarok District remains frozen
completely or partially frozen the year around. Thawing never takes
place along the upper Kougarok, but in the lowlands to the south, the
ground thaws during the summer months for a distance of one or two feet
below the surface. The resultant thick mat of muddy slush over
everything makes summer overland travel across these grasslands next to
impossible. The fact that the northern sections of the Kougarok District
never thaw simplifies the travel and transportation problem, but adds to
the mining difficulties in these areas.
011 | Vol_XII-0538
[ ?] KOUGAROK RIVER, ALASKA
SOURCES
Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska . Juneau, Alaska, 1947.
Baker, Marucs. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington,
D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.229)Brooks, A.H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton
Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula ,
Alask a, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence Alask a, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Clarence ,
and Goodhope Precincts and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin Bulletin , No.328)Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula ,
Alaska Alaska . Washington, D.C., 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 314)[ ?]
Bain, H. Foster. Alaska' Minerals as a Basis for Industry Alaska' Minerals as a Basis for Industry . Washington,
D.C., 1946. (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular
7379. December, 1946)U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, Minerals Yearbook, 1945 1945 . Washington, D.C., 1947.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Resources of Alaska, 1909, 1911, 1913, Minerals Resources of Alaska, 1909, 1911, 1913,
1914, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1924, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1936, 1914, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1924, 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1936,
1940 1940 . Washington, D.C., 1910-1942.Alaska Life Alaska Life , May, 1945.
Guide Book to Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska Guide Book to Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska .
001 | Vol_XII-0539
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 CAPE KRUSENSTERN, ALASKA
130 wds
KRUSENSTERN, CAPE (67° 08′ N.Lat., 163° 40′ W.Long.) a low
promontory on the northwest ern coast of Alaska, projects westward into the
Polar Sea forming the northern entrance point to Kotzebue Sound (q.v.).Kotzebue named this point in August, 1816, after Admiral Adam
Johann von Krusenstern of the Russian navy.The arch of land terminating in this point encloses a small,
unnamed lake behind which runs a branch of the long winter trail connecting
this part of Alaska with Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula, to the south, and with
other coastal settlements to the north.The Mulgrave Hills back of the Cape fall away in a series of
cliffs terminating in a line of shingly beaches characteristic of this part
of the arctic coast of Alaska.
001 | Vol_XII-0540
Ruby Collins
November, 1948 KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
1,870 -Text
60 - BiblKRUZGAMEPA RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska,
formerly called Pilgrim River, rises in the Kigluaik Mountains south–
east of Imuruk Basin, and, after sweeping around the eastern limit of
the range , reaches the head of Imuruk Basin by a northwesterly course.In general outline the course of the Kruzgamepa forms a U
with its opening westward and its closed end facing the east. I t
drains from Salmon Lake (64° 54′ N.Lat., 165° W. Long.), which lies
in a broad valley at the southern base of the Kigluaik Mountains,
and flows northeastward for about one-half of its forty-five mile course,
crossing 65° N. Lat. After leaving the mountains at about 65° N. Lat.,
the Kruzgamepa enters upon a broad basin, which also contains, farther
to the east, the headwaters of the Niukluk River (q.v.). After turning
westward, the Kruzgamepa crosses the low flat at the head of Imuruk
Basin.Along the mountain section of its course, the Kruzag Kruzga–
mepa receives Crater, Grouse, Big, and Homestake Creeks from the north,
and Rock, and Slate Creeks from the south, as well as several unnamed
streams. Just as it passes 65° N. Lat., the Kruzgamepa is joined by
Iron Creek, which has for tributaries the famous gold streams, Eldorado,
Discovery, and Canyon Creeks. The confusion as to the name and extent
of Iron Creek was cleared up by Philip S. Smith, in 1907, when he wrote:
"Although really continuous, Iron Creek bears three names in different
parts of its valley; thus from its mouth to Left Fork, a distance of 7
miles, the stream is called Iron Creek; above Left Fork as far as
Eldorado Creek to the divide it is called Telegram Creek. This confusion
of names id
002 | Vol_XII-0541
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
Eldorado Creek, a distance of 1 mile, it is called Dome Creek, and from
Eldorado Creek to the divide it is called Telegram Creek. This confusion
of names is due to the interpretation of the mining laws which permits
the staking of additional claims on different creeks — i.e., creeks
having different names."Above Iron Creek, the Kruzgamepa receives Sherrette
(also known as Killkuhn), and Goldengate Creeks. As the river flows
westward , north of the Kigluaik Mountains, the Kruzgamepa is joined by
Pass, Smith, Grand Union, and Osborn Creeks, all of which flow down
from the northern flanks of the mountains and so to the main river.Geology & Mining The streams which rise in the mountains and enter
the headwaters of the Kruzgamepa from the south and
west flow through glacial valleys with steep roc k walls. Below Iron
Creek the river flows through a rock canyon about 100 feet deep, and then
enters the broad valley.The tributaries from the north side of the Kigluaik
Mountains all leave the range through narrow mountain valleys as mountain
to o rrents and then meander sluggishly across the broad valley to the main
river.The be a d-rock geology of this region is massive granite, associ–
ated with crystaline limestone and schists. These rocks have been called
the Kigluaik Series. The so-called Kuzitrin Series of quartz-schists,
graywacke, and clay slates is above the limestone. Above this Kuzitrin
Series lies the Nome series, which here consists of flaggy limetones,
and some calcareous schists.In 1900, the year that gold was first discovered in this region,
Brooks reported: "Of the gold resources of this region no very definite
statements can be made, for there has been almost no attempt at develop-
003 | Vol_XII-0542
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
ment. The rocks are the same as those that in other areas produce
placer gold and in many localities show evidence of mineralization.
Large quartz veins seem to be more abundant than elsewhere, and some
have been shown to contain gold, though none have been found which carry
commercial values. Up to the time of our examination of this region no
workable placers had been discovered, and, in fact, no real prospecting
of the creeks had been attempted." Perhaps on a the basis of Brooks'
words, considerable prospecting and mining was done in this district
within the next few years. In 1905, a nugget valued at $650.00 was
found near Iron Creek, and a system of four ditches was under contr
construction.Collier's report of 1908 was specific and qualifiedly optimistic: "Large
quartz veins are abundant, and some of them carry gold, though probably
none have been proved to contain commercial values. Two specimens
taken from large veins near the east end of the Kigluaik Mountains were
found on assay to contain traces of gold and silver, but a specimen
from a la r ge mass of quartz near the mouth of Slat e Creek contained neither.
A large ledge said to outcrop near the mouth of Iron Creek is heavily
mineralized with iron and copper pyrites and specimens are reported to
assay well in gold and silver." Later in the same report, the follow–
ing statement appears: "Mining on Iron Creek has been much retarded by
the inaccessibility of the region, but this obstacle is now disappearing
with the building of railroads and wagon roads. Freight from Nome can
no w be delivered by the Seward Peninsula Railways at the mouth of Iron
Creek...It has already been noted that in winter supplies can be brought
in by team at a cost of 2 cents a ponnd. The cost of summer hauling by
team to Iron Creek is now, owing to the fair condition of the road to Nome,
but little higher than the winter rate."
004 | Vol_XII-0543
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
By 1909, the ditches built earlier in the decade had been
allowed to fall into disrepair, but, as Brooks had hinted would ulti–
mately be necessary, a systematic surveying of the entire area was
underway. By 1913 the region was once again the site of considerable
activity, with about 70 or 80 men at work sluicing and prospecting,
but, by 1919, with the Seward Peninsula Railroad in a hazardous con–
dition and already demoted to a "dogmobile", and with the former wagon
road almost impassible, gold mining on Iron Creek declined. During
the next year, however, copper deposits were found in this region, and,
although they were not of commercial value, they aroused considerable
interest. The [ ?] production of gold continued although the deposits
were not rich.From 1920 to about 1930 there was very little activity on Iron
Creek, or on any of the tributaries to the Kruzgamepa. This is not
surprising, since mining throughout the Territory suffered a general
decline during these particular years. Gold mining picked up everywhere
with the reduction in the gold content of the doll a r, in 1933, which had
the effect of increasing the value of gold on the market. Because
of the ne w dredge erected by Tolbert Scott in 1939, the 1940 season on
Iron Creek was a good one. However, with the coming of World War II, and
the declaring of gold non-essential, gold mining along the Kruzgamepa
and a n ll other auriferous Alaska streams received a low from which it has
never recovered. The mining activity along Iron Creek today is
negligible and mostly of a maintenance nature. (See Nome and Bluff
articles.)Settlements Except for several roadhouses alo [ ?] ng its course
the only settlements on the Kruzgamepa are Iron Creek
and Pilgrim Springs.
005 | Vol_XII-0544
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
Iron Creek, at the mouth of the stream of the same name, and at
the junction of several winter trails from Nome, Solomon, and Golovnin
to the south, and Teller to the northwest, is a small mining settlement
with an 800-foot landing strip.Pilgrim Springs, also known as Pilgrim Hot Springs and, more briefly,
as Hot Springs, is located near the site of natural , saline , hydrogen sul–
phide springs. Gerald A. Waring, of the U.S. Geological Survey, was one
of the first scientists to give an official description of these springs.
In 1917, he wrote: "Kruzgamepa Hot Springs ... are 70 miles north of Nome,
in the wide flat valley of Kruzgamepa River, one-third of a mile south of
the stream. The property ... was homesteaded a number of years ago and
has produced considerable amounts of potatoes, cabbages, turnips, and other
vegetables, which have found ready sale in Nome, where they have been sent
by the trains of the Seward Peninsula Railway, which passes within 8 miles
of the springs, and, since the discontinuation of train service, by light
cars pulled by dogs ...¶ " Several years ago the property was kept up as a
resort, and was often visited by parties from Nome and other mining [ ?]
centers of the region; but the roadhouse and saloon building was burned in
1908 and since that date the bath h ouse has not been kept in repair...An
area perhaps 100 yards wide and half a mile long, bordering a small creek
that is at times a flood-water channel of Kruzgamepa River, appears to be
permanently thawed by the hot water, and as this ground is loose and sandy,
not dense and peaty, as are the moss-covered hillsides of the region, it has
been especially adapted to growing vegetables."Hot water is visible only in small quantities, as it tends to seep
off below the surface through the loose alluvial valley materials. In
the fall of 1915 the total visible discharge of hot water at the springs was
only about 8 gallons a minute. The hottest spring, which has a temperature
006 | Vol_XII-0545
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
of 156° F., issues in a small curbed pit in a greenhouse near the bathhouse.
The water was carried in a box flume through a sweat chamber to two bathing
pools in a bathhouse, one pool for men and the other for women. A stand box in
the flume afforded a place to dip out water for drinking and was known as the
'medicine chest.'"The water is clear, has only a slight odor of hydrogen sulphide, and
tastes distinctly salty. It deposits small amounts of rust-colored iron
oxide. A slight deposit of alum was seen at the principal spring. An analysis
of the water ... shows that its content of solids is high. It is a sodium
chloride water that is practically a weak brine. Although the springs are
not very far above tide limit, the ratio of sulphate to chlor di id e in the spring
water is so low that the high salinity seems not to be due to an admixture
with sea water...The two bathing pools have been escavated in the alluvium
beside the small creek, and some hot water probably rises in them. The
temperature in these pools was only 110° F., however, a comfortable temperature
for bathing."In 1918, the Roman Catholic Church bought these springs and established
a mission there to care for the children orphaned by the great influenza
epidemic of that year. According to a 1938 report, as many as seventy
children [ as ?] are now being resident at the mission.By 1939, Pilgrim Springs had a population of about sixty, a post
office, and a 1,200-foot landing strip.Lester Brown, a Nome councilman and business man, leased the springs
from the Church in 1948. He hopes to develop the truck-garden possibilities
of the surrounding acres, which are considered the best garden and farming
lands in this part of Seward Peninsula. Just as was done in 1917, he will
sell his produce in Nome. Locally grown fresh vegetables would still find
an e n t h usiastic market there, not only because they had been grown "Inside,"
but also because they could be priced far below the exhorbitant air-freighted
007 | Vol_XII-0546
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
produce from "Outside." Brown also plans to open the hot springs once
again to tourists.
008 | Vol_XII-0547
KRUZGAMEPA RIVER, ALASKA
SOURCES
Guide Book for Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska. Guide Book for Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska.
U.S.C.P. Alaska. Part II, 1947 Alaska. Part II, 1947
Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome
and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C.,
1901.Collier, Arthur J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Washing Washing ton, 1908. (U.S. Geolo g ical Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.328.)Alaska Weekly Alaska Weekly . November 5, 1948
Alaska Li v f e Alaska Li v f e May, 1945
Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska .
U.S. Bureau of Mines. Mineral Resources of Alaska Mineral Resources of Alaska . 1905, 1909, 1913,
1917, 1919, 1920, 1930, 1936, 1940. Washington, D.C.,
1906-42.Waring, Gerald A. Mineral Springs of Alaska . Washington, D.C., 1917.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 418)
001 | Vol_XII-0548
Ruby Collins
March, 1949 KUGRUK RIVER, ALASKA
Text-290 words
KUGRUK RIVER, northern Seward Peninsula, rises in Imuruk Lake
(q.v.) and flows in a northeasterly and northerly direction for about sixty
miles to Kotzebue Sound near Deering.The name Kugruk was first reported by Brooks, in 1900. It has been
written Koogroog and translated as Swan River .The entire area in which this river rises is covered with a thin
layer of lava. The river bed is comparatively flat for a few miles below the lake,
but thereafter the stream cuts a canyon about two miles long and from 300 to
1,000 feet deep. At the end of this canyon, the river i s 550 feet below the
river at the lake.Lava Creek, one of the principal tributaries to the Kugruk, enters
from the south in the canyon, while Holtz, Mina, Montana, Reindeer, and
Chicago Creeks enter from the east. From the west, Ruby, Gold Bug, and Wade
(or Burnt) Creeks join the Kugruk.Coal mines have been in operation on Chicago and Reindeer Creeks
for a great many years. Some gold has also been mined on Spruce, Mine, and
Chicago Cre e ks, but the total production has been small. There is some spruce
timber in the northern part of the Kugruk basin, but it is too far fr o m the
mining area to be of much value as building material or as fuel. However, the
coal in this region has served very well for as a cheap source of fuel.Chicago Greek, a small mining camp near the mouth of that stream,
is the only named settlement in the Kugruk basin, but this and other sections
of the valley are connected with Deering and Candle by a maze of winter trails. These latter are in
turn connected with most other parts of Seward Peninsula. Mail is brought from Deering to
this lower part of the Kugruk twice a month.
002 | Vol_XII-0549
KUGRUK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Moffit, F.H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,
1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.247)Smith,
Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula ,
Alaska. Alaska. Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply
Paper Water-Supply
Paper 314)
001 | Vol_XII-0550
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 Text - 275 wds KUGRUPAGA RIVER, ALASKA
KUGRUPAGA RIVER, northwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, was
first reported by Gerdine in 1901 as the Kugruk, but is now generally known as
the Kugrupaga. Two other Alaska rivers have been called the Kugruk: one, an
important tributary to Kotzebue Sound, which retains this name to the present
time, and while the Kougarok, (q.v.) another important Seward Peninsula river, which was formerly
known as the Kugruk . at one time.The Kugrupaga rises only about twenty-five miles from the sea,
but it receives a great many affluents particularly from the east so that it
d rains a considerable area to the south and west of Ear Mountain.The only name d western tributaries are Maria and Deep Creeks,
but the eastern tributaries are much more numerous. Including the subsidiary
streams, these are: Idaho, Gulch, Wilkins, Mason, Deer, Willow, Dinsmore, Crosby,
Gay, Tuttle, and California Creeks. All but the last of these enter the
Kugrupaga about midway of its course, but California Creek debouches only a
few miles from the mouth of the Kugrupaga.The Kugrupaga empties into a shallow lagoon which, although it
is nameless on recent maps, appears on early ones as Arctic Lagoon. The mouth
of the Kugrupaga is about 45 miles northeast of Cape Prince of Wales.Like the other streams of this area, the Kugrupaga has cut a
Sources: Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward
canyon from 200 to 400 feet deep in the bed rock limestone of the first half
of its course. Collier reported, in 1901, that this river seemed promising for
placer gold and that many claims had been staked along it and its tributaries.
There was a minor gold rush to Tuttle Creek during the summer of 1901, colors
of gold and small nuggests having been found in the gravels there, but the
excitement was short-lived and the deposits soon depleted.
Peninsula, Alaska Peninsula, Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)
001 | Vol_XII-0551
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KUGURUROK RIVER, ALASKA
180 wds
KUGURUROK RIVER, northwestern Alaska, enters the Noatak (q.v.)
from the north at about 68° N. Lat., 162° W.Long. [ ?] 68° N. Lat.,The Kugururok rises in a mountain divide amidst the De Long
Mountains and the Brooks Range. About forty miles above the Noatak it takes
a generally southwesterly direction to join that great waterway.The first half of this river's course finds its way through a
rugged mountainous section containing peaks up to 5,000 feet high. Misheguk
Mountain, 4,800 feet, looks down from a point about five miles east of the
mid-section of the stream.For the final half of its course the mountains recede from the
Kugururok leaving an ever-widening valley on both sides.Very little exact information i s obtainable on the Kugururok, but
it is known that a short pass leads over the divide to the headwaters of
the Utukok River (q.v.) whic h swings westward to empty into the Polar Sea about
twenty miles south of Icy Cape (q.v.).
002 | Vol_XII-0552
KUGURUROK RIVER, ALASKA
References
Smith, P.S. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska. Washington, 1913. (U.S.
Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 536)Smith, P.S. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska .
Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 815)
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0553
Ruby Collins
23 April 48 KUKAKLEK, LAKE, ALASKA
100 wds
KUKAKLEK, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska
Sources: VS GB; Baker
Peninsula, exten ds due east and west at about 59° 10′ N. Lat. between
Iliamna and Nanwhyenuk Lakes (q.v.). Its general shape is that of an
inverted sauce pan with the bowl extending northward to within nine
miles of Iliamna Lake and the handle extending eastward. The main body
of the lake is about 13 miles long and about 7 miles wide at the greatest
point. The handle adds a bout 5 miles in length but is only 1 to 2
miles wide. The lake is fed by streams rising in the mountains to
the east and itself is one of the sources for the Alagnak River (q.v.)
which drains from its southwestern tip. The native name was first
recorded by Tebenkof in 1849.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0554
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 KUKPUK RIVER, ALASKA
195 wds
KUKPUK RIVER, a tributary to Marryatt Inlet, Point Hope, in
northwestern Alaska, rises south of 2800-foot Mount Kelly in the DeLong Moun–
tains and follows a generally westerly course to the Inlet.For its first thirty miles, the Kukpuk works its way southward
out of the mountains and then across a low inland plain to the Lisburne Hills.
Just above these hills, the Kukpuk receives its only large tributary, the
Ipewik, which comes in from the north. The Kukpuk traverses the hills in a
deep canyon perhaps ten miles [ ?] long, escaping onto the coastal plain for a
final twenty miles of its course. This river is perhaps one hundred miles
long overall.The [ ?] Ipewik River is said to rise in one large lake or a
series of small lakes about sixty miles east of Cape Lisburne. Thereafter
it flows southwestward to the Lisburne Hills, where it meets the Kukpuk. In
addition to many smaller streams, recent maps show the Ipewik being joined
by one large tributary from the east, which would seem to rise in the vicinity
of Mount Kelly, thereafter flowing westward to the Ipewik.15
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0555
Ruby Collins
26 May 48 KULUKAK BAY, ALASKA
KULUKAK BAY, ALASKA, a small northern extension of Bristol Bay,
lies on an indents an unsurveyed section of the southern coast of Alaska
between Cape Constantine and Cape Newenham. The bay, which is about 7
miles long by 6 miles wide at the greatest points, is reported to have
shoal water at its entrance and a depth of only 18 feet just inside the
entrance. Kulukak Point, on Nushagak Peninsula, is the eastern entrance
point to this b y a , and the small settlement of Kulukak lies on the western
side near its head Th k i village had a population of 55 in 1939 and is
the site of an Eskimo school maintained by the Office of Indian Affairs.
The bay receives several tributaries from the foothills of the Kilbuck
Mountains to the north, the largest of which rises in Ualik Lake. A
strem connects Ualik Lake with Amanka Lake, the source of the Igushik
River, one of the main tributaries to Nushagak Bay. Right Hand Point,
the western entrance point to Kulukak Bay, lies at the tip of an unnamed
p eninsula separating Kulukak from Togiak Bay which stretches into Bristol
Bay for about 10 miles southwestward from Kulukak. Tebenkof named this
point Pravoi, right hand , in 1849. Mountains from which several tribu–
taries flow into both bays dot the central porti n o n of th is peninsula
and push, in some cases, quite close to the western side. This side
is indented by several small bays and extends northwestward for about
22 miles (airline) to Togiak at the head of Togiak Bay. The shoreline
from Kulukak to Togiak is a continuous bluff of b l o ulders and solid rock
rising 10 to 100 feet above the water and topped with level tundra.
Owens, a small settlement about midway of this i s ide of the peninsula,
is on the long winter trail which connects points on Iliamna Lake (q.v.),
the Alaska Peninsula, and Nushagak Bay (q.v.) with Togiak, Goodnews,
and other settlements to the west.
001 | Vol_XII-0556
Ruby Collins
July, 1948 KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA
KUSKOKWIM BAY, southwestern Alaska, opens into Bering Sea.
Cape Newenham (q.v.), the southern entrance point to Kuskokwim Bay,
separates it from Bristol Bay, Cape Newenham and can be approached close-to
with deep water, although but heavy seas and rip tides sweep the point in
southerly weather. The latest complete survey of Kuskokwim Bay was
made in 1911 and 1915 followed by a partial examination of the channels
in 1924. This examination showed that the courses laid down on the
existing charts were good to the entrance to Eek Channel, at the head
of the bay, but that above this point changes in the channels and the mud
flats had been made by the sea, the currents, and the ice. Since 1924
it has been reported that the channels in the bay shift every year
with the movement of the sand bars and that the 40-mile approach up the
bay to the mouth of the Kuskokwim River must be made behind a small
pilot boat to feel out the channels and to take continual soundings.
Sometimes a whole day is lost when a channel ends abruptly requiring
both vessels to turn about, retrace the channel , and start up another.
Running aground is a constant threat, and, since no assistance of any
kind is available, all vessels procede at the very slowest speed and
with the greatest caution. Pilot boats must also be used from the
entrance to the river to Bethel, 65 miles upstream, although the
currents have carved fairly reliable channels in the river and a
little better speed is possible. With the discharge of cargoes at and
the list lightening of the ship, return journeys are safer, easier,
and faster.Security Cove, just east of Cape Newenham, offers a fair
haven for small boats in all except northwest winds. Chagvan and Good–
news Bays (q.v.), farther north, are obstructed by shoals and bars, and
002 | Vol_XII-0557
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA
are themselves so shallow as to offer little protection in stormy weather.
Carter Bay (q.v.), above Goodnews Bay, provides anchorage for small
craft just inside the head of Carter Spit, but Jacksmith Bay (q.v.),
the next most northerly bay on the eastern side of Kuskokwim Bay, is
bare at low tide and too shallow at high tide to offer protection even
to launches. Small boats navigate the mouths of the Arolic and
Kanektok Rivers (q.v.) which open into Kuskokwim Bay north of Jacksmith
Bay, only with the greatest difficulty, and only at high tide. The
waters north of the Kanektok are shoal, and the coastal plain a morass
of tiny lakes and their connecting streams. Warehouse Bluff, about 12
miles above the mouth of the Kanektok, is an important landmark, since it
is the first land to be sighted on the east when ascending Eek Channel.
Warehouse Creek, a few miles above the bluff, is deep but the approach
is obstructed by mud flats, although small craft can reach shelter here
even at low tide. Warehouse Creek was the terminal port for early
trading vessels. Natives and traders assembled here from many miles
around to await the arrival of the schooners. No traces remain of
the warehouse which once stood here. Kuskokwak Creek enter s the east
side of Kuskokwim Bay ab l o ut 10 miles north of Warehouse Bluff. Once
again mud flats obstruct the entrance, but small craft can follow the
channel to a good shelter inside. Beacon Point, a few miles farther
north, is low and flat, hardly above storm water, and the beacon which
once marked it has disappeared. A line from Beacon Point to the former
large native village of Popokamute on the west side of the bay is con–
sidered to divide Kuskokwim Bay from Kuskokwim River. Popokamute,
however, has disappeared. Natives from the surrounding areas once
swarmed to this point to catch and dry their winter's supply of salmon.
Since the survey in 1915 the point has washed away somewhat, and natives
no longer gather here for any purpose.
002a | Vol_XII-0558
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA
A few miles below the site of Popokamute is the small
Eskimo village of Kulvagavik. Nelson visited this village in January,
1879, after a stay in December, 1878, at Kongiganak, the next most
southerly village on the western side of the bay. Kongiganak had
a population of 175 in 1939. Kwigillingok, a few miles below
Kongiganak, lies across the bay and a little south of Kwinhagak
on the eastern side of the bay. West of Kwigillingok is Anogok,
where Nelson also visited in December, 1878, and which really
lies on the shore of Bering Sea beyond around the southwestern entrance
point to Kuskokwim Bay.
003 | Vol_XII-0559
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA
The western side of Kuskokwim Bay below the former site of Popokamute
is represented on some charts by a dotted line and very little is known
about it. The only settlement is the small native village of Kwigillinak.
This town lies across the bay, a distance of about 45 miles at this point,
and a little south of Kwinhagak, at the mouth of the Kanektok River.¶ The eastern side of the bay has many more villages than the western, two of
which boast populations of more than 200, which, in this part of Alaska,
constitutes a substantial community. Kwinhagak , itself , has a population
of 224, attracted perhaps by the Moravian Mission and by the abundance
of clear mountain water in the Kanektok River. Arolic is a tiny village
at the mouth of the Arolic River, a few miles south of Kwinhagak, and
the settlement of Carter, on Carter Bay, south of Jacksmith Bay, is
merely a group of cabins currently reported to be abandoned. Around
Goodnews Bay, however, are several settlements: on the north side,
Goodnews and Goodnews Bay, with a population of 48, and, on the south
side, the thriving mining community of Platinum. Since the discovery
of platinum and its allied metals in this vicinity in 1926 this village
has grown from a few shelter cabins to a village of an estimated summer
population of 600. Most of the mining company personnel spends the
winters Outside after shutting down the placers in December, but their
presence for about half of every year makes Platinum the largest and
most active community on the shores of Kuskokwim Bay.It is generally agreed that the best weather comes to the
Kukokwim Bay area in March and April. Storms from the southwest lasting
2 to 5 days are frequent during the summer months but are usually
followed by a few days of fair weather. Northerly winds accompanied by
clear skies are frequent in the early fall, but after the middle of
September strong and prolonged gales may be expected.→
004 | Vol_XII-0560
KUSKOKWIM BAY, ALASKA
From April to September the maximum temperatures recorded in the Platinum
area ran from a low of 45° in April to a high of 78° in June after which
came a gradual drop to 59° in September. Only a trace of snow fell
during this period.Neither trees nor bushes grow along any part of the shores of
Kuskokwim Bay although elders and willows appear on the banks of its
tributaries in ever-increasing numbers and size as one leaves the coast.
Thirty miles up the Goodnews River the willows are 10 to 15 feet high.
Farther from the bay poplars locally called " cottonwoods ," begin to appear. Wood for fuel is
particularly scarce along the Kanektok River because there are very few
trees in the mountainous regions bordering the early part of its course,
and because, even along the lower river, the growth of willow and
poplar is much more sparse than along the corresponding section of the
Goodnews River to the south.Back from the water of both the rivers and the bay the terrain
is swampy. Although game is scarce, fish is plentiful and several species
of ducks and geese breed along the streams and in the marshes.................
Sources: VSGB; USCP; Tewkesbury
[ ?] Colby; Sundborg
001 | Vol_XII-0561
Ruby Collins
July, 1948 KUSKOKWIM RIVER
Revised 13 Oct 48 Text - 7,370 wds.
Bibl. - 50 wds.THE KUSKOKWIM RIVER, ALASKA, is about 550 miles long and second
only to the Yukon in length, volume, and navigability. The Eskimo name,
Kuskokwim, was apparently first obtained by Ustiugof in 1818, and it
appeared in Sarichef's atlas of 1826. The old Indian name for this river
is China-ana, and the Indians called the tributary to the Kuskokwim now
known as South Fork, the Echitna. It was this tributary to the main r iver
which Josiah E. Spurr and William S. Post considered the Kuskokwim proper
in their U.S. Geological Survey Report of 1899. The following description
is based, in part, upon this report.The Kuskokwim Valley, which lies north of the Iliamna Region,
north and west of the Nushagak-Togiak Region, and south of the Yukon
Valley, may be divided into three natural geographic provinces. These
are: an extensive interior basin southeast of the inland section of the
Kuskokwim Mountains and no r thwest of the Alaska Range, which contains
the branching headwaters and the upper course of the main river; a
deeply-cut central section about 150 miles long from east to west which
passes diagonally across the entire width of the Kuskokwim Mountains; and
a lowland section through which the river flows in a generally southwester–
ly direction from the northwestern flanks of the Kuskokwim Mountains
across 300 miles of swamp and granssland to the head of Kuskokwim Bay. The
100 miles of these lowlands farthest from the sea are true valleys of the
Kuskokwim Mountains and are bounded by sloping highland on either side.
The remaining 200 miles of lowland are coastal in nature and in this
part of its course the Kuskokwim is affected by the tides of Bering Sea.
For this last 200 miles the Kuskokwim runs approximately parallel to the
Kilbuck Mountains, lying to the southeast, and all the tributaries to
this section of the river drain from these mountains. The lowlands north26 [ls?]
002 | Vol_XII-0562
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
of this stretch of the river merge with similar lowlands which border
the lower Yukon so that between the mouths of these two great rivers
extends an enormous, triangular coastal plain whose area is about 30,000
square miles.This coastal section of the Kuskokwim is tundra, or grasslands,
and remains treeless for about 150 miles, or as far as Aniak, at which point
the river swings into the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains where trees
of various kinds begin to appear. The most common tree in this region is
the spruce. Some poplar, commonly called "cottonwoods," grow along the
valley floor and the lower slopes, some birches and a few tamarack.
Willow and alder grow along the banks of the stre a ms and upland gulches
and, in great profusion, in the damp places near the timber line. Dwarf
black-birch brush is common above the timber line, and, in the Nixon
Fork District, about 250 miles above Aniak, spruce grow well above
altitudes of 2,000 feet. The stand of timber in this area is not heavy
and has been depleted, particularly in recent years, by use as fuel
and by great forest fires. During the summer of 1933 fires swept much
of the Nixon Fork area, so that since that ti m e the large r mining camps and
many p i r ivate individuals have had to depend on kerosene and gasoline
from Outside for fuel. Above Nixon Fork the Kuskokwim is reported to be
largely untimbered. Forage for stock is fairly plentiful in the valley
floors, but on the upland slopes grass is scarce.Caribou herds exist in the higher mountains which border part
of the river course, and some of these herds, as will be indicated later,
have been assembled and protected by private her d smen. Bear and moose
are not numerous, but smaller game such as rabbit, ptarmigan, and24 [lo?]
003 | Vol_XII-0563
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
grouse are relatively plentiful. The enormous triangle of tundra between
the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon is one of the major breeding
grounds for game fowl not only for Alaska but also for all of western
Canada and the United States. Salmon run up the Kuskokwim. It is also
well supplied with whitefish and pike, and enormous numbers of grayling
are to be found in the smaller streams which feed this great river.The ice usually leaves the Kuskokwim open to navigation by June
1, although the breakup comes at different times each year. In 1924, the
river ice broke up on May 23, and went out at Eek Island on May 29,
although large pieces of ice were still partially obstructing the channel
past the island on June 5. However, this was the latest breakup in [ ?] fifteen
years. The mean range of the tide is about 9 1/2 feet at the mouth of
the river, but drops to about 2 feet 65 miles up the river at Bethel (q.v.)Generally speaking, Bering Sea tides extend up the Kuskokwim for
about 100 miles, and for approximately another 100 the river currents
increase and decrease wit h the ebb and flow of the tides. Currents in the
bay also have their effect on the river. Currents as strong as 3 1/2
knots have been observed in the vicinity of Apokak at the mouth, and the
flood current is felt about as far as Bethel. Ocean-going vessels can
ascend the river to Bethel where lighters and river steamboats transfer
cargo and passengers to McGrath (q.v.) , 500 miles upstream. In the
spring of 1948, the Santa Ana Steamship Company's Coastal Rider made
her last round trip between Seattle and Bethel, and in the fall of that
year the Alaska Steamship Company's Reef Knot took over this service.
Pilot boats meet these steamships at the mouth of Kuskokwim Bay (q.v.)25 [lo?]
004 | Vol_XII-0564
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
and assist them up the intricate maze of bay and river channels to their
destination.As has been implied previously, the Kuskokwim makes several
changes in direction. Its eastern headwaters rise in the glacier-clad
Alaska Range, flow northwestward to the valley which separates this range
from the Kuskokwim Mountains, then northward across this wide valley to
about 63° N. Lat. Here the Kuskokwim turns due westward for about 30
miles (airline) to McGrath. At McGrath it veers abruptly west of south
and, with many large-scale bends, continues in this direction to its con–
fluence with the Holitna, an airline distance of over 120 miles. From
this point, although bending once to the north and once to the south, it
turns in a generally westerly direction for about 80 miles (airline) to
Aniak, at which point the Kuskokwim is a mere 25 or 30 miles from the
Yukon. The Kuskokwim then turns southwestward and follows a fairly
direct [ ?] course to Kuskokwim Bay.The headwaters of the Kuskokwim rise in two different mountain
chains, the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north and northwest, and the
Alaska Range to the south and southeast. The chief upper tributaries
for the Kuskokwim are North, East, South, Middle, and West Forks.North Fork is fed by streams rising in the Kuskokwim Mountains
north and northwest of Lake Minchumina and flows in a southwesterly
direction for about 100 miles (airline) to its junction with East Fork,
a few miles above Medfra, known also as Berry s Landing. North Fork re–
ceives several tributaries from the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north of
its course, but its main tributary, Swift River, enters from the south.
Swift River, a glacier-fed stream rising in the Alaska Range in the
vicinity of Mount Russell, flows in a no t r thwesterly direction for about25 [ls?]
005 | Vol_XII-0565
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
65 miles 'airline) to enter North Fork about midway of its course.
Mount Russell is an 11,500-foot peak about 35 miles southwest of Mount
McKinley.East Fork is formed by several streams rising in the foothills
of the Alaska Range just south of Swift River and flows in a generally south–
westerly direction to join North Fork a few miles above Medfra. East Fork
receives the waters of Chedotlothna and Ekolina Rivers. The Kuskokwim
proper may be said to begin with the junction of these forks, or perhaps,
a few miles farther downstream at the confluence of South Fork.South Fork, the most important upper tributary, rises farther
south in the Alaska Range, and takes a northwesterly course to enter the
Kuskokwim near Medfra. South Fork receives the Tatina, Jones, Dillinger,
and Tonzona Rivers, as well as several unnamed tributaries. The Tonzona,
largest of these tributaries, is a glacier-fed stream rising in the
vicinity of Mount Dall, a 9,000-foot peak about 45 miles southwest of Mt.
Mckinley. The Tonzona flows in a generally northwesterly direction from
the foothills of the Range and across about 55 miles of the broad Kuskokwim
Valley before joining South Fork.About 10 miles below [ ?] the South Fork confluence, the Kus–
kokwim receives the waters of another southern tributary, one that is
formed a few miles above its mouth by the union of three streams . which follow almost parallel courses. On
some maps the final three or four miles of this tributary are identified
as Big River. Middle Fork, which, as its name indicates, is the middle
branch of this tributary, originates in the Alaska Range near 62° N. Lat.,
154° W. Long., in the midst of mountains rising to over 7,000 feet, works
its way northwestward for about 35 miles (airline) to the valley, and then24 [Co?]
006 | Vol_XII-0566
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
crosses another 35 miles of lowland to its junction with Pitka, the most
northerly of these branches. West Fork, the southwestern branch, has its
source in glacier-fed streams rising in the Alaska Range, w s omewhat south
of the headwaters of Middle Fork, where the Range reaches heights of 9,000
feet. This stream trends northward for about 80 miles (airline) to join
the Middle Fork-Pitka branch a few miles below their confluence; thence
the combined waters flow westward three or four miles to enter the south–
ern side of the Kuskokwim.Medfra, at the confluence of South Fork and the Kuskokwim, is
the farthest upstream of the Kuskokwim settlements and is the supply point
for the Nixon Fork District. From this point the Kuskokwim trends south–
westward 8 or 10 miles to the junction with Big River, and thence follows
a tortuous course westward for 25 or 30 miles to its junction with Nixon
Fork, where McGrath settlement is located. Big River Roadhouse is located
2 or 3 miles downstream from the mouth of the river from which it takes its
name.Nixon Fork has its source 50 or 60 miles northeastward of
McGrath in stream s rising in the Von Frank Mountain area of the Kuskokwim
Mountains and follows a generally southwesterly course to enter the
Kuskokwim from the north. Nixon Fork is joined early in its course by
Cottonwood, Boulder, Jones, Submarine, Mystery, Ruby, and Hidden Creeks,
and by West Fork about midway of its course.Takotna River, the largest tributary to Nixon Fork, enters
Nixon from the west a few miles above its mouth. The Takotna, which has
a length of perhaps 50 miles, is formed by the confluence of Waldren and
Moore Creeks and takes a generally northward and then eastward course,25 [ls?]
007 | Vol_XII-0567
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
being joined by Fourth of July, Big, Gold, Bun, and Galickson Creeks, to
its junction with Nixon Fork. This junction is called The Forks. The
village of Ta c k otna lies about 13 miles above The Forks.Tat la al ina River enters Nixon Fork from the west a little over
one mile s above its junction with the Kuskokwim. The Tat a lina rises in
the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains, which, in this vicinity, form a
divide between the Kuskokwim and the Tatalina, and flows northeastward to
Nixon Fork. It is joined from the south by Rex, Candle, and Cash Creeks.At its confluence with Nixon Fork, the Kuskokwim turns southward
and continues in this direction for about 100 miles (airline) to
Sleitmut where it [ ?] again turns westward. F or about 25 miles south
of McGrath the river follows a twisting course, and along this stretch
are, from north to south, the three villages, Candle Landing, Wilson's,
and Vinasale. About 10 miles below Vinasale the Kuskokwim passes between
an irregular group of highlands from 1,400 to 2,200 feet high. The
slopes to the west appear to belong to the Kuskokwim Mountains and those on
the east to the Alaska Range. Several tributaries enter this section of
the Kuskokwim, most of them from the east. These are: the Tatlawiksuk,
the Swift (on some maps called the Chagavenapuk), and the Stony. All
these rivers rise in the Alaska Range; the Tatlawiksuk flows in a
westerly direction, and the other two in a northwesterly direction across
the wide Kuskokwim Valley to the main river. Stony River, the longest
of these three tributaries, rises in the vicinity of Snow Cap Mountain,
flows southwestward through a narrow valley in the Alaska Range, and then,
west of Telquana Lake, from which it receives a tributary stream, turns
sharply northwestward to pass north of Carin Cairn Mountain and through26 [ ls ?]
008 | Vol_XII-0568
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
the Lime Hills to the Kuskokwim. The mountains through which the upper
course of the Stony runs are perpetually snow-covered, and the river-bed
is strewn with huge boulders. Although rapids are frequent in th k i section,
the stream is reported to be easily ascended with poling boats. Stink
River enters the Stony about 25 miles (airline) from its mouth. On a tiny
island in the midst of the confluence of the Stony and the Kuskokwim is
the village and post office of Stony River.From th is e point the Kuskokwim more and more loses its connection
with the Alaska Range which continues southward into the Iliamna Region
whereas the river veers westward through the high southern fringes of the
Kuskokwim Mountains and so to the broad coastal section of the Kuskokwim
Basin.About 18 miles southwest of Stony River the
About 18 miles below the mouth of Stony River, the Holitna, one
of the major tributaries to the Kuskokwim enters from the south. The dark-
colored Holitna, with its principal tributary the Hoholitna, drains the area north
of the headwaters of the Nushagak and Mulchatna Rivers (q.v.). Very little
is known about this section of Alaska, a A lmost the only source of informa–
tion being the manuscript map made by the prospector, W. R. Buckman, who
wintered in this vicinity in 1902-1903. The Holitna was one of the first
inland Alaskan streams known to the early Russian explorers in this region
and was descended by Ivan Simonson Lukeen in 1832. The Indians Natives call this
stream the Chulitna, but it is now generally known as the Holitna, a
transliteration of the Russian form of the Eskimo name. The Holitna has
its source in stream s rising northeast of Nishlik e Lake, the most northerly
of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.), and flows in a generally northeasterly direction23 [ ls ?]
009 | Vol_XII-0569
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
to the Kuskokwim. The middle branch of these headwaters, the Kogrukluk,
joins the Holitna in the vicinity of Kashegelok, a small Eskimo village
about 150 miles from the mouth of the Holitna. The river then swings north–
west of the Taylor Mountains past the Eskimo village of Nogamut, across a
broad flood plain to its junction with Titnuk Creek near the village of
Itulilik. Titnuk Creek rises east of the Nushagak Hills and Finn Mountain,
which form part of the divide between the Nushagak and the Holitna systems,
and flows in a northerly direction east of the Taylor Mountains to join the
Holitna about 70 miles from its mouth. The Holitna receives many unnamed
tributaries from the Kiokluk and Chuilnuk Mountains which lie west of the
middle section of its course.The Hoholitna, as it is now generally called, in its upper reaches
receives the waters of a fan-shaped system of unnamed streams rising in the
vicinity of Halfway Mountain and Cairn Mountain, in the Alaska Range,
which here separates this section of the Holitna watershed from that of the
Mulchatna. The main headwater of the Hoholitna drains from Whitefish
Lake, a lake about 8 miles long by one to two miles wide, lying just south
of 61° N. Lat. and just east of 155° W. Long. in a broad lowland surrounded
by the discontinuous ridges and knobs of the foothills of the Alaska Range.
←From Whit e fish Lake the river follows a westerly course for about
35 miles, and throughout this stretch is joined from both north and south
by its numerous upper tributaries. The river then flows in a northwesterly
direction for about 50 or 60 miles 'airline) to i n ts confluence with the
Holitna at a point about 15 miles above its junction with the Kuskokwim.
Sleitmut (Sleetmute) lies on the north bank of the Kuskokwim just opposite
the mouth of the Holitna.From Moose village, about 15 (airline) miles upstream from
Sleitmut, the Kuskokwim follows a twisting but generally southwesterly26 [ls?]
010 | Vol_XII-0570
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
course to within three or four [ ?] miles of the mouth of the Holitna, where
it turns sharply northwestward. Then the Kuskokwim continues in a generally
northwesterly direction for about 30 miles (airline) to its confluence
with George River. This river drains a dissected plateau, marked with
ridges and knobs about 2,000 feet high, which characterize this south–
western fringe of the Kuskokwim Mountains.George River flows in a generally southwesterly direction from
its northeasterly divide, which separates it from the Takotna system, past
the divides separating it from the [ ?] ditarod to the northwest and from the
Kuskokwim itself to the southeast. North For , k , its first named tributary,
flows down from the vicinity of Lookout Mountain in the Iditarod Divide
to enter the George from the west. East and South Forks, rising in the
highlands separating the George from the Kuskokwim, join and enter the
George from the east. The George drains an area about 50 miles from north–
east to southwest and about 35 miles from east to west. Although strong
currents sweep this river during flood seasons, at all other times, starting
at Georgetown at the mouth, it may easily be ascended in poling boats for
25 or 30 miles.At Georgetown, the Kuskokwim turns southwest, and, a few miles
below this point, is joined by Steamboat Creek from the north. The stream
rises in Twin Buttes in the divide between its waters and those of North
Fork.Below Steamboat Creek the Kuskokwim forms an S, veering first south,
then north, then south again. This second turn is called Great Bend, and
receives Crooked Creek from the north. Crooked Creek rises west of Lookout
Mountain and flows in a southerly direction to the Kuskokwim. Its main
tributaries are Donlin Creek, early in its course, and Bell Creek a few
miles above its mouth. At Crooked Creek the Kuskokwim twists southward and26 [ ?]
011 | Vol_XII-0571
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
flows between Horn Mountain and an unnamed group of hills to the southeast,
for about 30 miles (airline) past the two abandoned villages, Canoe Village
and Oskawalit, past Horn Village and Little Mountain Village, to Napaimiut.At Napaimiut the Kuskokwim swings westward and continues in this
general direction for about 30 airline miles to Aniak, at the mouth of the
river of the same name. Below Napaimiut the river passes Chuckwak and the
abandoned village of Ko l makof, continues south of Russian Mountains and on to
the small native village of Russian Mission, about 8 miles east of Aniak.The Aniak River rises in the northern park of the Kilbuck Mountains,
north of the Tikchik Lakes, and flows in a generally northerly direction for
about 75 airline miles to the Kuskokwim. Salmon River is its main tribu–
tary, although it receives many unnamed streams from the vicinity of Fisher
Dome and Mount Plummer in the more northerly reaches of the Kilbuck Mountains.Below Aniak the Kuskokwim flows westward about 15 miles and then
takes a southwesterly, often multiple, course across the lake-studded swamp
and tundra of the coastal plain. The plain is bounded on the north by the
Yukon River and the Kuskokwim Mountains and on the south and easty by the
Kilbuck Mountains. At the point where the river turns southwest, only 20 or
25 miles of lake-studded grassland separate the Kuskokwim from a southerly bend of the
Yukon River. Crow Village and Oknagamut lie on this stretch of the
Kuskokwim, followed by Kalskag (Kaltshak), a settlement about 27 miles below
Aniak, at about the point where the river passes between Kukaklik and White–
fish Lakes. (The latter is not to be confused with the lake of the same name
previously mentioned as the headwaters of the Hoholitna River.)About 36 airline miles below Kalskag, the Tuluksak River enters
the Kuskokwim. This river rises to the east between Mount Hamilton and
Mount Plummer, flow s ing southward and then westward to join the Kukokwim. from
the east. The Kiselalik River rises in the Kilbuck Mountains across the
28 [ ls ?]
012 | Vol_XII-0572
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
divide from the Salmon River, the main tributary to the Aniak, and takes
a generally northwesterly course to join the Kuskokwim just south of Akiak.
Just below Akiak, the Kuskokwim divides and follows two meandering courses
for about 10 airline miles, after which it joins again and flows on past
Bethel, the largest town on the Kuskokwim.For the remaining 65 miles of its course, the Kuskokwim gradually
broadens out until it is ten miles wide in the vicinity of [ ?] Eek Island.
Some maps show the Lomavik River and the [ ?] undra River entering the Kuskokwim
from the east and west respectively a few miles below Bethel, and Johnson
River, with a main tribu [ ?] ry, the Pimichtaluk, flowing in from the west in
the vicinity of the settlement of Kinak. On other maps the course of Johnson
River is identified as the Kinak. The main eastern tributary to the Kuskokwim
south of this point is Eek River which drains from Eek Lake in the foothills
of the Kilbuck Mountains and flows in a westerly direction past 2,000-foot
Tiokpit Mountain across 60 miles of tundra to enter the Kuskokwim just north
of Eek Island. Eek River, although muddy and full of silt, is navigable
for 15 or 20 miles from its mouth.Eek Island is a grass-covered mud flat in the mouth of the
Kuskokwim just south of the mouth of Eek River. The higher tides completely
cover this island. It is cut by deep sloughs and affords an ideal feeding
ground for the thousands of ducks and geese which breed in the swamps and
marshes between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon.Settlements
2 Trails
An intricate system of winter trails connects the settlements
and roadhouses along the Kuskokwim and its tributaries. From Medfra and
McGrath, the two most northerly Kuskokwim settlements, these trails run in
several directions; northeastward to Lake Minchumina and beyond, southeast–
ward across the Alaska Range to Cook Inlet, northwestward into the Innoko
District, and southwestward along the Kuskokwim itself to The Portage and on
27 [ ls ?]
013 | Vol_XII-0573
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
to the mouth of the Kuskokwim.Me d fra, (63°07′ N.Lat., 154°43′ W.Long.) 35 miles upstream from McGrath, had a population of 24 in
1939. It has, as well, a post office, a general store, and a 2,000-foot
landing strip. The chief occupations are mink and marten farming. From
June 1 to O c tober 5 air mail service runs every two weeks from Fairbanks
and Anchorage. A $36,000 road connects Med f ra with Nixon Peak Mine
on Rub b y Creek, twelve miles to the north.On the Takotna River, west of McGrath (q.v.) and about 13 miles (airline)
above The Forks, is Takotna, a mining community with a post office and a
1939 population of 70. Takotna is the head of launch navigation on that
river, and is connected by an intricate maze of roads and trails with Flat,
Ophir, Holy Cross, and other Yukon points to the southwest, and with McGrath,
Candle Landing, Berry Medfra, and other villages to the northeast and the
southeast on the Kuskokwim. Takotna has a landing strip on a mountain-top
above the town , with a road leading to it. Although this strip is 1,700
feet long, it appears to be much shorter because each end drops a considerable
distance downhill. In 1942, a herd of 2,000 reindeer was reported by its
owners to be grazing on Beaver Mountain several miles west of Takotna.Candle Landing and Vinasale are the main Ku s kokwim settlements
immediately below McGrath. New Candle Landing, a few miles west of Candle,
is a gold mining community with an 1,800-foot landing strip. As the Kuskokwim
continues to work its way through the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains,
there are no settleme n ts along it for over 100 [ ?] airline miles.Stony River, at the mouth of the river by of the same name, has two
warehouses, and is a trading post and outfitting point for trappers and
prospectors, although the 1939 census gives the population as only seven.
Referring to the native population in this area in 1930 , Hrdlicčka writes: "People26 [ ls ?]
014 | Vol_XII-0574
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
of Stony River, according to Sergei, speak a language of their own, called
'Nunamute.' Twenty-eight natives in all between Stony River and McGrath,
and of these twenty or twenty-one children and undergrown."Sleitmut, about 18 miles below Stony River, is a post office and
settlement which had a population of 86 in 1939. The village has a Territorial
School, a 2,000-foot landing strip, and air mail service from June 1 to
October 5 each year. Across the river from Sleitmut is Smeaton's Trading
Post. Parks, a settlement with a population of 11 in 1939, also lies on
the north side of the Kuskokwim a few miles below Sleitmut. The cinnibar
lode mine, mentioned above below , is in this vicinity and was being worked, as
Hrdlicka reports in 1930, by Parks himself. "Parks is an old man," Hrdlicka
writes, "over 70, visionary, alone, working mercury mine with the help of
three native boys of from about 10 to 15."Georgetown, a small native settlement, lies on the north side
of the Kuskokwim at the mouth of the George River about 19 miles below Parks.
A winter trail, known as the Iditarod and Georgetown Trail, connects
Georget o w o n with Flat, which itself is connected by trail with Holy Cross, on
the Yukon River, and with various points in the Iditarod and Innoko
Districts to the north.Crooked Creek, about 11 airline miles below Georgetown, is a
native settlement and post office at the mouth of the stream of the same
name, which had a 1939 population of 48. At low tide the natural river
bars near Crooked Creek afford summer landing fields, and planes equipped
with skis can land on the frozen river in winter. Crooked Creek is one
of the southern terminals of a network of winter trails converging at Flat.Napaimiut, about 30 airline miles below Crooked Creek, is a post
office and settlement with a 1939 population of about 75. This village
has a 2,000-foot landing area and receives air mail service from Fairbanks
and Anchorage.27 [ ls ?]
015 | Vol_XII-0575
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
The village of Kolmakof, now abandoned, was first the site of
a fort built by the Russian trader Lukeen, who discovered gold in this
vicinity about 1832. He built a fort about 25 miles above the mouth
of the Aniak River, and called it Lukeen's Fort. In 1 8 41, after being
partly burned by the Indians, it was rebuilt by Alexander Kolmakof, who
gave it his name.Aniak, with a 1939 population of 122, is a settlement and post
office on the Kuskokwim near the mouth of the Aniak River. It has a U.S.
Commissioner in residence, and a 5,000-foot landing area. A reindeer herd
numbering 12,000 head is reported in this vicinity. Aniak has one of the
finest, most modern, and best-equipped roadhouses in all of interior Alaska.Kalska g,(Kaltshak), over 25 airline miles below Aniak, has summer air mail
service between June 1 and October 5 and was reported in 1939 to be one of
the winter air mail stops between Fairbanks and Bethel. k K alskag is the
Kuskokwim terminal of the two [ ?] trails which connect this part
of that river with the Yukon. The more northerly of these trails runs
from Kalska g to Paimiut, and the other, generally known as The Portage,
runs to Russian Mission (Ikagmut), 38 miles down the Yukon from Paimiut.
The Portage passes Kulik Lake, one of the numberless lakes in this area
which happens to be named, and through the native village of Kichlulik
on its way to Russian Mission.Ogalvik is the only village between altshak Kalskag and Tuluksak. Tuluksak, at
the confluence of the Tuluksak River and the Kuskokwim, Tuluksak had a
1939 population of 88, and is connected by road or trail with Bethel, Aniak,
and Nyac.Nyac, just north of 61°N. Lat. and just east of 160° W. Long.,
is a mining community and post office on the T uluksak River in the vicinity24 [ ?]
016 | Vol_XII-0576
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
of Mount Plummer, a 4,800-foot peak in the Kilbuck Mountains south of
Whitefish Lake. Nyac had a 1939 population of 33, and now has a 2,500-foot
landing strip. The Territorial Department of Mines chose Nyac as an
experimental site for the combining of aerial photographs with geological
investigations on the ground. Recent maps show several placer mines and
some buildings along the Tuluksak below Nyac all of which are connected by
road.Akiak lies on the east side of the Ku s kokwim about 15 miles south
of Tuluksak. Petrof, in 1880, and Spurr and Post, in 1898, recorded this
town with variants of its present name. By 1939 Akiak had a population of
209. It is connected by trail with Russian Mission on the Yukon and with
Bethel about 22 miles down the Kuskokwim. Kuskokwim river boats from
Bethel serve Akiak regularly, and there is air mail service for the usual
period each year. Reindeer herds in the vicinity of Akiak totaling 81,278
head, were reported by five private owners in 1940.Akiakchak (Akachagamut), a native village with a population of
156 in 1939, a few miles below Akiak, is connected by trail with Ohogamute
on the Yukon and with Bethel, fifteen miles down the Kuskokwim. Of the
people of Akiakchak Hrdlicka wrote: "The largest and best Eskimo village
yet seen ... (He was traveling upstream.) ... Really a small town. Yet no
school structure here yet, just a native church. People more orderly than
elsewhere and sturdier, better off economically."Below Bethel (for a description of which see separate article) , along the ever-widening Kuskokwim, there are several
small villages: Napaskiak (population 67), Lomavik, Napakiak (population 113),
and Akulurak (population 162), all on the east bank, and Kinak (population
36) on the west bank opposite Akulurak at the point at which the Kuskokwim
veers from its southwesterly course to flow due south into Kuskokwim Bay.26 [ ls ?]
017 | Vol_XII-0577
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
Hrdlicka reports: "Large tides here, they tell, up to and at times over
sixteen feet. At low tide great mud flats everywhere, with small channels
like glancing streaks between ... Boat travel — no other possible — must
regulate itself by tides and the depth of the water. To some places it is
impossible to get except at high tide." From Akulurak he wrote: "In nice
weather and before the mosquitoes come, the life in the Eskimo fish camps is
agreeable. There are many dusky red-cheeked chubby children, not seldom
decidedly good-looking. Here and there a woman doing a little cooking or
bread-toasting outdoors, over a little fire. Men fish, hunt waterfowl,
gather driftwood, construct, make boats — women prepare the caught fish for
drying, skin birds, do housework, cook and sew. Children wanted and loved,
and there are plenty of them."Eek, a native village a few miles up the Eek River, had a 1939
population of 170. West Point, Kuskovak, and the abandoned Popocamiut
are native settlements on the west bank of the Kuskokwim opposite Eek
Island. Apokak, also opposite Eek Island but on the east side of the Kusko–
kwim, lies at the mouth of the Apokak River. Nelson recorded this name as
Apokagamute, Apokak people , in 1878-79. A line from Beacon Point, just
south of Apokak, to the site of the former native village of Popocamiut ( see Kuskokwim Bay)
is considered to separate Kuskokwim River from Kuskokwim Bay.Mining
Although much of it is on a small scale, there is considerable
mining activity along the Kuskokwim. Placer gold is mined near Nixon Fork,
McGrath, and Georgetown, and lode gold is produced in the Nixon Fork
District. Tin, tungsten, lead, mercury, antimony, and bismuth have also been
found in various places, but not in commercial quantity. Cinnabar lode was
discovered about 15 miles above Georgetown in 1906, near the present site of
Parks, and, as has been indicated, had been worked in a small way but steadily
ever since.26 [ ls ?]
018 | Vol_XII-0578
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
F.E. Matthew discovered gold placers on Hidden Creek in June,
1917. Further prospecting revealed more placers on the other upper tributaries
to Nixon Fork, and in all cases the gold continued to the extreme headwaters
of these streams. In 1918 Pearson and Strand discovered the Crystal
lode at the head of Ruby Creek. Nixon Peak Mine now works this gold lode
as well as gold placers near Hidden Creek, which have proved to be the
most productive of all the placers in the area.¶ In 1947 several companies
were carrying on gold lode and placer operations in the Takotna section this section : Jackson
Nels, placer, on Fourth of July Creek, with a crew of 5; Nixon Fork Mine,
lode, on Nixon Fork near Medfra; and Yukon Placer Mining Co., placer,
bulldozer, and hydraulic, on Fourth of July Creek.Gold placers were discovered on Candle Creek by Louis Blackburn
and Bert Eldridge in 1913. Mining was started in 1915 and has continued
to the present time.Gold placer mines have been reported on D onlin Creek, a tributary
to Crooked Creek. The discovery of placer gold in Rainy, Kapon, and Cabine
Creeks in the Eek River system, was given some publicity in 1936, although
there was no stampede, and operation of these mines has been continuous
since 1940.First Descent
In his Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, Spurr
gives a first-hand account of his descent of South Fork and of the Kuskokwim
itself from its union with South Fork to Kuskokwim Bay.Starting up the Sushitna River, Cook Inlet, on May 20, 1898, he
and his companions paddled into the Yentna and from it into the Skwentna to
a point where it became necessary to carry the two remaining canoes and all
equipment and supplies over the divide of the Alaska Range. "We were now,"
he writes, "in an extremely picturesque and rugged region, with high mountains,
deep valleys, and beautiful glaciers." They were, as present maps show us,26 [ ls ?]
019 | Vol_XII-0579
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
about midway between Mount Dall and Snow Cap Mountain in the Alaska Range,
on what is now called Rainy Pass.¶ Spurr continues: "To get our boats and
outfit over the pass was, however, slower and more difficult, but was finally
accomplished, and we camped by a foaming stream on the other side. The
pass itself is about 4,400 feet above sea l level, and is guarded on both
sides by mountains rising to 8,000 feet." This "foaming stream" was one
of the headwaters of South Fork, but, since no white man had previously
made this trip, it is not surprising that Spurr mistook it for the Kuskokwim.¶ "The fall of the river was very great, and rapids were continuous," he re–
marks," and in this down-stream traveling our progress was as rapid as it
had before been slow. Much to our surp rise , the river turned and began to
run persistently towar d the north between two parallel mountain ridges."
This refers to the section of South Fork above Lake Farewell. "On the
25th of July we emerged from the mountains into a bro a d, flat, gravelly
plateau, and for nearly 100 miles thereafter went through snag flats
similar to those we had ascended on the Sushitna, presenting, if possible,
even a more formidable aspect to the explorer." Spurr and his companions
were now passing across the broad Kuskokwim Valley and approaching the
Kuskokwim itself.¶ "About this time the prolonged rainy season set in,
which lasted six weeks or so, and was perhaps the most disagreeable feature
of the trip, the rain falling almost continuously night and day with short
intervals."¶"on the 29th of July the streams joined another of nearly equal
size [ the Kuskokwim proper ] , these two streams together making up the
main Kuskokwim River ... Below the junction the current was still slack,
and the course of the river was extremely tortuous as it meandered through
a broad flat made up of finely stratified silts ... On the 1st of August we
came to an old trading post known as Vinasale."¶ Only a day below Vinasale [ ?]
27 [ ls ?]
020 | Vol_XII-0580
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
however, they reached the southern fringes of the Kuskokwim Mountains,
through which the river passes on its way to Napaimiut and Kolmakof. "On
the 2d of August we left the broad flats of the upper river and entered a
definite valley lying between picturesque timbered mountains, in appearance
suggesting the Lower Ramparts of the Yukon. The river continued to run
through these mountains for several hundred miles. On the [ ?] 4th of
August, two days after entering the range, the peaks grew higher and bolder
and some of them bore patches of snow, while the river flowed past high, per–
pendicular, rocky bluffs."¶"Just before entering these higher ramparts the
largest stream which we had yet observed entering the Kuskokwim came in on
the left. It is a wide river of dark-colored water, contrasting in this
with the muddy current of the Kuskokwim, and at the time of our passing
the water was alive with leaping salmon. The native name of this stream
we afterward found out to be Holiknuk [ the present Holitna ] , and that it
heads in the Nushagak divide."¶ The party was now running short of supplies ,
and they were eager to reach Kolmakof. "On the 6th of August, when we had
already passed the astronomical position in which Kolmakof was indicated on
the Russian charts, we unexpectedly reached the post, which consists of an
old hexagonal log blockhouse with several other log buildings which were
built by the Russians long ago. We found no one here, however, except some
natives and one half-breed, from whom we obtained some tea, which was the
only article left, the supplies for this year not yet having come up the
river."¶" The next d ay we reached the native village of Oknagamut, where there
were several hundred Eskimos ... After leaving Kolmakof the river rapidly
left the mountains behind and flowed through a perfectly level country, very
sparsely timbered, and always growing broader. The channel bro a dened out in
places to a veritable sea, with many large islands, we estimated the distance
as 9 miles. The land on both sides grew more and more swampy and treeless28 [ ls ?]
021 | Vol_XII-0581
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
until it developed into the typical dreary tundra. Eskimo villages grew
more numerous, and at one, Oknavigamut, we found a vacant mission building
and schoolroom, welcome signs of civilized man."¶" On the 10th of August we
arrived at the native village of Memtrelegamut [ the present Bethel ] , where
the natives had informed us that provisions could be obtained, and here we
were surprised and delighted to find, not only a trading post, but a mission
supported by the Moravians. These people made us very welcome, as we were
the first white people they had seen that year, and we stopped several days
making preparations for our future work."¶ At this point Spurr sent some of
his group back to The Portage to map th is at ancient route between the Kuskokwim
and the Yukon and to continue on down the Yukon. He himself went down the
Kuskokwim with John H. Kilbuck, a Moravian missionary, and one of the
founders of Bethel.¶ Spurr describes this part of the journey in these words:
"Below this mission the Kuskokwim grows very large and begins to be affected
by the tides, and so gradually passes into the broad Kuskokwim Bay. The shores
are barren, swampy, and flat, and with no firewood except scattered drift–
wood ... We left the mission on the 19th of August and reached our destina–
tion at the mouth of the river — Kwinhagamut [ the present Kwinhagak ] — on
the 25th, our progress having been slow on account of the extreme width and
shallowness of the river and the difficulty in finding the proper channel.
The tides too, were so high and the bottom was so flat that when we were
not in the deepest channel the receding tide left us dry, out of sight of
water, while the flood tide lifted us upon a broad sea out of sight of shore."This description shows how little the Kuskokwim itself has changed
in the past 50 yars, but how very different were the isolated settlements along
it then from the busy mining, fur farming, and fishing villages of today.26 [ ls ?]
022 | Vol_XII-0582
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
Summer and winter air service, and regular frequent ligh t erage service up and down the
river during the season of navigation are the two brightest hopes for
the development of the Kuskokwim Basin.2 [ ?]
023 | Vol_XII-0583
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mertie, J.B., Jr. Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region ,
Alaska. Alaska. Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1936.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 864 - C Bulletin 864 - C )Spurr, J.E. A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898 A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898 .
(Contained in: U.S. Geological Survey. 20th Annual 20th Annual
Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898. Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898.
Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1900. pp.31-264)Annabel, Russell. Hunting and fishing in Alaska. Hunting and fishing in Alaska. N.Y., Knopf, 1948.
Hrdlicčka, Alesš. Alaska Diary, 1926-1931. Alaska Diary, 1926-1931. Lancaster, Pa., Jacques
Cattell Press, 1943.General References;
VSGB
USCP & Supplement
Colby. Alaska. Alaska.
Sundborg. Opporunity in Alaska Opporunity in Alaska .
Tuttle, CharlesR. Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources
its opportunities. its opportunities. Seattle, Wash., Shuey, 1914.
001 | Vol_XII-0584
Ruby Collins KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
November, 1948
1,550 - Text
100 - Bibl.KUZITRIN RIVER. ALASKA, rises in a broad lowland measuring about
twenty miles wide and lying northeast-southwest across 164° W. Long.,
in the heart of Seward Peninsula. The Kuzitrin and its tributaries
drain an area aggregating about 1,890 square miles.North and South Forks, the two branches at the head of the main
stream, rise in the lava beds just north of the Bendeleben Mountains.
After their junction, the Kuzitrin continues southwestward across the
interior basin, and is joined by a large number of tributaries, includ–
ing, Noxapaga (q.v.), Garfield, and the famous gold stream, the Kou–
garok (q.v.), from the north, and by Minnie, Ella, Bonanza, Birch,
and Belt Creeks from the south. Just below the mouth of Belt Creek
the Kuzitrin passes through a narrow, twenty-mile valley, guarded on
the north by Bunker Hill, after which it debouches on the plain at the
head of Imuruk Basin (q.v.). The river follows a meandering and
generally westerly course across this plain to its junction with the
Kruzgamepa (q.v.) to form the Kaviruk, which flows directly into
Imuruk Basin.Geography
Both topographically and geologically, the Kuzitrin drainage
basin is diversified. To the south of the upper river lie the Ben–
deleben Mountains, a rugged range of sharp peaks with glaciated valleys.
The large lowland basin through which this part of the river [ ?] flows
is known as the Kuzitrin Flats. The Kougarok Region, which, as the
name implies, includes not only the drainage basin of the that river itself
but also the adjoining territory, lies north of these Flats. This
002 | Vol_XII-0585
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
region is a high plateau characterized by rounded summits with
elevations varying from 1,200 feet just north of the Flats to
1,600 feet at the divide separating the Kougarok drainage from that
of the streams flowing northward into the Arctic Ocean.The many lakes along the Kuzitrin are of two kinds. Those
dotting the Flats section of the river are were produced by lava flows, but
those on the Imuruk Plain are mainly lagoons or old cut-off meanders
of the river.There is no timber anywhere in the drainage basin, except for
a few cottonwoods along the lower river. Small willow and alder,
good for fuel but of no use in building, are well distributed throught
the basin. The entire area is within the permafrost line. Even dur–
ing the summer, the ground is , for the most part, frozen a few feet below the surface and covered
with a mantle of ice and mud. In the northern part of the basin
such partial thawing of the ground does not take place at any time
of year. Insert from Collier, Aithur J. Becon. [ ?] Portion Seward P [ ?] . 1902 P.9Late in May , the Kuzitrin usually break s up at Shelton (formerly
Lanes Landing) (q.v.) and runs clear of ice early in June. It
freezes over at the same point in September. Insert Collier NW p. 11 - "Suice During the season of
navigation, the river is safe for flat-bottomed boats and scows for
about sixty miles from the mouth, and for horse boats upstream from
this point. Up to the completion of the Seward Peninsula Railroad
to Shelton, during the first decade of this century, and still some–
what thereafter, supplies were brought into the Kougraok and Noxapaga
Regions via Port Clarence, Grantley Harbor, Imuruk Basin, and the
Kuzitrin River.
003 | Vol_XII-0586
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
Settlements The only settlements on the Kuzitrin are Igloo, about ten
miles from the mouth, New Igloo, and Shelton , about fifteen miles
farther upstream.Igloo (65° 10′ N.Lat., 165° 04′ W.Long.), which the prospectors called
Mary's Igloo, because this structure was originally the largest in the
settlement, was established in 1901 and given a post office that same year.Collier visited this settlement in 1901. He writes: "Marys Igloo
was reached on September 3. This place, the former winter home of a well–
known Eskimo woman, is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Kuzitrin
River, and has within a year or two become a settlement of some importance.
Here the stock of provisions was replen [ ?] hed from supplies shipped to this
point from Nome and kept in storage by Mr. A. D. Nash, who was doing a general
freighting business on the Kuzitrin River. The horses here rapidly recuperated
from the privations of the long trip, as forage was abundant."As the head of light-draft steam-boat navigation, Igloo was an impor–
tant freight ransfer point on the Kuzitrin, for, with the discovery of gold
on the Kougarok in 1900, a great many tons of supplies and machinery were
needed in the interior. Most of this was brought up the Kuzitrin and so to
the Kougarok for several years after the first strike. After the completion,
in 1906, of the Seward Peninsula Railroad to Shelton, farther upstream,
some supplies still continued to be brought in by boat rather than by rail.In 1947, Igloo had a population of about 182, making it one of the
largest towns in this part of Seward Peninsula. The school-teacher, a mission–
ary, and the manager of the trading post are about the only white inhabitants
of the town. Igloo is a fox-raising center, and several reindeer herds
have been reported in the vicinity. Igloo was the first recording office
for the Kougarok District, but this has subsequently been removed to Teller.
003a | Vol_XII-0587
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
New Igloo, a few miles down-river from Igloo, has a government school
Shelton (65° 12′ N.Lat., 164° 50′ W.Long.), about ninety miles
north of Nome, and fifteen miles upstream fro Igloo, was originally called Lane's Landing, probably after
T.T. Lane, who built the first ditches and did much to develop the
mineral wealth of this part of Alaska. As the northern terminal of
the Seward Peninsula Railroad, now known as the Kougarok Limited, Shelton is now a busy freight-transfer point,
and has a roadhouse equipped to accomodate fifteen or more persons.
004 | Vol_XII-0588
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
The building of the 36-inch guage line, formerly called the
Seward Peninsula Railroad, but now known as the Kougarok Limited, or
the "Pupmobile", across ninety miles of unsurveyed marsh [ ?] and grass–
land, which was subject to the all the vagaries of permafrost soil,
was one of the major engineering feats of the early part of this cen–
tury. Like so much in the Seward Peninsula of those days, the idea
and the need for this railroad grew out of the discovery of gold,
first at Nome and then farther and farther into the interior. With
the need of for supplies farther inland, the railroad progressed north–
ward up the Nome river, then eastward down the Kruzgamepa, and finally
northward again to the Kuzitrin. The original goal had been to con–
tinue the line into the heart of the Kougarok District and even north
to Kotzebue Sound, by [ ?] , by 1906, when the road had been extended to
Shelton, the gold in the Kougarok and other outlying areas had been
too thoroughly worked out to justify any further addition to the line.During the particularly poor gold mining years of 1912 to 1917,
the railroad was relatively little used and almost forgotten. In
1922 the Territory bought the line from its private owners for $24,000.
It had for several years previous become known as a 'tramcar' or
'pupmobile' line, and had functioned, not as a railroad, but as a
highway with regulations governing weight of loads, speed, class of
equipment, etc. The Alaska Road Commission now keeps the line in re–
pair, and two companies have the right to send fieight shipments over it, but individuals can, if they wish, supply their own means of
transportation. These include, flange-wheeled automobiles, handcars,
or the unique 'pupmobiles' (small push cars drawn by twelve or
more dogs). Although there has been considerable talk about continu–
ing the road into the Kotzebue country, it has never progressed be–
yong Shelton. Shelton, itself, has remained what it always was,
005 | Vol_XII-0589
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
a town given over entirely to the needs and demands of miners and
mining, to the exclusion of almost every other consideration.Mining A reconnaissance map of the U.S. Geological Survey,
dated 1913, shows no gold placers on the Kuzitrin itself,
but it indicates a great many on the tributaries to that river,
including Garfield Creek , and, of course, in addition to the Kougarok. It was, there–
fore, as a navigable waterway into the interior, rathern than as a
producing stream, that the Kuzitrin was important to the development
of gold mining on Seward Peninsula. Remembering that it the Kuzitrin is
joined to Port Clarence, the only deep water harbor anywhere on the
Peninsula, it will be realized that the role of the Kuzitrin was far
from a minor one.
006 | Vol_XII-0590
KUZITRIN RIVER, ALASKA
SOURCES
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington,
D.C., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.299)Colby, Merle. A Guide to Alaska. A Guide to Alaska. N.Y., 1942.
Sundborg, George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., 1946.
Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., 1925.
* Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome
and Norton Bay Regions, in Alaska, in 1900. and Norton Bay Regions, in Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C.,
1901.* Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. Surface Water Supply of Seward Pen- Surface Water Supply of Seward Pen-
insula, Alaska. insula, Alaska. Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Water-Supply Paper 3 Water-Supply Paper 3 14)* Collier, Arthur J. (and others) Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Pen- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Pen-
insula, Alaska, including the Nome, Co u ncil, Kougarok, Port insula, Alaska, including the Nome, Co u ncil, Kougarok, Port
Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts. Washington, D.C., 1908.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin, Bulletin, No.328)Pilgrim, Mariette Shaw. Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography ,
and Government. and Government. Caldwell, Idaho, 1939.Alaska Weekly. Alaska Weekly. August 1, 1947
Collier, Arthur J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern
Portion of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,
D.C., 1902 (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Paper No.2)* = Principal References.
001 | Vol_XII-0591
Ruby Collins
26 April 48 KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA
650 wds
KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA, a large northeastern arm of Bristol Bay, is
bounded on the south by an arbitrary line extending from the south
entrance point of Egegik River (q.v.), Alaska Peninsula, northwestward
to Etolin Point (q.v.) on the mainland. Kvichak Bay is funnel-shaped
and bounded on the east and west by the low, lake-studded coastal strip
of the peninsula and the mainland. Numberless minor tributaries flow
into Kvichak Bay from these small lakes, but five larger lakes contribute
the four major tributaries to the bay. These are: the Egegik River,
rising in Becharof Lake; the Naknek River, draining from Naknek Lake;
the Alagnak River, fed by Kukaklek and Nanwhyenuk Lakes; and the
Kvichak River, flowing out of Iliamna Lake.The tidal rise is extreme throughout the bay and its rivers, varying
from 24 to 28 feet. Low water exposes dangerous shoals and flats for
4 to 6 miles off the coasts at the mouth of the bay and across its
entire width at the head. The remaining channel is extremely shallow
and navigable only by small vessels specially constructed to withstand
repeated groundings. Because of the extreme range of tide, currents
are strong and [ ?] swift, resulting in shifts of the channel from year
to hear.Most settlements are on the eastern side of Kvichak Bay, and the
inhabitants here as elsewhere in this area are engaged almost entirely
in catching, packing, and shipping the red salmon for which the entire
Bristol Bay area is famous. During the cannery season, mid-June to
late July, everyone in these villages turns fisherman, but for the
duration of the year the chief activities are hunting and trapping.
002 | Vol_XII-0592
KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA
The first point of interest north of the Egegik River (q.v.)
along the eastern shore of Kvichak Bay is Cape Chichagof, the northern
entrance point of the Egegik. This cape was named by Lütke in 1828 in
honor of Admiral Chichagof of the Russian navy. A few miles north of
this cape lie Halfway, a salmon cannery, and Hennings Cabin. Still
farther northward a great many canneries are grouped around the mouth
of the Naknek River (q.v.), where the settlements of Naknek, South
Nak nek , North Naknek (q.v.), Pawik (q.v.), Suwarof, and Libbyville are
also located. Cape Suworof, on the north side of the mouth of the
Naknek, was named by Staniukovich, who ended his reconnaissance of
Alaska here in 1828. From this point northward to Koggiung (q.v.),
and Levelock (q.v.) (sometimes called Kvichak) the number of canneries
increases markedly, so that both sides of the head of Kvichak Bay
are dotted with them. Beyond Cape Suworof, however, Kvichak Bay is
shoal and the channel narrow and tortuous. It is here, at the head
of the bay, that the exaggerated tidal range most strongly effects
navigation. Vessels of greater than 3 feet draft cannot navigate
beyond Cape Suworof at low tide, and vessels of greater than 12 feet
draft have difficulty at high tide. Strangers to these waters are
well advised to ask for help from the pilots of cannery vessels anchored
in the area.All these points on the eastern side of the bay are connected
by the winter trail which runs from Portage Bay, Shelikof Strait, on the
eastern side of the Alaska Peninsula, northwestward along the
southern shore of Becharof Lake, down the Egegik River, and then northward
to Naknek and Koggiung. At about Koggiung the trail turns westward,
crosses the head of Kvichak Bay, and joins the trail which connects
points on Iliamna Lake (q.v.) and the Kvichak River (q.v.) with Dillingham,
Owens, Goodnews (q.v.) and other Bristol Bay points to the west.
003 | Vol_XII-0593
KVICHAK BAY, ALASKA
On a recent map only one cabin is indicated
Sources: VS GB; US CB and suppl.
for the entire western side of Kvichak Bay between Etolin Point [ ?] and
the territory opposite Koggiung. This lack of habitation is probably
due to the fact that the western side of the bay is blocked by
higher and wider bars and shoals than the eastern side, making it
virtually impossible to effect a safe landing except at the height
of the tide.
001 | Vol_XII-0594
Ruby Collins
23 April 48 KVICHAK RIVER, ALASKA
500 wds
KVICHAK RIVER, ALASKA (Kvitchak; Koichak), in the northwestern
part of the Alaska Peninsula, drains from Iliamna Lake (q.v.) and runs
a winding, generally southwesterly course for about 62 miles to the head
of Kvichak Bay (q.v.). The Kvichak Basin is a long, narrow strip of
territory containing Iliamna Lake and Lake Clark (q.v.) lying northeast-
southwest between 153° and 157° W. Long. and about 59° and 60° 3 0 ′ N. Lat.
The eastern [ ?] divide is near the coast of Cook Inlet, northeast of Iliamna
Lake, and the western divide is close to the northwestern shores of
that lake but west of Lake Clark. Just below its head the Kvichak River
weaves a swift, netlike, westward course for about 6 miles, but thereafter
turns somewhat southward and follows a deep, well-defined channel to its
mouth. Its main tributaries flow from the north where a system of
innumerable small lakes and creeks dot the broad coastal strip of this
part of the Kvichak Basin. The Alagnak River (q.v.), largest tributary
to the Kvichak, enters from the east near its mouth.When assisted by strong winds, launches and Columbia River
boa [ ?] s can navigate the entire length of the Kvichak River, despite bars,
islands, narrow channels, and currents of 6 miles an hour near its head.
At high tide cannery vessels drawing 12 feet or less can navigate the 22
miles of deep channel above Koggiung (q.v.). As in other Bristol Bay
rivers, however, navigation is dangerous or entirely impossible at low
tide. The rise and fall of the tide at the mouth of the Kvichak varies
from 24 to 28 feet. Low water exposes a network of bars and flats at
the head of Kvichak Bay and for some distance up the river. Channels often
drop to 3 feet in depth. Such an extreme range of tide presents problems
not only of navigation but also of anchorage. Tidewater extends about
32 miles up the river.The chief activity on and along the Kvichak, as on most Bristol
Bay rivers, is the red salmon canning industry for which the entire area
002 | Vol_XII-0595
KVICHAK RIVER, ALASKA
is famous. The Alaska Salmon Company, the Alaska Packers Association,
the Nakat Packing Corporation, and the Libby, McNeill & Libby Company
maintain canneries and radio stations on the mouth of the river and the
head of Kvichak Bay near Koggiung. The wharves maintained by these
companies are all dry at low water, all have fresh water connections, and
some have company machine shops which will take on occasional small
outside jobs. These wharves are usually fitted with either a crane or a
marine railway. Because of the many hazards to navigation in Kvichak Bay
and River, strangers are well advised to radio for the assistance of
a cannery pilot familiar with local waters.The largest settlements along the Kvichak are Igiugig, at
its head, Levelock (on some maps, Kvichak) (q.v.), on the west bank about
8 miles north of the junction of the Alagnak River (q.v.), and Koggiung
(q.v.), on the east bank of the mouth. In addition there are several
canneries along the river, some of which have local names. These include:
Squaw Creek, which the Nakat Packing Corporation operated in 1939:
Libbyville, a cannery and radio station operated by Libby, McNeill &
Libby the same year; Halle r sville, shown on some maps on the east bank
just north of the junction of the Alagnak River; Graveyard Creek, another
Libby, McNeill & Libby cannery operating in 1939: and Coffee Creek,
operated by the Alaska Packers Association in 1939 but inactive in 1940.The Kvichak River was reported by early Russians and by Lütke
in 1828 as the Kvitchak.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0596
Ruby Collins
26 April 48 LEVELOCK, ALASKA
100 wds
LEVELOCK, ALASKA, sometimes called Kvichak, is a settlement
Sources: VS GB; World Aeronautical Chart No.136
and post office just northwest of the Alaska Peninsula, on the west bank of the Kvichak River (q.v.), about 7
miles north of the mouth of the Alagnak River (q.v.). Levelock was
founded in 1938 as a community of homes, so that the children of the
area might be given proper schooling and be removed from the influence
of the canneries which throng the area. $20,000 were appropriated in
May, 1940, for the construction of a new school to replace the rented
building previously used and no longer available. The winter trail
from Iliamna Lake (q.v.) passes through Levelock on its way westward
to Dillingham, Owens, Goodnews, and other Bristol Bay points.
in Baker, US CP & Suppl.; Tewkesbury
001 | Vol_XII-0597
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 Text - 275 wds LOPP LAGOON, ALASKA
LOPP LAGOON, just northeast of Cape Prince of Wales, western
Seward Peninsula, Alaska, was named by A.H. Brooks , in 1900 , after Reverend
William Thomas Lopp, and a late nineteenth century missionary to the Cape
Eskimos.Lopp Lagoon is about 14 miles long and about 3 1/2 miles wide
at the wi greatest. It is separated from the Polar Sea by a narrow sand
spit which reaches northeastward from Cape Prince of Wales (q.v.). This spit
widens about midway of its length sending a point of land into the lagoon.
The ocean side of the spit remains regular even throughout its length. The spit is
interrupted in two places where are found the small Eskimo villages of
Mugisitokiwik and Mitletukeruk.Although Brooks found the sands around this lagoon to be barren
of gold, several of its tributaries rising in Cape and Potato Mountain and in
the York Mountains have proved to contain stream tin. (See York Mountains
article.)In addition [ ?] to several unnamed streams, the Cape Mountain tribu–
taries are Village and Prince of Wales Creeks. Those flowing down from the
general vicinity of Potato Mountain are Manna, Potato, Dry, and Oakland Creeks.
Mint River, the largest tributary to the lagoon, enters its northeast end.
Yankee River, M m ain affluent to the Mint, Yankee River, drains the northern flanks of Brooks
Mountain, and is joined about midway of its course by Clara Creek. Other
tributaries to the Mint are Grouse, and its affluent Buck Creek, both of which
are tin-bearing streams. Other streams creeks in this system are South Fork, Montana,
Gold, Sutter, East Fork, Skookum, Sterling, Tapioca, and White Horse Creeks.Lopp Lagoon is extremely shoal throughout its entire length
[ ?] and is navigable only to light-draft vessels.
002 | Vol_XII-0598
LOPP LAGOON, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Gibson, Arthur. Map of Seward Peninsula. Map of Seward Peninsula. Nome, Alaska, 1908.
U.S. C.G.S. Chart No.9380.
001 | Vol_XII-0599
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 495 wds LOST RIVER, ALASKA
25 wds - Bibl
LOST RIVER, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises in the
York Mountains and empties into Bering Sea about ten miles east of Cape
York (q.v.). Early maps show a river by this name emptying into the
lagoon on the north side of Port Clarence, just east of the Don River.The major tributary to the Lost River comes in from the west
and is variously designated as Rapid, or Rand River. Eastern tributaries
to Lost River are Cassiterite, and Tin Creeks.Lost River s , istelf, rises just south of 2,918-foot Brooks
Mountain and flows almost directly south to Bering Sea. Since the mountains
here crowd very close to the shore, the river runs w wiftly and for almost
its entire length. There is now a 1,500-foot landing strip at its
mouth.Casserite Creek was the location of the first official tin
lode discovery in the York District. Steidtmann writes that in 1903 A.J.
Collier and Frank L. Hess "were engaged in a study of the geology and mineral
resources of the southern part of Seward Peninsula. In the course of this
work they reached Teller, on Port Clarence, and here met Crum, Randt, and
O'Brien, three prospectors who had been searching for tin. They had about a
bushel of samples of supposed tin ore. This material was examined by Collier,
who found only one piece of rock that looked as if it might contain cassiter–
ite. With an improvised blow pie and pipe and candle Collier determined
the mineral as cassiterite. It came from an angular fragment of float rock.
Collier decided that the occurrence was important enough to warrant a [ ?] pecial
[ ?] examination of the locality. He therefore accompanied the three
prospectors to Lost River, where they pointed out the locality from which23
002 | Vol_XII-0600
LOST RIVER, ALASKA
the specimen had been derived. Collier discovered the tin-bearing ledge,
which the three prospectors staked under the name Cassiterite Lode. Collier
was therefore the discoverer of lode tin in the York district, though prior
to this time some alleged tin ore had been found at Cape Mountain, most of
which on test proved to be a tourmaline granite. Later some lode tin was
found at Cape Mountain."Despite early efforts to mine tin in this area, these deposits
have remained relatively uncommercialized. (For a general discussion of
the history of the Seward Peninsula tin mining see Tin City article) Still, in 1946,
after two world wars had emphasized the need of the United States for a
reliable tin supply, Bain again mentions the Lost River deposits. "It is
estimated that at Lost River approximately 4,000,000 tons of low-grade lode
tin is available, averaging 0.336 percent of tin plus 0.061 of tungsten cal–
culated as WO 3 . Although this is not rich ore when account is taken of the
isolation of the district and the many difficulties of mining in the Arctic,
the combination of high- and low-grade ore would seem distinctly to warrant
an attempt at commercial production in the district." (For a general
discussion of the history of tin mining in Seward Peninsula see York Mountains Tin City
article.)15
003 | Vol_XII-0601
LOST RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Steidtmann, Edward. Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska . Washington,
1922. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin No.733)Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's Minerals As a Basis for Industry Alaska's Minerals As a Basis for Industry . Washington,
1946. (U.S. Bureau of Mines. Information Circular Information Circular 7379.
December, 1946)Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
001 | Vol_XII-0602
Ruby Collins
20 April 1948 MCGRATH, ALASKA
480 wds
MCGRATH, ALASKA (62° 57′ N.Lat.; 156° 26′ W.Long.) is a town
and post office at the junction of the Kuskokwim and Takotna Rivers in
southwestern Alaska about 325 miles up-river from Bethel. The town was
founded by Abe Appel who chose it for a trading site in 1905. The
population, estimated at 175 in 1939, is still largely supported by
trade since McGrath is the freight transfer point for shipments to
the upper Kuskokwim. Steamboats from Bethel make three round- tips every summer bring ing passen b g ers and
freight up the Kuskokwim as far as McGrath, where they are both must be transferred
to launches for points up the Takotna or up the Kuskokwim to Berrys
Landing. In addition most freight and passen b g er planes leaving
Anchorage or Fairbanks for Bristol Bay, the Kuskokwim or the lower
Yukon stop at McGrath. When regular freighting is delayed by low
water in the Kuskokwim, a great deal of air-freight is flown from
McGrath to Takotna, Flat, and other towns on the Kuskokwim and the
Yukon. The east-west runway of the hard-surfaced 5600-foot landing strip is the main street of the town. Although the airport itself is small, A bar in the Kuskokwim
can be used as a summer landing-field, and the frozen Takotna has been
used for the same purpose in winter. In summer the quiet water at the mouth
of the Takotna affor d s an ideal landing place for hydroplanes.The post office, U.S. Commissioner's office, and the Radio
Communications Center are contained in one building which has, as
well, an up-to-date airplane passenger waiting-room. There is a
restaurant near the field for the use of passen b g ers and personnel.
The U.S. Weather Bureau maintains a station in McGrath.The town is connected by road or trail to Takotna,
and Candle Creek. It has five general stores, a cold storage plant,
a school, a sawmill, and a roadhouse. The largest local manufacturing
002 | Vol_XII-0603
MCGRATH, ALASKA
establishment , is Lou Laska's Fur Factory, maks a mukluk s (skin boot s ) factory, and is equipped with
modern fur-sewing machines and other labor-saving devices. At least half of the resident population works in the CAA or the U.S. Weather Bureau offices in the Town. Their families live in the ten modern, two-story Government.Built houses facing the north-south runway. Other
activities are mining and trapping. There is a permanent game warden
stationed in a fine building in the town. The remains of an old
Indian village lie nearby, but there are no longer any native inhabi–
tants there of the town . The Kuskokwim River floods the Takotna side of
town almost every year. In October, 1938, this part of town was
being moved across the river to escape the devastation of the
spring and fall floods. About one-third of the population spends only
the spring and summer months in town; the rest of the year they spend these residents
trap ping in an area extending from twenty to two hundred miles around McGrath.The weather is typically sub-arctic, reaching a low in
the -60's in winter and a high in the 80's in summer and maintaining
a relatively high humidity the year around. The following chart
reproduces in part the 1947 U.S. Weather Bureau report for McGrath:Fonts, Helen L, "Summer at McGrath," (ALASKA
SPORTSMAN, Aug. 1948, pp. 6-9,2 6-29)
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0604
McGrath Weather Report-1947 T= Trace
Temp. of the Air Mean Relative Humidity Total Precipitation in Inches Wind Clear Days Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days Snow fall Total in Inches Maximum Velocity Average Hourly Velocity MPH Prevailing Direction. Max. Date Min. Date MPH Direct. Jan. 37° 5th -64° 25th 94 1.98 - - - S 12 19 24.4 Feb. 47° 16 ࢤ64° 3 83 1.26 - - - N 5 23 15.3 Mar. 50° 19 ࢤ32° 14 83 1.35 - - - NW 9 22 31.6 Apr. 42° 22 ࢤ20° 2 72 0.30 - - - N 10 20 2.0 May 80° 28 9° 3 68 0.53 24 S - S 1 30 1.0 June 79° 9 37° 6 66 3.63 - - - S 1 29 0.0 July 85° 21 40° 1 72 3.03 - - - S 3 28 0.0 Aug. 77° 7 29° 30 76 2.11 28 S - W 4 27 0.0 Sept. 56° 1 19° 20 78 2.79 35 S - W 1 29 T Oct. 48° 7 ࢤ3° 25 80 0.53 17 N - NW 3 28 4.7 Nov. 41° 22 ࢤ27° 17 89 1.46 22 NE - NW 1 29 19.7 Dec. 33° 6 ࢤ27° 25 90 1.86 16 N - W 0 31 23.9
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0605
Ruby Collins
4 May 48 MULCHATNA RIVER, ALASKA
450 wds
MULCHATNA RIVER (Molchatna, Malchatna, Mulchutna), in
southeastern Alaska, the largest eastern tributary to the Nushagak
River (q.v.), rises in the Bonanza Hills, foothills of the Alaska
Range (q.v.), at the confluence of three streams known as the Big,
the Middle, and the Small Mulchatna. It follows a meandering, south–
westerly course for about 145 miles to join the Nushagak from the
east at about 59° 39′ N. Lat, 156° 06′ W. Long. For over 50 miles
of its early course, the Mulchatna flows through a broad basin, in
places 40 miles wide, which extends northeast-southwest between the
Bonanza Hills and Mesa Mountain to the southeast , and Halfway Moun–
tain and the more spotty highlands to the northwest.The largest tributary to the Mulchatna along this section
of its course is the Chilikandrotna River, which is formed by two
streams rising in the mountains south of the Bonanza Hills. The
Chilikandrotna is about 18 miles long and enters the Mulchatna from
the east at about 60° 37′ N. Lat., 155° 23′ W. Lat. The Chilchitna
River enters the Mulchatna from the east a little over ten miles south
of the Chil ch itna, drains from Tutna Lake, a small lake covering about
4 square miles, lying about 10 miles southwest of Mesa Mountain.
Other tributaries to the Mulchatna along this section of its course
drain the lake-dotted area between the river itself and Tutna Lake.Soon after these junctions, the Mulchatna turns more directly
southward, crosses 60° N. Lat. and then bends southwestward again.
The Kakhtul River enters the Mulchatna from the east a few miles
south of 60° N. Lat. The Kakhtul rises in the highlands northwest
of Iliamna Lake (q.v.) This river and has appeared with many variants of its
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0606
MULCHATNA RIVER, ALASKA
present name (Kokhtuli, Kakhtut, Kakhtul) ever since Schanz first
recorded it in 1890. All these names, however, would appear to be
based on the Indian word meaning forest . From its junction with
the Kakhtul to its own confluence with the Nushagak, many small
streams, draining the countless lakes to the north and the south,
are shown entering the Mulchatna from both sides.On a map dated November, 1946, the only habitations
indicated along the Mulchatna are one unnamed village about 15
miles from its mouth and a cabin several miles farther upstream.
Some mine prospecting has been carried on here in the past. In
1912 the U. S. Geological Survey reported the findings of several
prospectors who had spent the summers of 1909 and 1910 in this
region. Fine flour gold had been found on all bars along the
gravel bed of the river above 60° N. Lat., and course gold and
pay were found near the head.Petrof recorded this river as the Molchatna in 1880.
Sources: Baker; VSGB; us Ycol Surv. Ball, 485
Baker listed it, in 1906, as the Mulchatna in agreement with local
pronunciation of the name.
° in Colby; Sundborg; Greeley, USCP & Suppl.
001 | Vol_XII-0607
Text - 7,370 wds.
Bibl- 50 wdsRuby Collins
July, 1948 KUSKOKWIM RIVERConnected 13 Oct 48
THE KUSKOKWIM RIVER, ALASKA, is about 550 miles long and second
only to the Yukon in length, volume, and navigability. The Eskimo name,
Kuskokwim, was apparently first obtained by Ustiugof in 1818, and it
appeared in Sarichef's atlas of 1826. The old Indian name for this river
is China-ana, and the Indians called the tributary to the Kuskokwim now
known as South Fork, the Echitna. It was this tributary to the main r iver
which Josiah E. Spurr and William S. Post considered the Kuskokwim proper
in their U.S. Geological Survey Report of 1899. The following description
is based, in part, upon this report.The Kuskokwim Valley, which lies north of the Iliamna Region,
north and west of the Nushagak-Togiak Region, and south of the Yukon
valley, may be divided into three natural geographic provinces. These
are: an extensive interior basin southeast of the inland section of the
Kuskokwim Mountains and no r thwest of the Alaska Range, which contains
the branching headwaters and the upper course of the main river; a
deeply-cut central section about 150 miles long from east to west which
passes diagonally across the entire width of the Kuskokwim Mountains; and
a lowland section through which the river flows in a generally southwester–
ly direction from the northwestern flanks of the Kuskokwim Mountains
across 300 miles of swamp and granssland to the head of Kuskokwim Bay. The
100 miles of these lowlands farthest from the sea are true valleys of the
Kuskokwim Mountains and are bounded by sloping highland on either side.
The remaining 200 miles of lowland are coastal in nature and in this
part of its course the Kuskokwim is affected by the tides of Bering Sea.
For this last 200 miles the Kuskokwim runs approximately parallel to the
Kilbuck Mountains, lying to the southeast, and all the tributaries to
this section of the river drain from these mountains. The lowlands north
002 | Vol_XII-0608
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
of this stretch of the river merge with similar lowlands which border
the lower Yukon so that between the mouths of these two great rivers
extends an enormous, triangular coastal plain whose area is about 30,000
square miles.This coastal section of the Kuskokwim is tundra, or grasslands,
and remains treeless for about 150 miles, or as far as Aniak, at which point
the river swings into the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains where trees
of various kinds begin to appear. The most common tree in this region is
the spruce. Some popular, commonly called "cottonwoods," grow along the
valley floor and the lower slopes, some birches and a few tamarack.
Willow and alder grow along the banks of the stre a ms and upland gulches
and, in great profusion, in the damp places near the timber line. Dwarf
black-birch brush is common above the timber line, and, in the Nixon
Fork District, about 250 miles above Aniak, spruce grow well above
altitudes of 2,000 feet. The stand of timber in this area is not heavy
and has been depleted, particularly in recent years, by use as fuel
and by great forest fires. During the summer of 1933 fires swept much
of the Nixon Fork area, so that since that ti m e the large r mining camps and
many private individuals have had to depend on kerosene and gasoline
from Outside for fuel. Above Nixon Fork the Kuskokwim is reported to be
largely untimbered. Forage for stock is fairly plentiful in the valley
floors, but on the upland slopes grass is scarce.Caribou herds exist in the higher mountains which border part
of the river course, and some of these herds, as will be indicated later,
have been assembled and protected by private her d smen. Bear and moose
are not numerous, but smaller game such as rabbit, ptarmigan, and
003 | Vol_XII-0609
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
grouse are relatively plentiful. The enormous triangle of tundra between
the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon is one of the major breeding
grounds for game fowl not only for Alaska but also for all of western
Canada and the United States. Salmon run up the Kuskokwim. It is also
well supplied with whitefish and pike, and enormous numbers of grayling
are to be found in the smaller streams which feed this great river.The ice usually leaves the Kuskokwim open to navigation by June
1, although the breakup comes at different times each year. In 1924, the
river ice broke up on May 23, and went out at Eek Island on May 29,
although large pieces of ice were still partially obstructing the channel
past the island on June 5. However, this was the latest breakup in 15 fifteen
years. The mean range of the tide is about 9 1/2 feet at the mouth of
the river, but drops to about 2 feet 65 miles up the river at Bethel (q.v.)Generally speaking, Bering Sea tides extend up the Kuskokwim for
about 100 miles, and for approximately another 100 the river currents
increase and decrease wit h the ebb and flow of the tides. Currents in the
bay also have their effect on the river. Currents as strong as 3 1/2
knots have been observed in the vicinity of Apokak at the mouth, and the
flood current is felt about as far as Bethel. Ocean-going vessels can
ascend the river to Bethel where lighters and river steamboats transfer
cargo and passengers to McGrath (q.v.) , 500 miles upstream. In the
spring of 1948, the Santa Ana Steamship Company's Coastal Rider made
her last round trip between Seattle and Bethel, and in the fall of that
year the Alaska Steamship Company's Reef Knot took over this service.
Pilot boats meet these steamships at the mouth of Kuskokwim Bay (q.v.)
004 | Vol_XII-0610
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
and assist them up the intricate maze of bay and river channels to their
destination.As has been implied previously, the Kuskokwim makes several
changes in direction. Its eastern headwaters rise in the glacier-clad
Alaska Range, flow northwestward to the valley which separates this range
from the Kuskokwim Mountains, then northward across this wide valley to
about 63° N. Lat. Here the Kuskokwim turns due westward for about 30
miles (airline) to McGrath. At McGrath it veers abruptly west of south
and, with many large-scale bends, continues in this direction to its con–
fluence with the Holitna, an airline distance of over 120 miles. From
this point, although bending once to the north and once to the south, it
turns in a generally westerly direction for about 80 miles (airline) to
Aniak, at which point the Kuskokwim is a mere 25 or 30 miles from the
Yukon. The Kuskokwim then turns southwestward and follows a fairly
direct [ ?] course to Kuskokwim Bay.The headwaters of the Kuskokwim rise in two different mountain
chains, the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north and northwest, and the
Alaska Range to the south and southeast. The chief upper tributaries
for the Kuskokwim are North, East, South, Middle, and West Forks.North Fork is fed by streams rising in the Kuskokwim Mountains
north and northwest of Lake Minchumina and flows in a southwesterly
direction for about 100 miles (airline) to its junction with East Fork,
a few miles above Medfra, known also as Berry Landing. North Fork re–
ceives sever a l tributaries from the Kuskokwim Mountains to the north of
its course, but its main tributary, Swift River, enters from the south.
Swift River, a glacier-fed stream rising in the Alaska Range in the
vicinity of Mount Russell, flows in a northwesterly direction for about
005 | Vol_XII-0611
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
65 miles (airline) to enter North Fork about midway of its course.
Mount Russell is an 11,500-foot peak abo [ ?] t 35 miles southwest of Mount
McKinley.East Fork is formed by several streams rising in the foothills
of the Alaska Range just south of Swift River and flows in a generally south–
wester l y direction to join North Fork a few miles above Medfra. East Fork
receives the waters of Chedotlothna and Ekolina Rivers. The Kuskokwim
proper may be said to begin with the junction of these forks, or perhaps,
a few miles farther downstream at the confluence of South Fork.South Fork, the most important upper tributary, rises farther
south in the Alaska Range, and takes a northwesterly course to enter the
Kuskokwim near Medfra. South Fork receives the Tatina, Jones, Dillinger,
and Tonzona Rivers, as well as several unnamed tributaries. The Tonzona,
largest of these tributaries, is a glacier-fed stream rising in the
vicinity of Mount Dall, a 9,000-foot peak about 45 miles southwest of Mt.
McKinley. The Tonzona flows in a generally northwesterly direction from
the foothills of the Range and across about 55 miles of the broad Kuskokwim
Valley before joining South Fork.About 10 miles below [ ?] the South Fork confluence, the Kus–
kokwim receives the waters of another southern tributary, one that is
formed a few miles above its mouth by the union of three streams which follow almost parallel courses . On
some maps the final three or four miles of this tributary are identified
as Big River. Middle Fork, which, as its name indicates, is the middle
branch of this tributary, originates in the Alaska Range near 62° N.Lat.,
154° W. Long., in the midst of mountains rising to over 7,000 feet, works
its way northwestward for about 35 miles (airline) to the valley, and then
006 | Vol_XII-0612
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
crosses another 35 miles of lowland to its junction with Pitka, the most
northerly of these branches. West Fork, the southwestern branch, has its
source in glacier-fed streams rising in the Alaska Range, somewhat south
of the headwaters of Middle Fork, where the Range reaches heights of 9,000
feet. This stream trends northward for about 80 miles (airline) to join
the Middle-Fork-Pitka branch a few miles below their confluence; thence
the combined waters flow westward three or four miles to enter the south–
ern side of the Kuskokwim.Medfra, at the confluence of South Fork and the Kuskokwim, is
the farthest upstream of the Kuskokwim settlements and is the supply point
for the Nixon Fork District. From this point the Kuskokwim trends south–
westward 8 or 10 miles to the junction with Big River, and thence follows
a tortuous course westward for 25 or 30 miles to its junction with Nixon
Fork, where McGrath settlement is located. Big River Roadhouse is located
2 or 3 miles downstream from the mouth of the river from which it takes its
name.Nixon Fork has its source 50 or 60 miles northweastward of
McGrath in stream s rising in the Von Frank Mountain area of the Kuskokwim
Mountains and follows a generally southwesterly course to enter the
Kuskokwim from the north. Nixon Fork is joined early in its course by
Cottonwood, Boulder, Jones, Submarine, Mystery, Ruby, and Hidden Creeks,
and by West Fork about midway of its course.Takotna River, the largest tributary to Nixon Fork, enters
Nixon from the west a few miles above its mouth. The Takotna, which has
a length of perhaps 50 miles, is formed by the confluence of Waldren and
Moore Creeks and takes a generally northward and then eastward course,
007 | Vol_XII-0613
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
being joined by Fourth of July, Big, Gold, Bun, and Gal ickson Creeks, to
its junction with Nixon Fork. This junction is called The Forks. The
village of Ta k otna lies about 13 miles above The Forks.Tat la al ina River enters Nixon Fork from the west a little over
one mile s above its junction with the Kuskokwim. The Tat a lina rises in
the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains, which, in this vicinity, form a
divide between the Kuskokwim and the Tatalina, and flows northeastward to
Nixon Fork. It is joined from the south by Rex, Candle, and Cash Creeks.At its confluence with Nixon Fork, the Kuskokwim turns southward
and continues in this direction for about 100 miles (airline) to
Sleitmut where it [ ?] again turns westward. F or about 25 miles south
of McGrath the river follows a twisting course, and along this stretch
are, from north to south, the three villages, Candle Landing, Wilson's,
and Vinasale. About 10 miles below Vinasale the Kuskokwim passes between
an irregular group of highlands from 1,400 to 2,200 feet high. The
slopes to the west appear to belong to the Kuskokwim Moutains and those on
the east to the Alaska Range. Several tributaries enter this section of
the Kuskokwim, most of them from the east. These are: the Tatlawiksuk,
the Swift (on some maps called the Chagavenapuk), and the Stony. All
these rivers rise in the Alaska Range; the Tatlawiksuk flows in a
westerly direction, and the other two in northwesterly direction across
the wide Kuskokwim Valley to the main river. Stony River, the longest
of these three tributaries, rises in the vicinity of Snow Cap Mountain,
flows southwestward through a narrow valley in the Alaska Range, and then,
west of Telquana Lake, from which it receives a tributary stream, turns
sharply northwestward to pass no r th of Carin Cairn Mountain and through
008 | Vol_XII-0614
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
the Lime Hills to the Kuskokwim. The mountains through which the upper
course of the Stony runs are perpetually snow-covered, and the river-bed
is strewn with huge boulders. Although rapids are frequent in this section,
the stream is reported to be easily ascended with poling boats. Stink
River enters the Stony about 25 miles (airline) from its mouth. On a tiny
island in the midst of the confluence of the Stony and the Kuskokwim is
the village and post office of Stony River.From th [e?] is point the Kuskokwim more and more loses its connection
with the Alaska Range which continues southward into the Illiamna Region
whereas the river veers westward through the high southern fringes of the
Kuskokwim Mountains and so to the broad coastal section of the Kuskokwim
Basin.About 18 miles southwest of Stony River the
About 18 miles below the mouth of Stony River, the Holitna, one
of the major tributaries to the Kuskokwim enters from the south. The dark-colored
Holitna, with its principal tributary the Hoholitna, drains the area north
of the headwaters of the Nushagak and Mulchatna Rivers (q.v.). Very little
is known about this section of Alaska, almost the only source of informa–
tion being the manuscript map made by the prospector, W.R. Buckman, who
wintered in this vicinity in 1902-1903. The Holitna was one of the first
inland Alaskan streams known to the early Russian explorers in this region
and was descended by Ivan Simonson Lukeen in 1832. The Indians Natives call this
stream the Chulitna, but it is now generally known as the Holitna, a
transiliteration of the Russisn form of the Eskimo name. The Holitna has
its source in stre a m s, rising northeast of Nishilik [ ?] Lake, the most northerly
of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.), and flows in a generally northeasterly direction
009 | Vol_XII-0615
to the Kuskokwim. The middle branch of these headwaters, the Kogrukluk,
joins the Holitna in the vicinity of Kashegelok, a small Eskimo village
about 150 miles from the mouth of the Holitna. The river then swings north–
west of the Taylor Mountains past Eskimo village of Nogamut, across a
broad flood plain to its junction with Titnuk Creek near the village of
Itulilik. Titnuk Creek rises east of the Nushagak Hills and Finn Mountain,
which form part of the divide between the Nushagak and the Holitna systems,
and flows in a northerly direction east of the Taylor Mountains to join the
Holitna about 70 miles from its mouth. The Holitna receives many unnamed
tributaries from the Kiokluk and Chuilnuk Mountains which lie west of the
middle section of its course.The Hoholitna, as it is now generally called, in its upper reaches
receives the waters of a fan-shaped system of unnamed streams rising in the
vicinity of Halfway Mountain and Cairn Mountain, in the Alaska Range,
which here separates this section of the Holitna watershed from that of the
Mulchatna. The main headwater of the Hoholitna drains from Whitefish
Lake, a lake about 8 miles long by one to two miles wide, lying just south
of 61° N. Lat. and just east of 155° W. Long. in a broad lowland surrounded
by the di continuous ridges and knobs of the foothills of the Alaska Range.
← From Whit e fish Lake the river follows a westerly course for about
35 miles, and throughout this stretch is joined from both north and south
by its numerous upper tributaries. The river then flows in a northwesterly
direction for about 50 or 60 miles airline) to i n ts confluence with the
Holitna at a point about 15 miles above its junction with the Kuskokwim.
Sleitmut (Sleetmute) lies on the north bank of the Kuskokwim just opposite
the mouth of the Holitna.From Moose Village, about 15 (airline) miles upstream from
Sleitmut, the Kuskokwim follows a twisting but generally southwesterly
010 | Vol_XII-0616
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
course to within three or four [ ?] miles of the mouth of the Holitna, where
it turns sharply northwestward. Then the Kuskokwim continues in a generally
northwesterly direction for about 30 miles (airline) to its confluence
with George River. This river drains a dissected plateau, marked with
ridges and knobs about 2,000 feet high, which characterize this south–
western fringe of the Kuskokwim Mountains.George River flows in a generally southwesterly direction from
its northeasterly divide, which separates it from the Takotna system, past
the divides separating it from the [ ?] ditarod to the northwest and from the
Kuskokwim itself to the southeast. North Fork, its first named tributary,
flows down from the vicinity of Lookout Mountain in the Iditarod Divide
to enter the George from the west. East and South Forks, rising in the
highlands separating the George from the Kuskokwim, join and enter the
George from the east. The George drains an area about 50 miles from north–
east to southwest and about 35 miles from east to west. Although strong
currents sweep this river during flood seasons, at all other times, starting
at Georgetown at the mouth, it may easily be ascended in poling boats for
25 or 30 miles.At Georgetown, the Kuskokwim turns southwest, and, a few miles
below this point, is joined by Steamboat Creek from the north. The stream
rises in Twin Buttes in the divide between its waters and those of North
Fork.Below Steamboat Creek the Kuskokwim forms an S. veering first south,
then north, then south again. This second turn is called Great Bend, and
receives Crooked Creek from the north. Crooked Creek rises west of Lookout
Mountain and flows in a southerly direction to the Kuskokwim. Its main
tributaries are Donlin Creek, early in its course, and Bell Creek a few
miles above its mouth. At Crooked Creek the Kuskokwim twists southward and
011 | Vol_XII-0617
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
flows between Horn Mountain and an unnamed group of hills to the southeast,
for about 30 miles (airline) past the two abandoned villages, Canoe Village
and Oskawalit, past Horn Village and Little Mountain Village, to Napaimiut.At Napaimiut the Kuskokwim swings westward and continues in this
general direction for about 30 airline miles to Aniak, at the mouth of the
river of the same name. Below Napaimiut the river passes Chuckwak and the
abandoned village of Ko l makof, continues south of Russian Mountains and on to
the small native village of Russian Mission, about 8 miles east of Aniak.The Aniak River rises in the northern park of the Kilbuck Mountains,
north of the Tikchik Lakes, and flows in a generally northerly direction for
about 75 airline miles to the Kuskokwim. Salmon River is its main tribu–
tary, although it receives many unnamed streams from the vicinity of Fisher
Dome and Mount Plummer in the more northerly reaches of the Kilbuck Mountains.Below Aniak the Kuskokwim flows westward about 15 miles and then
takes a southwesterly, often multiple, course across the lake-studded swamp
and tundra of the coastal plain. The plain is bounded on the north by the
Yukon River and the Kuskokwim Mountains and on the south and east [ ?] by the
Kilbuck Mountains. At the point where the river turns southwest, only 20 or
25 miles of lake-studded grassland separate the Kuskokwim from a southerly bend of the
Yukon River. Crow village and Oknagamut lie on this stretch of the
Kuskokwim, followed by Kalska g (Kaltshak), a settlement about 27 miles below
Aniak, at about the point where the river passes between Kukaklik and White–
fish Lakes. (The latter is not to be confused with the lake of the same name
previously mentioned as the headwaters of the Hoholitna River.)About 36 airline miles below Kalskag, the Tuluksak River enters
the Kuskokwim. This river rises to the east between Mount Hamilton and
Mount Plummer, flow s ing southward and then westward to join the Kukokwim. from
the east. The Kiselalik River rises in the Kilbuck Mountains across the
012 | Vol_XII-0618
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
divide from the Salmon River, the main tributary to the Aniak, and takes
a generally northwesterly course to join the Kuskokwim just south of Akiak.
Just below Akiak, the Kuskokwim divides and follows two meandering courses
for about 10 airline miles, after which it joins again and flows on past
Bethel, the largest town on the Kuskokwim.For the remaining 65 miles of its course, the Kuskokwim gradually
broadens out until it is ten miles wide in the vicinity of [ ?] Eek Island.
Some maps show the Lomavik River and the Tundra River entering the Kuskokwim
from the east and west respectively a few miles below Bethel, and Johnson
River, with a main tribu [ ?] ry, the Pimichtaluk, flowing in from the west in
the vicinity of the settlement of Kinak. On other maps the course of Johnson
River is identified as the Kinak. The main eastern tributary to the Kuskokwim
south of this point is Eek River which drains from Eek Lake in the foothills
of the Kilbuck Mountains and flows in a westerly direction past 2,000-foot
Tiokpit Mountain across 60 miles of tundra to enter the Kuskokwim just north
of Eek Island. Eek River, although muddy and full of silt, is navigable
for 15 or 20 miles from its mouth.Eek Island is a grass-covered mud flat in the mouth of the
Kuskokwim just south of the mouth of Eek River. The higher tides completely
cover this island. It is cut by deep sloughs and affords an ideal feeding
ground for the thousands of ducks and geese which breed in the swamps and
marshes between the mouths of the Kuskokwim and the Yukon.Settlements & Trails An intricate system of winter trails connects the settlements
and roadhouses along the Kuskokwim and its tributaries. From Medfra and
McGrath, the two most northerly Kuskokwim settlements, these trails run in
several directions; northeastward to Lake Minchumina and beyond, southeast–
ward across the Alaska Range to Cook Inlet, northwestward into the Innoko
District, and southwestward along the Kuskokwim itself to The Portage and on
013 | Vol_XII-0619
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
to the mouth of the Kuskokwim.Me d fra. (63° 07′ N.Lat., 154° 43′ W. Long.)
35 miles upstream from McGrath, had a population of 24 in
1939. It has, as well, a post office, a general store, and a 2,000-foot
landing strip. The chief occ u pations are mink and marten farming. From
June 1 to October 5 air mail service runs every two weeks from Fairbanks
and Anchorage. A $36,000 road connects Med f ra with Nixon Peak Mine
on Rub b y Creek, twelve miles to the north.On the Takotna River, west of McGrath (q.v.) and about 13 miles (airline)
above The Forks, is Takotna, a mining community with a post office and a
1939 population of 70. Takotna is the head of launch navigation on that
river, and is connected by an intricate maze of roads and trails with Flat,
Ophir, Holy Cross, and other Yukon points to the southwest, and with McGrath,
Candle Landing, Berry Medfra, and other villages to the northeast and the
southeast on the Kuskokwim. Takotna has a landing strip on a mountain-top
above the town, with a road leading to it. Although this strip is 1,700
feet long, it appears to be much shorter because each end drops a considerable
distance downhill. In 1942, a herd of 2,000 reindeer was reported by its
owners to be grazing on Beaver Mountain several miles west of Takotna.Candle Landing and Vinasale are the main Ku s kokwim settlements
immediately below McGrath. New Candle Landing, a few miles west of Candle,
is a gold mining community with an 1,800-foot landing strip. As the Kuskokwim
continues to work its way through the foothills of the Kuskokwim Mountains,
there are no settleme n ts along it for over 100 airline miles.Stony River, at the mouth of the river of by the same name, has two
warehouses, and is a trading post and outfitting point for trappers and
prospectors, although the 1939 census gives the population as only seven.
Referring to the native population in this area, Hrdlicka writes: "People
014 | Vol_XII-0620
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
of Stony River, according to Sergei, speak a language of their own, called
'Nunamute.' Twenty-eight natives in all between Stony River and McGrath,
and of these twenty or twenty-one children and undergrown."Sleitmut, about 18 miles below Stony River, is a post office and
settlement which had a population of 86 in 1939. The village has a Territorial
School,a 2,000-foot landing strip, and air mail service from June 1 to
October 5 each year. Across the river from Sleitmut is Smeato's Trading
Post. Parks, a settlement with a population of 11 in 1939, also lies on
the north side of the Kuskokwim a few miles below Sleitmut. The cinnibar
lode mine, mentioned above below , is in this vicinity and was being worked, as
Hrdlicka reports in 1930, by Parks himself. "Parks is an old man," Hrdlicka
writes, "over 70, visionary, alone, working mercury mine with the help of
three native boys of from about 10 to 15."Georgetown, a small native settlement, lies on the north side
of the Kuskokwim at the mouth of the George River about 19 miles below Parks.
A winter trail, known as the Iditarod and Georgetown Trail, connects
Georget wo ow n with Flat, which itself is connected by trial with Holy Cross, on
the Yukon River, and with various points in the Iditarod and Inniko
Districts to the north.Crooked Creek, about ll airline miles below Georgetown, is a
native settlement and post office at the mouth of the stream of the same
name, which has a 1939 population of 48. At low tide the natural river
bars near Crooked Creek afford summer landing fields, and planes equipped
with skis can land on the frozen river in winter. Crooked Creek is one
of the southern terminals of a network of winter trails coverging at Flat.Napaimiut, about 30 airline mile below Crooked Creek, is a post
office and settlement with a 1939 population of about 75. This village
has a 2,000-foot landing area and receives air mail service from Fairbanks
and Anchorage.
015 | Vol_XII-0621
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
The village of Kolmakof, now abandoned, was first the site of
a fort built by the Russian trader Lukeen, who discovered gold in this
vicinity about 1832. He built a fort about 25 miles above the mouth
of the Aniak River, and called it Lukeen's Fort. In 1841, after being
partly burned by the Indians, it was rebuilt by Alexander Kolmakof, who
gave it his name.Aniak, with a 1939 population of 122, is a settlement and post
office on the Kuskokwim near the mouth of the Aniak River. It has a U.S.
Commissioner in residence, and a 5,000-foot landing area. A reindeer herd
numbering 12,000 head is reported in this vicinity. Aniak has one of the
finest, most modern, and best-equipped roadhouses in all of interior Alaska.Kalska g , over 25 airline miles below Aniak, has summer air mail
service between June 1 and October 5 and was reported in 1939 to be one of
the winter air mail stops between Fairbanks and Bethel. K alskag is the
Kuskokwim terminal of the two [ ?] trails which connect this part
of that river with the Yukon. The more northerly of these trails runs
from Kalska g to Paimiut, and the other, generally known as The Portage,
runs to Russian Mission (Ikagmut), 38 miles down the Yukon from Paimiut.
The Portage passes Kulik Lake, one of the numberless lakes in this area
which happens to be named, and through the native village of Kichlulik
on its way to Russian Mission.Ogalvik is the only village between altshak kalskag and Tuluksak , Taluksak at
the confluence of the Tuluksak River and the Kuskokwim , Tuluksak had a
1939 population of 88, and is connected by road or trail with Bethel, Aniak,
and Nyac.Nyac, just north of 61° N. Lat. and just east of 160° W. Long.,
is a mining community and post office on the T uluksak River in the vicinity
016 | Vol_XII-0622
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
of Mount Plummer, a 4,800-foot peak in the Kilbuck Mountains south of
Whitefish Lake. Nyac had a 1939 population of 33, and now has a 2,500-foot
landing strip. The Territorial Department of Mines chose Nyac as an
experimental site for the combining of aerial photographs with geological
investigations on the ground. Recent maps show several placer mines and
some buildings along the Tuluksak below Nyac all of which are connected by
road.Akiak lies on the east side of the Ku s kokwim about 15 miles south
of Tuluksak. Petrof, in 1880, and Spurr and Post, in 1898, recorded this
town with variants of its present name. By 1939 Akiak had a population of
209. It is connected by trail with Russian Mission on the Yukon and with
Bethel about 22 miles down the Kuskokwim. Kuskokwim river boats from
Bethel serve Akiak regularly, and there is air mail service for the usual
period each year. Reindeer herds in the vicinity of Akiak totaling 81, 278
head, were reported by five private owners in 1940.Akiakchak (Akachagamut), a native village with a population of
156 in 1939, a few miles below Akiak, is connected by trail with Ohogamute
on the Yukon and with Bethel, fifteen miles down the Kuskokwim. Of the
people of Akiakchak Hrdlicka wrote: "The largest and best Eskimo village
yet seen ... (He was traveling upstream.) ... Really a small town. Yet no
school structure here yet, just a native church. People more orderly than
elsewhere and sturdier, better off economically."Below Bethel (for a description of which see separate article) , along the ever-widening Kuskokwim, there are several
small villages: Napaskiak (population 67), Lomavik, Napakiak (population 113),
and Akulurak (population 162), all on the east bank, and Kinak (population
36) on the west bank opposite Akulurak at the point at which the Kuskokwim
veers from its southwesterly course of flow due south into Kuskokwim Bay.
017 | Vol_XII-0623
[ ?] Hrdlicka reports:"Large tides here, they tell, up to and at times over
sixteen feet. At low tide great mud flats eve [ ?] ywhere, with small channels
like glancing streaks between ... Boat travel ... no other possible ... must
regulate itself by tides and the depth of the water. To some places it is
impossible to get except at high tide." From Akulurak he wrote: "In nice
weather and before the mosquitoes come, the life in the Eskimo fish camps is
agreeable. There are many dusky red-cheeked chubb y children, not seldom
decidedly good-looking. Here and there a woman doing a little cooking or
bread-toasting outdoors, over a little fire. Men fish, hunt waterfowl,
gather driftwood, construct, make boats — women prepare the caught fish for
drying, skin birds, do housework, cook and sew. Children wanted and loved,
and there are plenty of the [ ?] ."Eek, a native village a few miles up the Eek River, had a 1939
population of 170. West Point, Kuskovak, and the abandoned Popocamiut
are native settlements on the west bank of the Kuskokwim opposite Eek
Island. Apokak, also opposite Eek Island but on the east side of the Kusko–
kwim, lies at the mouth of the Apokak River. Nelson recorded this name as
Apokagamute, Apokak people , in 1878-79. A line from Beacon Point, just
south of Apokak, to the site of the former native village of Popocamiut (See Kuskokwim Bay)
is considered to separate Kuskokwim River from Kuskokwim Bay.Mining Although much of it is on a small scale, there is considerable
mining activity along the Kuskokwim. Placer gold is mined near Nixon Fork,
McGrath, and Georgetown, and lode gold is produced in the Nixon Fork
District. Tin, tungsten, lead, mercury, antimony, and bismuth have also been
found in various places, but not in commercial quantity. Cinnabar lode was
discovered about 15 miles above Georgetown in 1906, near the present site of
Parks, and, as has been indicated, had been worked in a small way but steadily
ever since.
018 | Vol_XII-0624
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
F.E. Matthew discovered gold placers on Hidden Creek in June,
1917. Further prospecting revealed more placers on the other upper tributaries
to Nixon Fork, and in all cases the gold continued to the extreme headwaters
of these streams. In 1918 Pearson and Strand discovered the Crystal
lode at the head of Ruby Creek. Nixon Peak Mine now works this gold lode
as well as gold placers near Hidden Creek, which have proved to be the
most productive of all the placers in the area.¶ In 1947 several companies
were carrying on gold lode and placer operations in the Takotna section this section : Jackson
[N?]els, placer, on Fourth of July Creek, with a crew of 5; Nixon Fork Mine,
lode, on Nixon Fork near Medfra; and Yukon Placer Mining Co., placer,
bulldozer, and hydraulic, on Fourth of July Creek.Gold placers were discovered on Candle Creek by Louis Blackburn
and Bert Eldridge in 1913. Mining was started in 1915 and has continued
to the present time.Gold placer mines have been reported on D C onlin Creek, a tributary
to Crooked Creek. The discovery of placer gold in Rainy, Kapon, and Cabine
Creeks in the Eek River system, was given some publicity in 1936, although
there was no stampede, and operation of these mines has been continuous
since 1940.First Descent In his Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898, , Spurr
gives a first-hand account of his descent of South Fork and of the Kuskokwim
itself from its union with South Fork to Kuskokwim Bay.Starting up the Sushitna River, Cook Inlet, on May 20, 1898, he
and his companions paddled into the Yentna and from it into the Skwentna to
a point where it became necessary to carry the two remaining canoes and all
equipment and supplies over the divide of the Alaska Range. "We were now,"
he writes, "in an extremely picturesque and rugged region, with high mountains,
deep valleys, and beautiful glaciers." They were, as present maps show us,
019 | Vol_XII-0625
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
about midway between Mount Dall and Snow Cap Mountain in the Alaska Range,
on what is now called Rainy Pass.¶ Spurr continues: "To get our boats and
outfit over the pass was, however, slower and more difficult, but was finally
accomp [ ?] ished, and we camped by a foaming stream on the other side. The
pass itself is about 4,400 feet above sea l level, and is guarded on both
sides by mountains rising to 8,000 feet." Th [ ?] s "foaming stream" was one
of the headwaters of South Fork, but, since no white man had previously
made this trip, it is not surprising that Spurr mistook it for the Kuskokwim.¶ "The fall of the river was very great, and rapids were continuous," he re–
marks," and in this down-stream traveling our progress was as rapid as it
had before been slow. Much to our surprise, the river turned and began to
run persistently towar d the north between two parallel mountain ridges."
This refers to the section of South Fork above Lake Farewell. "On the
25th of July we emerged from the mountains into a bro a d, flat, gravelly
plateau, and for nearly 100 miles thereafter went through snag flats
similar to those we had ascended on the Sushitna, presenting, if possible,
even a more formidable aspect to the explorer." Spurr and his companions
were now passing across the broad Kuskokwim Valley and approaching the
Kuskokwim itself.¶ "About this time the prolonged rainy season set in,
which lasted six weeks or so, and was perhaps the most disagreeable feature
of the trip, the rain falling almost continuously night and day with short
intervals."¶" On the 29th of July the stream joined another of nearly equal
size [ the Kuskokwim proper ] , these two streams together making up the
main Kuskokwim River ... Below the junction the current was still slack,
and the course of the river was extremely tortuous as it meandered through
a broad flat made up of finely stratified silts ... On the 1st of August we
came to an old trading post known as Vinasale."¶ Only a day below Vinasale . ,
020 | Vol_XII-0626
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
however, they reached the southern fringes of the Kuskokwim Mountains,
through which the river passes on its way to Napaimiut and Kolmakof. "On
the 2d of August we left the broad flats of the upper river and entered a
definite valley lying between picturesque timbered mountains, in appearance
suggesting the Lower Ramparts of the Yukon. The river continued to run
through these mountains for several hundred miles. On the [ ?] 4th of
August, two days after entering the range, the peaks grew higher and bolder
and some of them bore patches of snow, while the river flowed past high, per–
pendicular, rocky bluffs."¶" Just before entering these higher ramparts the
largest stream which we had yet observed entering the Kuskokwim came in on
the left. It is a wide river of dark-colored water, contrasting in this
with the muddy current of the Kuskokwim, and at the time of our passing
the water was alive with leaping salmon. The native name of this stream
we afterward found out to be Holiknuk [ the present Holitna ] , and that it
heads in the Nushagak divide."¶ The party was now running short of supplies
and they were eager to reach Kolmakof. "On the 6th of August, when we had
already passed the astronomical position in which Kolmakof was indicated on
the Russian charts, we unexpectedly reached the post, which consists of an
old hexagonal log blockhouse with several other log buildings which were
built by the Russians long ago. We found no one here, however, except some
natives and one half-breed, from whom we obtained some tea, which was the
only article left, the supplies for this year not yet having come up the
river."¶" The next day we reached the native village of Oknagamut, where there
were several hundred Eskimos ... After leaving Kolmakof the river rapidly
left the mountains behind and flowed through a perfectly level country, very
sparsely timbered, and always growing broader. The channel broadened out in
places to a veritable sea, with many large islands, we estimated the distance
as 9 miles. The land on both sides grew more and more swampy and treeless
021 | Vol_XII-0627
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
until it developed into the typical dreary tundra. Eskimo villages grew
more numerous, and at one, Oknavigamut, we found a vacant mission building
and schoolroom, welcome signs of civilized man."¶" On the 10th of August we
arrived at the native village of Memtrelegamut [ the present Bethel ] , where
the natives had informed us that provisions could be obtained, and here we
were surprised and delighted to find, not only a trading post, but a mission
supported by the Moravians. These people made us very welcome, as we were
the first white people they had seen that year, and we stopped several days
making preparations for our future work."¶ At this point Spurr sent some of
his group back to The Portage to map this ancient route between the Kuskokwim
and the Yukon and to continue on down the Yukon. He himself went down the
Kuskokwim with John H. Kilbuck, a Moravian missionary, and one of the
founders of Bethel.¶ Spurr describes this part of the journey in these words:
"Below this mission the Kuskokwim grows very large and begins to be affected
by the tides, and so gradually passes into the broad Kuskokwim Bay. The shores
are barren, swampy, and flat, and with no firewood except scattered drift–
wood ... We left the mission on the 19th of August and reached our destina–
tion at the mouth of the river — Kwinhagamut [ the present Kwinhagak ] — on
the 25th, our progress having been slow on account of the extreme width and
shallowness of the river and the difficulty in finding the proper channel.
The tides too, were so high and the bottom was so flat that when we were
not in the deepest channel the receding tide left us dry, out of sight of
water, while the flood tide lifted us upon a broad sea out of sight of shore."This description shows how little the Kuskokwim itself has changed
in the past 50 yars, but how very different were the isolated settlements along
it then from the busy mining, fur farming, and fishing villages of today.
022 | Vol_XII-0628
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
Summer and winter air service, and regular frequent ligh t erage service up and down the
river during the season of navigation are the two brightest hopes for
the development of the Kuskokwim Basin.
023 | Vol_XII-0629
KUSKOKWIM RIVER
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Mertie, J.B., Jr. Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region,
Alaska Mineral Deposits of the Ruby-Kuskokwim Region,
Alaska . Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1936.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 864 - C Bulletin 864 - C )Spurr, J.E. A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898. A Reconnaissance in southwestern Alaska in 1898.
(Contained in: U.S. Geological Survey. 20th Annual 20th Annual
Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898 Report. Part VII. Explorations in Alaska in 1898 .
Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1900. pp.31-264)Annabel, Russell. Hunting and fishing in Alaska Hunting and fishing in Alaska . N.Y., Knopf, 1948.
Hrdlicka, Ales. Alaska Diary, 1926-1931 Alaska Diary, 1926-1931 . Lancaster, Pa., Jacques
Cattell Press, 1943.General References;
VSGB
USCP & Supplement
Colby. Alaska Alaska .
Sundborg. Opporunity in Alaska Opporunity in Alaska .
Tuttle, CharlesR. Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources
its opportunities Alaska: its meaning to the world, its resources
its opportunities . Seattle, Wash., Shuey, 1914.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0630
Ruby Collins
20 April 48 NAKNEK, ALASKA
200 wds
NAKNEK, NORTH NAKNEK, and SOUTH NAKNEK, ALASKA, are villages
Sources: VS GB; US CP and suppl.
and post offices at the mouth of the Naknek River, Kvichak Bay, a north–
eastern arm of Bristol Bay. Naknek, a modern community with a population
of about 152 in 1939, has medical facilities, a new hotel, a cold
storage plant and branches of several large canneries including the Red
Salmon Canning Co., Alaska Packers Association, Libby, McNeill & Libby,
and Pacific American Fisheries, Inc. Each of these companies operates
its own radio station. Coal, gasoline, and fuel oil are obtainable
from supplies in the village. Naknek has a 200-ton marine railway
and is connected by trail with Egegik, Koggiung, Dillingham (q.v.),
and other Bristol Bay villages. Unlike most of the fishing communities
in the area, Naknek is inhabited the year around. A U.S.Army weather station was
established here in 1939, a commercial airways radio station at North
Naknek, and a Department of the Interior Station at South Naknek. There
is regular air service from Anchorage (q.v.) and Koggiung, a village
15 miles up the east side of Kvichak Bay.
001 | Vol_XII-0631
Ruby Collins
21 April 48 NAKNEK LAKE, ALASKA
400 wds
NAKNEK LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the Alaska
Peninsula, extends east and west across 156° W. Long. about midway
between 58° and59° N. Lat. It is 40 or 50 miles long and varies in
width from about 5 to 10 miles. The shores are irregular and steep.
The western end of the lake is split in half by a mountain and its
surrounding fringe of lower land into the Bay of Islands and Iliuk
Arm. Iliuk Arm is over 300 feet deep everywhere except close to
shore. Here and elsewhere throughout the lake there are many rocky
and picturesque islands. The north shore of Naknek Lake is marked
by a large, narrow-necked hook of land reaching southward into the lake,
and, a little to the west of this hook, by a smaller spit which
bends eastward toward the outer curve of the hook.The lake is fed by many rivers and creeks flowing down to
it from all directions, but particularly by glacier-fed streams rising
in the volcanic mountains of Katmai National Monument (q.v.) in the
Alaska Range to the southeast. The head of Naknek Lake, which lies
just inside the western boundary of the Monument, teems with trout,
24 to 32 inches long. Naknek River (q.v.) drains from the western
end of the lake.Savonoski, the only settlement on the lake, lies on the
Sources: Baker; USCP & Suppl; VS GB; Sundborg; Colby
eastern shore of Iliuk Arm at the mouth of the Savonoski River. It
was reported to have a population of 20, in 1939, although some recent
maps show it as abandoned. Savonoski is on the winter trail which runs
from Katmai, Shelikof Strait, on the northeastern side of the Alaska
Peninsula, northwestward across Katmai National Monument, down the Valley
of Ten Thousand Smokes to Ukak and on to Savonoski. The mountains near
002 | Vol_XII-0632
NAKNEK LAKE, ALASKA
this trail rise from 4000 to 7585 feet and are partially glacier-covered.
The National Geographic Society travelled along this trail in 1915, three
years after the eruption of Katmai Volcano on June 6, 1912. They found
the trail covered with ash and pumice, the floor of the valley broken
by millions of fumaroles, or little vol [ ?] anoes, belching steam, and the
entire area covered with brightly colored mud. Recent visitors to the
region report that the fumaroles, which in time will develop into
geysers similar to those in Yellowstone National Park, are less active
than formerly, but the district is still unsafe for all except hardy
and well trained explorers.
001 | Vol_XII-0633
Ruby Collins
22 April 48 NAKNEK RIVER, ALASKA
400 wds
NAKNEK RIVER, ALASKA, northwestern section of the Alaska
Peninsula, flows from the western end of Naknek Lake into Kvichak
Bay (q.v.), a northeastern extension of Bristol Bay, at a point
about 18 miles south of Koggiung (q.v.). The river is fed from the
north and south by numerous creeks draining a complex system of lakes
which dot the coastal lowlands on this side of the peninsula. For
the first few miles of its approximately 25-mile course the Naknek
is rapid and rocky, but its lower portion is slow and sluggish.
Ascent of the river is difficult because of the rapids at its head,
although the trip can be made without portages. The Naknek, like so
many other rivers on the Alaska Peninsula, originates in a lake,
making it an ideal habitat for the red salmon.Several large salmon canneries and their radio stations,
including the Alaska Packers Association, operate in or near Naknek
(q.v.) at the mouth of the river. Although the Naknek has been
called the head of deep water navigation in Bristol Bay, even here the movement
of cannery vessels here is made difficult by the regular appearance
at low tide of banks and flats not only in the river, but for 3 or 4
miles off-shore. All cannery wharves are dry at low water. Only
small vessels drawing about 10 feet can go to the upper canneries,
and they only at hightide. Larger vessels, drawing up to 24 feet,
must anchor off the mouth of the river. The tidal rise at the mouth
is over 20 feet, and tide water is reported to extend several miles
up-river.Besides Naknek proper the settlements of North Naknek, South
Sources: USCP & Suppl; VSGB; Colby, Tewkesbury; VSGB
Naknek, and Pawik are grouped around the mouth of the river. Pawik
002 | Vol_XII-0634
NAKNEK RIVER, ALASKA
is a small native village and cannery on the north side of the
river a few miles up from its mouth. The village has a government
school and a United States deputy marshal. Spurr and Post recorded
the name in 1898, although Pawik is probably the same as the settle–
ment, Pakwik, which appeared in the Eleventh Census of 1890. Early
Russian explorers reported a village of Suworof, on Cape Suworof
which forms the north shore of the mouth of the Naknek River, but this
site is probably now occupied by Naknek, although some maps still show
a town of Suworof just south of Naknek.
° Colby, Tewkesbury
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0635
Ruby Collins
22 April 48 NANWHYENUK, LAKE,
ALASKA
200 wds
NANWHYENUK, LAKE, ALASKA, in the northern part of the
Alaska Peninsula, lies northwest-southeast across 59° N. Lat.
between 155° and 156° W. Long. It is about 17 miles long and from
2 to 7 miles wide. It is one of the sources for the Alagnak River
(q.v.), which drains from its western end, and is connected by a
small stream with Lake Kulik lying immediately to the east. Accord–
ing to the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey map of November, 1946,
Nanwhyenuk Lake has no tributaries other than the stream connecting
it with Lake Kulik.Lake Kulik lies northwest-southeast across 155° W. Long.
Sources: VSGB; Baker
just east of Nanwhyenuk Lake. Kulik is a small lake about 11 miles
long and only 1 to 2 miles wide. It is surrounded on all sides
by the foothills of the Alaska Range which rise to 2,000 and 3,000
feet and from which many small streams flow down to feed the lake.
In 1947 no settlement was reported on the banks of Lake Kulik.
Tikhmenief reported this lake as the Kullik, in 1861, and Raymong
called it the Koulakh in 1869.
° in USCP & Suppl.; Colby, Sundborg
001 | Vol_XII-0636
Ruby Collins
6 July 1948 NEWENHAM, CAPE
372 wds
NEWENHAM, CAPE, southern Alaska, the extreme tip of an
unnamed peninsula which separates Bristol Bay from Kuskokwim Bay,
is the landfall for this region. It is a level plateau backed by
the rough, sawtooth mountains of the Ahklun Range, which extend
along the peninsula and then northeastward up the coast toward
G oodnews Bay. Cape Newenham, which is both the northern entrance
point to Kuskokwim Bay Bristol Bay and the southern entrance
point to Bristol Bay Kuskokwim Bay, was named by Cook, July 16,
1778, although the natives still call it Cape Black, because of
its color. Seal Rock, a few miles northeastward from Cape Newenham,
was named by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1890. Castle Rock,
the western entrance point to Security Cove, which lies about 9
miles eastward from Cape Newenham, is the tip of a high narrow–
necked spit which forms the eastern side of the Cove. Security
Cove is about 5 miles wide and offers good anchorage in all
except a northwest wind. Chagvan Mountain separates Security Cove
from Chagvan Bay. This bay has a narrow, shoal entrance, shoal
water inside, and is veined with bars which are bare at low tide.
Sarichef first published this name in 1826. The south shore of the
bay is bordered with moderate heights of the Ahklun Range which
stretches northeastward from the head of the bay leaving a wide,
lake-studded region south of the Unaluk River, which joins the
Kinegnak River, a tributary to Chagvan Bay, a few miles from above
its mouth. The Kinegnak River rises in Crater Hill about 14 miles
(airline) northeast of Chagvan Bay, receives several unnamed tribu–
taries from the south, Wind, Fog, Shaw, and Koekukluk Creeks from
the north , and west, and takes a meandering, generally southwesterly
002 | Vol_XII-0637
NEWENHAM, CAPE
course to Chagvan Bay. Kinegnak, a small native settlement with
a population of about 20 in 1939, lies at the junction of the Unaluk and
Kinegnak Rivers. The area between Chagvan Bay and Goodnews Bay
(q.v.), where platinum deposits were discovered in 1927, is
mountainous and threaded with tiny streams and creeks.USCP & Suppl.
VS GB
Baker
U.S. Dept. of Mines. Mineral Resources, 1945.
Colby - Tewkesbury - Sundborg
001 | Vol_XII-0638
Ruby Collins 2796 wds
50 wds - Gce
September, 1948 NIUKLUK RIVER
NIUKLUK RIVER Alaska, in southeastern Seward Peninsula, the largest western tributary to the Fish River ,(See Golovnin Bay Region)
in southeastern Seward Peninsula, drains an area of 825 square miles , which
nearly equals the size of the Fish River basin above its junction with the
Niukluk.¶ Niukluk is the Eskimo name for this stream and has been
variously written Nea-kluk, Neukluk, etc., whereas the Western Union
[ ?] Telegraph Expedition map of 1867 identified it as the Icathluik. The
members of this expedition were the first white men to explore the Niukluk,
and they reported, upon their return, the existence of gold in the area,
but it was not until 25 years later, after this same gold had been redis–
covered several times without being worked , that Daniel B. Libby and his party established
the Eldorado Mining District in the vicinity of Ophir Creek, an eastern
tributary to the Niukluk, thereby founding Council and opening up one of
the richest gold-mining areas on Seward Peninsula. To add to the confusion
concerning the name of this river, Dall called it the Fish River in 1869,
which identification it kept for over 30 years, when it was finally and
properly designated as the Niukluk.Like the Fish, although farther west, the Niukluk rises in an
extremely mountainous area, carves a course through glaciated valleys,
then passes across a mountain-locked valley, once again enters a mountainous
region, and finally emerges on the coastal tundra to jo i n the Fish River
from the west.¶ The headwaters of the Niukluk drain from the southeastern
watersheds of 3,760-foot Mount Bendeleben. The main river trends south–
westward for about 13 miles, then veers abruptly southeastward, which
direction it maintains for the duration of its course. At this turn the
Niukluk is joined by the Libby River from the west, which flows down from
the western watersheds of Mount Bendeleben and which receives West Fork
a few miles above its junction with the Niukluk. Farther down this
early lowland section , of the Niukluk receives American Creek and its27 [ls?]
002 | Vol_XII-0639
NIUKLUK RIVER
largest tributary, Casadepaga River, from the west, and Post Creek
from the east. The Casadapega rises in the mountains to the southwest
and flows in a generally northeasterly direction , just north of the divide
separating it from the Solomon River (q.v.) system , for about 27 miles to the
Niukluk.¶ The Casadepaga receives the waters of many short tributaries some
of which have proven to be important gold streams. These are: Lower
Willow, and its tributary Wilson Creek, Canyon, with its tributary
Texas Creek; Goose, with its tributary Quartz Creek; Dixon and Bonanza Creeks,
from the west, and Willow, Johnson, Curtis, Ruby, Banner, Penelope,
Spence, Big Four, and No Man Creeks from the east.¶ In the mountainous
section below the Casadepaga, the Niukluk is joined from the north by
Goldbottom, Sweetcake, Ophir, and Melsing Creeks. Warm Creek runs
into Goldbottom; North Branch, Oxide, Snowball, and Dutch Creeks contribute
to the Ophir system; and Melsing receives Eclipse and Basin Creeks, from
the east . Along this same mountain section, the Niukluk receives the
waters of Elkhorn, Foster, Camp, Bennett, Richter, and Holyoke Creeks.
During the last 10 miles of its course, again in the lowlands, it is
joined by Bear River, from the west, with Trout Creek as an early
tributary, and by Mystery Creek from the east.Council, formerly dignified with the name Council City, is
the distribution center of one of the richest mining communities in Seward
Peninsula. The town is situated at the mouth of Melsing Creek, which enters
the Niukluk a few miles below Ophir Creek. Council City was founded in the
late fall of 1897 by Daniel P. Libby and his three companions,Louis Melsing,
Harry L. Blake, and A. P. Mordaunt. Libby had been with the party of the
Western Union Telegraph Company Expedition of 1865-66 which, under the26 lo
003 | Vol_XII-0640
NIUKLUK RIVER
leadership of Baron Otto von Bendeleben, traveled up Golovnin Bay, the
Fish, and Niukluk Rivers and so across the divide to the Kruzgamepa River,
in search of a good route for the proposed United States-to-Europe telegraph
line. The plan had been to run the line across Canada, Alaska, Bering Sea,
and Siberia to Europe. The successful laying of the second Atlantic cable
voided this plan , and the Western Union Expedition members were recalled —
but Libby never forgot the colors and the likely-looking gravel banks of
the Fish River country. Over 25 years later, despite his age, and inspired by
the recent Klondike strikes on the Yukon, he returned to Golovnin Bay with
his three partners, and, guided by the Eskimo, Tom Guarick, he repeated his
journey up the Fish and Niukluk Rivers to the mouth of the stream which he
named Melsing Creek.¶ Between here and Ophir Creek the Libby party spent
the winter of 1897-98. By spring they had thoroughly prospected the
entire area and had discovered and staked all the richest claims on both
streams. They built the first white man's residence on the site of the
present town of Council, patterning it after an Eskimo snowhouse, and
registered the Eldorado Mining District (now Council District), which proved
to be one of the richest gold mining sections of all Seward Peninsula.
Libby and his companions were already working their claims when the Anvil
Creek strike, in the Nome District, was made late in 1898. Because of its
in accessibility from Seattle, Nome burst from a collection of native
huts into a roaring tent city of 18,000 people [ ?] n two years, but Council,
because of its inaceessibility during the summer months, when mining is
possible but overland travel almost impossible, grew at a more reasonable
and healthy rate.¶ Writing in 1905, E.S. Harrison says: "Council District
is unlike the Nome country in that it is forested. In the entire Nome District
there is not a tree, nor a shrub other than willow. In the Council District
there is plenty of spruce timber for domestic use. The mines of Ophir
004 | Vol_XII-0641
NIUKLUK RIVER
Creek are among the most valuable in Northwestern Alaska. There are places
where the pay-streak is 700 feet wide, and the gravel de [ ?] posit twenty feet
deep. Ophir Creek and its tributaries have produced a total of about
$4,500,000 of gold. Although this creek contains very rich mineral deposits
mining operations by crude methods were not successful. The early conditions
with which the miner had to cope made it impossible for him to conduct his
business so as to obtain the profits that should come from ground containing
such high values. He found it necessary to dig ditches so as to provide
water supply, to use machinery and entail expenses not h within the mea n s of
the ordinary prospector. The first operations on Ophir Creek were not profit–
able and claims containing vast values were sold at moderate prices. Most
of this creek is owned by the Wild Goose Mining and Trading Co. This
company acquired the property by purchase paying a large sum for it. But
the company has extracted from one mine, No. 15 Ophir, a sum more than
twice as large as it paid for its entire holdings on the creek. The company
has con structed near forty miles of ditches to bring water with which to
wash the gravels of its Ophir Creek property. The main ditch is the largest
in Seward Peninsula and is big enough to float a small river steamboat."Besides Ophir Creek the other gold bearing streams of this
region are Dutch, Snowball, Albion, Crooked, Sweetcake, Warm, E o lkhorn,
Goldbottom, Richter, Neukluk, Melsing, Mystery, Oxide, I & L. Big Four,
Willow, Ruby, Goose, Quartz, Canyon, Boulder, Dixon, Dry, Damson, Banner,
Johnson, Sunshine, Curtiss, Kingsley and Camp. So far as has been discovered
Ophir Creek has the distinction of having the largest pay streak of any stream
in Alaska."24 [ ls ?]
005 | Vol_XII-0642
NIUKLUK RIVER
.In 1900, having left the confusion
and disappointment of Nome behind them, Lanier McKee and his companions
arrived at Council City on July 19. McKee wrote: "At last ... on rounding
one of the many curves of the river, Council City, in the bright evening
sunlight, burst upon the view, the prettiest, best sight that we had seen
in Alaska. The peculiar light seemed to magnify it, to make it stand out66
006 | Vol_XII-0643
NIUKLUK RIVER
very clear and distinct. There is a sudden high plateau, terminating
abrupt and sheer at the stream in a rocky cliff some thirty or forty feet high,
bare for the most part, but covered here and there with a growth of moss
and sh [ r ?] ubbery. This elevation tapers down to the level of the stream,
where the little camp of miners marks, at the east, the point where Melsing
Creek flows into the Neukluk, and also falls off at the west, where the
large camp or general reservation is found, free ground for all. Along
the plateau and beyond — a sprawling, scattered collection of log cabins,
saloons, and dance-halls, with here and there a sod house or tent — is
Council city. Back of it, to the north and west, along the foot of a bleak
mountain which seems to shelter the camp, is the narrow belt of invaluable
timber. The river-bed here is perhaps a hundred yards wide, but at that
time the greater part of it was visible, the stream breaking above and
coming down in two rapid, narrow forks touching each side of the shore.
Across the river and the bar, and following its course, is a long stretch
of tundra reaching out for several miles to low and barren mountains in the
south and west. In a straight line southwest, over the tundra and moun–
tains, it is said to be eighty or a hundred miles to Nome." But McKee
had come by the only possible summer route — by steamer from Nome to
Golovnin, by lighter up the Fish River to White Mountain,and then by
poling and towing the last 25 or 30 miles upstream to Council. Despite the fact that the first and richest gold depositsin all Seward Peninsula were discovered at Council in 1868, its This ex–
treme inaccessibility Of Council was one of the reasons for its 'safe and
sane' development as contrasted with the stampede to the seacost town
of Nome where gold was discovered in the fall of 1868. Harrison
gives a good description of Council as it appeared in 1905. "Council
City," he writes, "is second in importance of the towns of the peninsula,
and is the seat of the recorder's office for the Council District. It is28 [ ls ?]
007 | Vol_XII-0644
NIUKLUK RIVER
on the northern side of the Neukluk River about ten miles from its confluence
with Fish River, and inland from Cheenik about sixty miles. It has been built on
a bench of 'the stream which forms a natural townsite, furnishing splendid
drainage and being of such elevation as to secure safety in case of high
water and ice gorges for which the Neukluk is noted. When the town was first
established it was in the midst of a spruce forest, but construction of
buildings and the need [ ?] of fuel have caused the destruction of the
surrounding timber, until the clearing in which Council City is situated has
become so large that available timber is no longer near at hand."The population of Council City in the winter time is about 600. The
town has two churches, a Presbyterian and a Catholic; a public school, and
Camp No. 11 of the Arctic Brotherhood, a Northland fraternal order. The
business establishments during the winter of 1903-04, consisted of seven
stores, two hotels, two hospitals, one drug store, one lumber yard and
eleven saloons."One of the most difficult mining problems at that time was
getting mining equipment to the gold. A river bed was the nearest approach
to a road anywhere in Alaska, and M m iners were paying $200 to $300 a ton for
the transporting of supplies overland by teams and wagons. In the summer–
time, wagon wheels and horses both sank feet deep into the bog-like tundra,
and teamsters were happiest when wading along streams or lifting their wagons
over huge boulders in the bed of a creek which promised to lead them where
they wanted to go. Because of these conditions early demands were made
for railroads, and many narrow-gage roads were built, but one of the
first standard gage lines was the Council City and Solomon River
Railroad which, in 1905, already had 16 miles of track laid and in use.
operation. ← Before the Federal tax of $100 per mile, the coast of fuel,
and the reduction in mine output combined to discourage further railroad
008 | Vol_XII-0645
NIUKLUK RIVER
construction, this line ran for 33 miles, the Golovnin Bay Railroad
for 7 miles, and the Seward Peninsula Railroad for 97 miles. However, all
these efforts were a bandoned, and as late as 1942 there were still only
two railroads in operation in all of Alaska, the Alaska Railroad with
470.3 miles of main line, and the White Pass & Yukon, with 20.4 miles
of track. Neither of these serves Seward Peninsula. By 1925, on the
other hand, A.W. Greely reported the existence of 16 roads aggregating
50 miles in length for all of Seward Peninsula, and the flagging, with
sturdy pieces of red flannel on sticks, of 500 miles of winter trails.
"The flagging of winter trails," he remarks, "in this bleak and treeless
tundra country has rendered travel in the winter darkness, during periods
of storm, much less hazardous. The difficulties of safe travel on Seward
Peninsula are very gre a t during the period of winter and almost sunless
days over a gently rolling, unbroken tundra, where there is no tree, bush,
or even stone to mark the trail or relieve the unvarying monotony. In
earlier years scores of bewildered travellers have wondered from the dim,
snow-covered trail and miserably perished in the winter blizzards."The exhaustion of the easily reclaimed placer gold in the
Council area, as everywhere else, the inaccessiblity of the district both
by land and water, the necessity of diverting vast quantities of water
into intricate systems of ditches in order to get sufficient elevation to
run hydraulic mining machinery, the placing of gold on the "non-essential"
list during World War II, and the ever-rising cost of labor have combined
over the years to reduce mining activity in the Council area. The
Wild Goose Mining Company, famous throughout the peninsula for pioneering work
in the building of ditches to supply hydraulics with a reliable,
all-season water-supply, was one of the 8 dredges still in operation in
1919, but in 1946 only four companies were working the area.
009 | Vol_XII-0646
NIUKLUK RIVER
The reported 1939 population of Council was only 48, but the town had certain
facilities such as a Territorial school, post-office, general store,
roadhouse, and fish saltery. The modern answer to the transportation
problem is a 1,200-foot wheeled p o l ane landing strip at Council with
another of equal size a few miles up Melsing Creek. A net work of
winter trails from Golovnin and Norton Bays to the southeast, Bluff, Solomon,
and Nome to the southwest, and Kotzebue Sound to the north converge at
Council.The future of the Council District is far from hopeless.
In addition to the coming of the airplane, Philip Smith, dean of Alaskan
geologists, states that not half the gold in Alaska has yet been dis–
covered and that much less than that has been taken out of the ground.
Many large large areas of known mineralization on Seward Peninsula,
particularly around Council, have not been worked because of the still
troublesome transportation difficulties. Frank Whaley, one of the most
famous and reliable of Alaska's aviators, and a miner in his own right,
thinks he has the final solution to g etting the gold out of the tundra
of Seward Peninsula . with a technique which, H h e calls this technique 'Operation Helicopter.'
Whaley defines the problem as a race against time. The Seward Peninsula
miner has about 100 days out of the year when the partial thawing of the
permafrost layer s makes it possible for him to dig the ground. During
these 100 days the miner must travel into the wilds, decide on a particular
creek, haul supplies to the spot, and dig as many test holes as time
allows. As soon as the ground freezes again in the fall, the miner is
through work until next year's season. 'Operation Helicopter' would bring
a team of prospectors, geologists, and mining engineers to a previously
air-surveyed likely stretch of tundra, supply them with walkie-talkies,
pick up and carry geologists and engineers to sites which any of the pros–
010 | Vol_XII-0647
NIUKLUK RIVER
pectors reported as promising, and in this way complete a detailed examina–
tion of a large area in one working season. Any company planning to mane
gold in this manner would naturally need considerable capital as well as
a group of picked prospectors and scientists well-grounded in Alaskan
mining problems, additional camp personnel to free these men from all
time-consuming chores in camp, at least two helicopters, and a supply [ ?] and
spare-part base not more than 200 miles (ideally considerably less) from
the main prospecting activities. Whaley believes that this is the mining
technique of the future. If it succeeds, it will, of course, be in the
hands of large, already well-established companies, and the day of the
solitary prospector who packed his own supplies over the bog-like tundra,
panned a stream, perhaps made a strike, staked claims for himself, his
parents, sisters, brothers, and assorted relatives at home (for every
miner had power of attorney in the early days), and returned to civilization
over the refrozen tundra a rich man — those days will have disappeared
permanently into the pages of the history books on about Seward Peninsula.
011 | Vol_XII-0648
NIUKLUK RIVER
Sources:
Tewkesbury
V.S.G.B.
Colby
Sundborg
Hilseher, Herbert H. Alaska Now. Alaska Now. Boston, Little,Brown, 1948
Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska. Handbook of Alaska. 3d ed. N.Y., Scribner, 1925.
McKee, Lanier. Land of Nome Land of Nome . N.Y., Grafton (c1902)
Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula: a book of information Nome and Seward Peninsula: a book of information
[ ?] about Northwestern Alaska. about Northwestern Alaska. Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan
Press, c1905.Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough . Norman,
Oklahoma, Univ. of Oklahoma press, 1945.French, L.H. Seward's Land of Gold. Seward's Land of Gold. N.Y., Montross, Clarke & Emmons (n.d.)
French, L.H. Nome Nuggets. Nome Nuggets. N.Y., Montross, 1901.
001 | Vol_XII-0649
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
4,862 words Text
100 words, Bibl.
THE NOATAK RIVER, tributary to the northern end of Hotham
Inlet, which measures with an airline length of 220 airline miles from head to mouth, but whose an actual
course has been estimated at over 500 miles, is, next to the Kobuk, one of
the most extensive rivers in northwestern Alaska.In the main the river trends westward from a valley divide
in the midst of the Endicott and Schwatka Mountains at about 155° W. Long.
to about 162° W. Long. where it bends sharply southward to Hotham Inlet.
Relief One of the notable features of the Noatak is the variability
of the terrain through which it travels, the basin allowing
of division into six topographically distinct regions. These are: the headwater
mountains; the Aniuk Lowland; the second highland; the Mission Lowland; the
Igichuk Hills, and the coastal lowland.The mountains overlooking the first sixty or seventy miles
of the river rise to over 8,000 feet, with a peak 8,800 feet high only about
five miles south of its headwaters. From a stee p -sided cut in the mountains,
the river pushes northwestward until the valley is perhaps two or three
miles wide, the course of the stream meandering, and its bed increased to a
width of about three hundred feet. Some small glaciers, none more than one or
two miles long, are known to exist in this part of the Schwatka Mountains,
but never below an elevation of 5,000 feet.There are several passes from the Alatna to this headwater
section of the Noatak, one by Lucky Six Pass, and another by Gull Pass. The
pass used by the 1911 Geological Survey expedition is about 1,000 feet above
the Noatak and only about eight or nine miles long (airline). The total
distance between boatin g water on the Alatna and the head of canoe navigation
on the Noatak by way of this pass is only about eleven and one-half miles, so
that this route is particularly suitable for a canoe portage. Gull pass is
002 | Vol_XII-0650
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
at least 1,000 feet higher and much longer.Opposite the mouth of Lucky Six Creek there is a pass into
Reed River, a tributary to the Kobuk. This pass is steep and difficult, but
horses may be taken over it.For the next seventy or more miles the mountains recede from
the river leaving a valley ten to thirty-five miles wide known as the Aniuk Low–
land. The river here turns more nearly westward and attains a width of one–
eighth of a mile, all the while sweeping around large angular bends and
twisting through numberless smaller meanders at a velocity of two to three
miles per hour. an hour.Small boats may navigate this section of the river without
difficulty except during periods of very low water, when exposed boulders in
the river bed cause dangerous rapids, or when [ ?] periods of high water transform
this section into a swift torrent.McLenegan gives a remarkable description of his one-day
descent of 150 miles of this Aniak Lowland section in a frantic but finally
successful effort to reach a cache of food , left far downstream on the river
bank , before the water should have risen and carried it away."Rocks which before were plainly visible," he wrote, "were
now partly hidden by the flood, and every faculty was required to avert con–
stantly impending destruction. In places of this kind the speed at which we
traveled left no time for debate; an obstruction was no sooner sighted than
we were upon it. Now resting on our paddles while borne swiftly along, the
next moment we were straining every muscle to avoid the rocks which suddenly
loomed up ahead and towards which we were dashing with locomotive speed. In
places where the rocks were entirely submerged, the canoe seemed to be drawn
toward them by some irresistible force, and before we learned to detect these
places we had more than one escape from disaster. My fears in regard to the
003 | Vol_XII-0651
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
cache were greatly increased by finding those of the natives in very precarious
situations, a fact which proved the flood to be almost unprecedented in extent...
The rain continued at intervals during the day, and from the appearance of the
banks it was evident the river had not reached the high-water mark...The long
twilight of the Arctic summer fell upon us we entered the flats through which
the Noatak flows before entering the Mountains beyond."To my dismay, however, the river was found to spread over the
entire section...The main channel, on [ ?] the banks of which the cache lay,
could not be distinguished...Thus we drifted onward, tired and despondent, when,
about a half mile below, a clump of willows was seen, around and through which
the waters of the swollen river were washing...As we were borne swiftly by I
recognized the spot, and with an exclamation of joy we dropped our paddled and
grasped the overhanging boughs to check the mad career of the canoe. A moment
later the precious burden was lashed to the bidarka, and we determined to seek
the first suitable place for camping."Under normal conditions, the river, having incised its bed,
lies below the general level of the flat valley bottom and is hammed in by steep
gravel walls from fifty to two hundred feet high. Even so, it floods out over
the plain in some places and, in others, abandoned courses are preserved as
lakes.Still farther downstream the Baird Mountains on the south and
the Brooks and De Long Mountains on the north constrict the river valley to
only a few miles in width. This mountainous topography, which rises to heights
of two and three thousand feet, extends along the river for another six ty or
more miles forming the second highland district of the Noatak.This part of the river is form one-eighth to one-quarter of
a mile wide and, although it bends abruptly in several places, there are no
well-developed meanders since the stream here is in a comparatively youthful
004 | Vol_XII-0652
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
stage. Gravel terraces from fifty to one hundred feet high overlook the
river, and higher terraces also occur although they are not so noticeable.
A narrow canyon, perhaps six hundred to eight hundred feet deep, with rocky walls
on both sides, constricts the western end of this part of the river. Currents
in the canyon are swift, and the water deep. During heavy rains, the water
level rises rapidly above the canyon but falls again quickly, the differential
sometimes being as great as eight feet in a single day. It was such a
partially-dammed flood as this which swept McLenegan down-river at such speed
in August of 1885.Below the canyon, which is only a few miles from 162° W.Long.,
the Noatak bends southward and enters another lowland area about fifty miles
long and from twenty to thirty miles wide. This is the Mission Lowland.
The Baird Mountains bound this region on the north, and the Igichuk Hills inter–
rupt it on the south. The braided and meandering river bed is here surrounded by
a lake-strewn exp a n se at the most only a few hundred feet above the level of
the river."The river now widened," wrote McLenegan,"into a stream of
twice its ordinary breadth, dotted with islands, and covering a vast tract of
plains...The banks are very low, and the river presented a perfect maze of
channels, none of which are well defined or apparently of permanent character...
At this time [ July ] the river was at a very high stage. Later, however,
many of these channels become dry and the Noatak is confined to a definite bed."The Igichuk Hills, trending east and west athwart the direc–
tion of the river, attain heights of from 1500 to 2000 feet and persist for
between five and fifteen miles. On the east these hills join those south
of the Squirrel River (q.v.), in the Kobuk system, which in turn are part
of the Baird Mountains. To the west the Igichuk Hills dwindle to nothing
in the vicinity of Cape Krusenstern. Above one thousand feet they are bare
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NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
rock, affording a great choice of landmarks for travellers to the region.The Noatak cuts this range in another narrow gorge between
400 and 600 feet deep, where the rough bedrock projects into and above the
river in fantastic forms and pinnacles.Escaping from the hills, the Noatak makes a wide meander
across the low coastal plain before entering the northern end of H otham Inlet.
This plain is hardly more than 200 feet above sea level and is often submerged
by the waters of Kotzebue Sound during periods of high water.With the exception of the last two miles of the river, this
plain retains its truly coastal nature and does not assume that of a delta.
For its final two miles, however, the Noatak splits up into distributaries,
although it may not in any sense be said to have developed a delta comparable
to that of the Kobuk (q.v.). Lakes and marshes, both delta characteristics,
do occur in great numbers on both sides of the river for ten miles above its
mouth, but, on the other hand, the braided and meandering river bed is here
surrounded by a lake-strewn expanse gravel benches fifty or more feet
in height appear as far downstream as the first distributary. This plain is
of marine origin, having been laid down under water, uplifted, and later partly
dissected.Near the river the plain is fairly well drained, but farther
away from the stream the thawing of the surface during the summer makes of it an
almost impassable morass. As would be expe cted, the entire Noatak region is
within the permafrost zone (q.v.).Throughout this coastal section, the Noatak is about one
mile wide, with a gentle current, and very few islands or sand bars. Although
it is nowhere remarkably deep, it carries a depth of from twe n l ve to fifteen
feet in the channel.
006 | Vol_XII-0654
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
With careful navigation of the channels at its entrance,
where the Noatak is extremely shallow, the river will carry launches drawing
three feet or a little more as far upstream as Noatak settlement, but above
this point the stream is particularly blocked by boulders, although small
[ ?] launches have ascended to a point just above the upper canyon, and canoes
may complete the ascent of the river. Because of the strength of the current
everywhere except for a few miles above the mouth, very little progress can
be made upstream by rowing or sailing, but the trip is possible [ if ?] tracking
is frequently resorted to by tracking.
Tributaries Lucky Six Creek, one of the earliest tributaries to the
Noatak, heads near Gull pass, the name for the above-mentioned
portage to the Alatna. Portage Creek also flows in from the east a few miles
below Lucky Six. About twenty-five miles (airline) below this point, the
Ipmiluik enters from the south, and, a little over ten miles farther downstream,
Midas Creek comes in from the north. A great many other tributaries join the
Noatak throughout this first mountainous stretch of its course, , but their
names do not appear on recent maps.Aniuk River (q.v.), the first major affluent to the Noatak,
enters that stream from the north a few miles east of 158° W.Long., 68° N.Lat.,
and gives its name to the first lowland section of the main river. Cutler
River flows in from the south a little over ten miles below the Aniuk, and the
Nimiuk, sometime called Indian River, enters some forty or fifty miles
downstream near the eastern en d of the first lowland section. The mouth of
the N imiuk lies on 160° W.Long. It is reported that for more than five
miles above its junction with the Noatak, the Nimiuk splits up into a maze
of channels separated by low sandy islands.Stoney called the Cutler, Caribou River, but this name was not
published until after the other had already been adopted. The Cutler carries
007 | Vol_XII-0655
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
at least half as much water as does the Noatak above its junction with the Cutler this confluence,
and drains an extensive region between the Noatak and the Kobuk.Between this point and the canyon at the end of this second
mountainous section of the Noatak, a great many small mountain torrents enter
both from the north and the south, but they are still nameless on modern maps.
← Just east of 162° W.Long., the Kugururok (q.v.) comes in
from the north. The valley of this river would seem to be the dividing line
between the Brooks and De Long Mountains .The only named tributaries to the Mission Lowland section of
the Noatak are Kelly River from the north, some ten miles below the mouth of
the Kugururok, and the Agashashok from the east, just above the Igichuk Hills.The Agashashok heads far back in the Baird Mountains and
probably receives some water from the western side of these hills as well.
For a considerable distance across the Mission Lowlands, it flows almost
parallel with the Noatak, until that stream suddenly swings eastward just
above the Igichuk Hills to meet the [ ?] Agashashok.There are relatively few affluents to the Noatak throughout in
the Mission Lowland district because the pox of lakes and marshes throughout
the area so effectively drains the surrounding countryside as to make the
formation of a stream almost impossible.The Igichuk Hills are so narrow and low that they afford only
a small run-off, with the consequence that streams tributary to this part of
the Noatak are short and small. The only named affluent is the Igichuk River,
which enters the Noatak from the east. The Igichuk has an over-all length
of only fifteen or twenty miles. At the point at which it enters the Noatak,
that river is so sluggish that the Igichuk has built up a small delta.There is one fairly large tributary coming in from the east
below the Igichuk Hills, but it is not named. Whatever other tiny tributaries
008 | Vol_XII-0656
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
there may be to may join this coastal section of the Noatak are un charted on recent
maps.Vegetation and Animal Life The vegetation in the Noatak basin is typically arctic and
sub-arctic.Entering the Noatak from Hotham Inlet, McLenegan, of the
Corwin expedition of 1885, noticed "a scattered growth of Arctic willows
extending to the water's edge, and an occasional spruce." A scant four miles
farther upstream, where the banks become higher and therefore better drained,
timber became more prevelent, although it was still stunded.Willow, alder, and poplar bushes are common in the lowland
sections bordering the river, but, as the elevation increases, vegetation
decreases until even the hardiest grasses disappear from the steepest slopes
and from the peaks of the mountains. The natives use the scrubby bushes
fringing the lowland waterways to make the frameworks for their huts.Spruce, averaging about eight inches in diameter, appears
for the first time along the Noatak j ust a few miles east of the canyon in
the vicinity of 162° W.Long. This growth of timber continues downstream as a
narrow fringe on the banks of the river to a point about half way between the
Igichuk Hills and the mouth of the river. Throughout the remainder of the
Noatak valley, spruce is completely absent. This is in marked contrast
to the Kobuk region, immediately to the south, which has a growth of spruce
along its entire length. The absence of timber on the Noatak is a handicap
to the development of the mineral resources of the region, since all building
material must be brought in from Outside. Smith remarks that the existence
of permafrost throughout this area is not a dominating influence on the
growth or lack of timber, since "spruce may be seen growing almost immediately
on top of clear ice."The valley grass down does not supply as much nourishment
009 | Vol_XII-0657
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
as that of the lower hill slopes and is not suitable for the permanent
pasturage of pack animals. Like much of the grass along the Squirrel (q.v.),
to the south, it is heavily weighted with water and supplies only a small
percentage of food value in comparison with its bulk.In 1911, the United States government introduced a herd of
reindeer between the mouth of the Noatak and Cape Krusenstern, the northern
entrance point to Kotzebue Sound. This herd found the supply [ ?] of
reindeer moss in this locality sufficient for survival.Blueberries, cranberries, currants, and salmon berries are
most plentiful in the lowlands, and furnish an important part of the local
food supply to whites and natives alike. The natives are particularly apt to
freeze great quantities of these berries for use during the winter, and they
sometimes allow them to freeze on the bushes, after which they can be knocked
off with clubs and more easily cleaned of leaves and twigs.From his observations on the 1911 Geological Survey expedition,
Smith concluded that game was, on the whole, more abundant in the Noatak than
in the Alantna region.Sheep are so numerous in the headwater mountains that natives
from as far away as the Kobuk travel over the mountains to this region every
year for their winter meat supply. The name Ipmiluik, which identifies one of
the rivers of this region section , is said to mean "sheep." On their annual hunting
trips, many natives use this river in order to reach the Noatak from the Kobuk.
Smith also reports seeing some wolverine as well as fox, mink, and squirrel
in these mountains.Kobuk natives also come to the Anuik Lowland to hunt caribou.
Fox, marten, and wolves also inhabit this part of the river valley. Although
Smith himself did not see any game birds there, he noticed great piles of
ptarmigan bones around the many hawks' nests which he examined, proving that
010 | Vol_XII-0658
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
they did exist in the neighborhood.Downstream from the second highland, the caribou and
sheep disappear, but bear become fairly numerous. Great numbers of game birds,
such as ptarmigan, ducks, geese, and cranes, are obvious even to the human
predator in this Mission Lowland section. Smith also reports seeing crowds
of seal in the shallow waters of this part of the Noatak, "looking at a distance,"
he adds, "like masses of sand."Salmon, grayling, and trout are found in the Noatak but not
in as great numbers as exist in the Kobuk. Most of the Noatak natives go
down to Kotzebue (q.v.) during the salmon run in order to lay in a supply of
fish for the winter.Climate Temperatures on the Noatak do not differ appreciably from
those on the Kobuk (q.v.), except in so far as they may be
a few degrees cooler the year around.No complete records have been kept on the climate of the
Noatak region, since the Weather Bureau has never opened a station there, but
it would appear that the highest readings occur during June, July, and
August, and may reach the mid-eighties, while the most extreme low temperatures
occur during January and F ebruary, when the mercury has been known to fall to
ࢤ50° F. or even somewhat lower.McLenegan has much more to say about the cold from which he
suffered during August of 1885 than from any extraordinary heat, but it would
appear that that particular summer was unusually rainy and windy. These two
circumstances, combined with the fact that he and his companion spent a large
amount of time wading in the icy waters of the river itself, might explain his
[ ?] giving such a wintry description of the Noatak summer.Without any dou b t temperatures in different parts of the
Noatak basin would differ greately at all times of year. Those at Noatak,
011 | Vol_XII-0659
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
for instance, since they would be steadied by the large bodies of water
relatively nearby, would have a smaller range than those in the upper moun–
tainous section hundreds of miles inland. Extremely high or low temperatures
always occur in the interior of a country protected either by distance o r
an intervening mountain chain from the regulatory effect of some large body
of water, be it gulf, lake, or ocean.The precipitation curve on the Noatak is similar to that
on the Kobuk. Summer precipitation in the form of rain is heaviest during
July and August, dropping off sharply in September. Smith estimated that of the
sixty-four days which he spent in the Alatna-Noatak district, rain fell during
thirty-seven of them.Precipitation in the form of snow begins in September and
continues into June, the largest amount falling in November and December, with
a considerably lighter but persistent fall throughout the next six months.
McLenegan noted that snow remained on some of the higher peaks the year around.Total precipitation for the year averages between fifteen
and seventeen inches, but the countryside is exactly the opposite of the aid
waste such a low record would seem to imply. Smith explains this circumstance
in the following words: "A region of small precipitation is usually pictured
as devoid of water, but in northern Alaska water is almost everywhere. The sur–
face of the country during the summer is commonly wet and swampy, and water
stands on the surface in ponds and lakes. The streams, unless they traverse a
broad belt of limestone, show no marked diminution of volume but constantly
increase in size toward their lower courses. All these features are due in
large measure to the permanently frozen condition of the subsoil, which makes
removal of surface water by percolation and by underground migration impossible."Furthermore, the low elevation of the sun, even during the
summer, prevents rapid evaporation. The rainfall or snowfall thus stands on the
012 | Vol_XII-0660
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
sur f ace or collects in the low areas where the slope is not sufficient to
induce surface run-off. Then again, the upper 6 to 18 inches of the frozen
zone melts during the summer and thus produces wet, soggy footing that is most
unlike any preconceived idea of a dry country. Furthermore, the precipation does
not come in deluging cloud-bursts, separated by long intervals of low precipitation
as in the countries more often referred to as arid, but comes in numerous light
showers or heavy mists. As illustrative of this condition may be cited the
experience of travelers in this general region."The conditions here described pertain not only to the Noatak,
but to great stretches of Alaska where permafrost (q.v.) exists but becomes partially
thawed during the summer.Settlements Although certain of the tributaries to the Noatak have settle–
ments on their banks, there are none on the main river above
Noatak (67° 34′ N.Lat., 163° W.Long.), a little over fifty miles (airline) up
from the mouth.As late as 1911, this settlement was known as Noatak Mission,
because of the establishment of a Friends' mission there. The two town was
located on a gravel terrace on the west bank and consisted of a church, a school–
house, a nd several sturdily built cabins. Most of the inhabitants, both white
and Eskimo, spent the summer months trading and fishing in the vicinity of
Kotzebue, or fishing farther up the Naotak itself, but the population resumed
residence of the village for the rest of the year. Smith estimated in 1911
that less than one hundred white people lived in the basin of the Noatak,
even after including the large town of Kotzebue, and that not over 250 natives
lived along the Noatak and Alatna river the combined native population of
the Noatak and Alatna basins did not exceed 250. This indicated a population
of one person for every fifty square miles of territory.By 1930, Noatak had dropped the word "Mission" from its name
013 | Vol_XII-0661
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
and had assumed some of the characteristics of a permane nt village. It was
by this time a strictly Eskimo settlement, with a population of several
hundred. The school, supported by the U.S. Bureau of Education, was run by
two very competent Eskimos and had an attendance of about forty pupils. The
reindeer herd still existed in the neighborhood and was cared for by several
native herders. The little town had two stores carrying a small stock of
supplies, one a so-called "native" store operating in Connection with the
reindeer business, and the other a branch of a Kotzebue store.Smith, writing in 1930, remarks that the Noatak basin
contains very few signs of abandoned town sites. One such would seem to have
been Anuik, at the mouth of the strems of that name, another Shotkoaluk, about ten
miles above Aniuk, and another Nimiuk, near the stream leading to Riley Pass.According to the 1939 Census, Noatak had a population of
336, an Alaska Native Service school, the Friends' Mission, which has been
there so long,a post office, a general store, and a 1500-foot landing strip.Mining As late as 1911, gold had been found only in the headwater
region of the Noatak and there only in two small areas. One
placer was then at work on Lucky Six Creek.Gold had first been discovered there in 1898, and many small
parties had visited the region from that time forward, but the extreme
inaccessibility of the region, the briefness of the summer, and the lack of
timber restricted its development, by combining to reduce the working season
to only a few days.One early party had logs whipsawed by hand on Reed River
and hauled by dogs and men the thirty miles over the divide to Lucky Six
Creek. Spruce could can also be brought into this area from the Alatna valley
twelve (airline) miles away, but the time and labor involved in transporting
such heavy loads over the 1,000-foot divide greatly reduced the attraction
this region might have had for gold miners.
014 | Vol_XII-0662
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
Exploration Although both kotzebue (q.v.), who discovered the Sound which
bears his name, and Beechey (q.v.),who continued the inves–
tigation of the Kotzebue area, sailed past or very close to the mouth of the
Noatak, neither mentions this important tributary to Hotham Inlet.John Simpson, surgeon for the Plover , during his search
for the Franklin party, explored Hotham Inlet and made the first map which con-
known to contain any indication of the Noatak. Simpson called this stream
the Nunalak or Inland River and charted only its lower section, although he
reports "on native authority" that it continues far inland.Dall, who accompanied the Western Union Telegraph Expedition
of the mid-186′s, made a map of the northwestern part of Alaska showing the
lower Noatak (which he also called Inland River), but identified it as a
described it as one of the "small, unexplored streams" of the region.
"They are prolonged," he added, "to fill up the unexplored spaces on most
maps." This quotation is intended not to disparage Dall but merely to
indicate the extent and duration of the lack of knowledge of this part of
Alaska.No white man is known to have visited the Noatak after Dall
until S.B. McLenegan was detailed to explore it in 1885. With a seaman
named Nelson, he started the ascent on July 2 in a 27-foot boat. McLenegan's
report was practically the only source of information about the Noatak until
the U.S. Geological Survey expedition of 1911. McLenegan plotted the course
of the river about sixty miles too far east and made very few observations
except along his immediate route, but his general mapped form of the course
was excellent and the amount of data obtained truly remarkable considering
the difficulty of the trip and the bad weather he encountered.
015 | Vol_XII-0663
NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
During the winter of 1885/86, W.L. Howard, of the Stoney
expedition to the Kobuk, reached the Noatak by way of the Ambler, continued
up the Noatak and over the divide to the Colville. After traveling down that
river for some time, he crossed the portage to the Chipp and form there attained
Point Barrow.The original of Stoney's report was lost, and we have only
his resumé published ten years later which barely mentions this side trip of
Howard's. Stoney does say, however that Ensign Reed visited the Notak
during July of 1886, remaining away for ten days. Since no mention is made
of Noatak Canyon, it may safely be assumed that this expedition did not con–
tinue downstream as far as 162° W.Long. Stoney's map contains a good rep–
presentation of the lower Noatak, but the middle and upper remainder of the course is unrecognizableThe U.S. Geological survey party of 1911 reached the Naotak
by way of the [ ?] a portage from the Alatna. They then descended the
Noatak to its mouth. Between the time of their arrival at the mouth of
the Alatna on July 1 and at Kotzebue, on August 27, the party completed a
ge elogical and topographical survey of nearly 10,000 square miles of territory,
three quarters of which was within the Noatak basin. Much of the information
given above was obtained from the official report of this expedition which
appeared as Bulletin 536 of the U.S. Geological Survey.
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NOATAK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Brooks, A.H. Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 Mineral Resources of Alaska...1910 .Washigton, 1911.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 480)McLenegan, S.B. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue-Marine Steamer Corwin, Report of the Cruise of the Revenue-Marine Steamer Corwin,
in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1885 in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1885 . Washington, 1887.
(pp.53-83. Map)Smith, P.S. & Mertie, J.B., Jr. Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern
Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1930. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Bulletin Bulletin 815)Smith, P.S. Noatak-Kobuk Region, Alaska . Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin 536)Stewart, R.L. Prospecting in Alaska Prospecting in Alaska . Juneau, Alaska, 1944.
Twekesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index, 1947 Twekesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index, 1947 . Juneau,
Alaska, 1947.U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska Part II. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska Part II.
Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean. Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean. 5th (1947)ed. Washington, 1947.
001 | Vol_XII-0665
Ruby Collins
September, 1948
Text - 13,780 wds
Bibl - 700 wdsNOME
NOME (64° 30′ N.Lat., 165° 23′ W. Long.), Norton Sound, Alaska, [Read partly around Oct 10, rest Oct 27/48 Excellent. Reindeer and former sections should perhaps be shortened a little, because handled elsewhere. JS?] the largest city
on Seaward Peninsula, and the site of the gold rush of 1900 which lured
thousands of men away from their homes in the States, for homes or gold fields of newote countries like SouthAfrica and Australia, and even from the promise
of riches in the Klondike, lies on the beach at the mouth of the Snake River
in the southern part of Seward Peninsula.The establishment of a U.S. Weather Bureau station there [ ?]
has dispelled the notion that Nome is one of the coldest spots in "Uncle Sam's
Icebox." As shown by the following chart (See below) the temperature [ ?] sometimes
drops to the -40′s in winter but rises to the mid-70's in summer. The average
winter temperature is - + 10°F. These winter readings could be matched in many mid–
western communities in the States.Contrary to most popular notions concerning the weather of
the Nome area, the most dangerous storms blow up not from the north, for broad
Seward Peninsula itself protects Norton Sound from northerly winds, but rather
from the south. As will be seen from the chart, these winds prevail during
July and August, although they occur at other times of the year as well,
and have the effect of raising the water on the Nome beach, whereas northerly
winds lower it. Since this section of Norton Sound is relatively shallow,
[Some long pgfs should be broken up wherein a logical subject division is found.?] these southerly storms have an almost instantaneous effect on the level of
the water and, with little or no warning, begin to send huge breakers up the
Nome beach. In such weather, deep-draft vessels, which must, in any case,
anchor at least a mile off the coast, are forced either to put out to sea
or to seek the protection of tiny Sledge Island, about 5 miles offshore and
25 miles west of Nome. Similarly, before the fury of one of these southerly
storms, the situation of the lighters and barges, by which all freight is
beached at Nome, is precarious. A landing of any kind is impossible, and these
25[ls?]
002 | Vol_XII-0666
NOME
smaller vessels, lacking the power necessary to achieve Sledge Island,
must sometimes ride out the storm, although, in the controlled language
of the U.S. Coast Pilot Guide , "the anchorage is unsafe." Neither this anchorage
nor the mouth of the Snake River has ever been dredged out so as to provide
protection from these vicious storms. On November 1, 1946, three weeks
after a similar storm had taken two lives, a freezing gale hurled towering
waves bearing huge, jagged pieces of sea ice up the beach and against the
business structures along Front Street, innundating warehouses, demolish–
ing a bar, a theater, a bakery, a fire station, two restaurants, and the
City Hall. The Alaska Committee of the Seattle Chamber of Commerce,
then recommended that the business district be relocated and a permanent
breakwater, at an estimated cost of $150.00 per linear foot, be built along
2,500 feet of the Nome Beach. At the present writing, no such protective
measures have been taken, and Nome continues to suffer from these southerly
storms much as we shall see she has in the past.The seasons make more differen ce to the citizens of Nome than
they do to the inhabitants of lands farther south. The freezing over of
Norton Sound closes Nome to navigation from about the end of October to
mid-May or early June, and the sun is not as reliable as it is in the
Temperate Zone more southerly latitudes. On the shortest winter day
the sun is up not quite 4 hours, while it is out of sight only about 2
hours on the longest day of summer. Starting about the first of May and
continuing until the middle of August there is never the complete dark–
ness which is generally associated with night. However, because the
southern part of Seward Peninsula is below the Arctic Circle, the midnight
sun is never visible from Nome.See table with page (temporarly with carbon)
003 | Vol_XII-0667
Nome Weather Report - 1947 T= Trace
Temp. of the Air Mean Relative Humidity Total Precipitation in Inches Wind Clear Days Cloudy and Partly Cloudy Days Snow fall Total in Inches Maximum Velocity Average Hourly Velocity MPH Prevailing Direction. Max. Date Min. Date MPH Direct. Jan. 32° 3° ࢤ37° 15th- 96 1.29 66 E 12.0 E 12 19 13.1 Feb. 47° 8 ࢤ42° 5 86 0.65 56 E 17.3 E 7 21 4.1 Mar. 33° 18 ࢤ38 13 82 0.10 43 NE 9.4 N 18 13 1.5 Apr. 40° 21 ࢤ4° 1 82 0.15 37 NE 11.6 E 8 22 1.6 May 68° 30 10° 1 81 0.66 36 E 13.5 E 2 29 1.4 June 73° 18 34° 6 76 0.46 34 W 11.9 W 7 23 0.0 July 75° 21 40° 9 88 3.79 36 SE 12.1 SE 2 29 0.0 Aug. 65° 6 32° 29 86 3.10 47 SE 11.8 SW 2 29 T Sept. 56° 8 23° 30 84 1.78 36 N 13.0 N 4 26 0.7 Oct. 50° 7 ࢤ2° 30 81 1.00 39 E 14.0 N 7 24 8.1 Nov. 44° 23 ࢤ12° 11 90 1.49 45 NE 14.0 E 8 22 10.1 Dec. 33° 5 ࢤ28° 29 92 0.77 45 N 11.9 N 6 25 8.0
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NOME
Nome is built on ground which is perpetually frozen below a
depth of from 1 to 2 1/2 feet. This natural phenomenon is called permafrost
and creates certain engineering problems well known to the contractors and
the h ome owners in Nome. All structures, big and little, heave and settle
with the vagaries of the frost in the ground, and, if one wants to keep
his house on a level foundation, it is necessary to prop it up at different
points every one or two years. The beach, which still displays some of
the litter left over from the gold rush days, rises gradually around and
behind the town and becomes the treeless , grassland moss- and sedge-grown tundra,
characteristic of all the surrounding countryside. Small willows and
alder may grow along the creeks, but there is no timber large enough
for the building of even a one-room cabin. However, because of the
frequency and turbulence of the southerly storms in this section of Norton sound,
driftwood , from the Yukon rivers and farther south, is relatively plentiful. Excepting what could be brought in from
Outside, this driftwood was the material from which, the in 1899, the more substantial structures in the young town of
Nome were was built. in 1899.Founding of Nome In 1870, Dall estimated the population of the entire coast of
Norton Sound at about 10 Russians, 10 Creoles, and 1,000
Natives. He added that these figures were "if anything, above rather than
below the actual number." In 1898, the year the Nome story opens, no
whites and less than a dozen N atives were reported for the Cape Rodney
to Cape Nome section of this coast. No one could have guessed that a town
of 18,000 people would spring up at the mouth of the Snake River within
the next two years.
005 | Vol_XII-0669
NOME
In July, 1898, a party, said to include H.L. Blake, N.C.
Hultberg, J.J. Brynteson, and J.L Haggalin, sailed westward from Golovnin
Bay (q.v.) in search of gold. Their destination was the Sinuk River, just
below Cape Rodney, but a strom drove them to shore near the mouth of the
Snake River. While stormbound, they prospected along the Snake and up the
future Anvil Creek, and, although they found fine gold colors on the first
and coarser gold on the second stream, they did not consider them encourage–
ing. With the subsiding of the storm, they continued on to the Sinuk,
where they found nothing. Disappointed, and without realizing that they
had walked over the richest beach deposits in all of Seward Peninsula,
they returned to Golovnin Bay.Meanwhile, Jafet Lindeberg, an unemployed reindeer herder (q.v.),
John Brynteson, a Michigan coal miner (q.v.), and Erik O. Lindblom, an
adventurous tailor (q.v.) were converging on Council City. It may cer–
tainly be assumed that these three men all heard of Blake's July trip
upon their arrival at Golovnin Bay, and that they discussed it after they
met in Council, in August. Finding Council "staked to the mountain tops",
they formed a prospecting partnership, returned together to Golovnin Bay,
and, on September 11, 1898, set out in a large open boat to examine the
coast as far as west as Cape Rodney. Prospecting as they went, they finally
arrived at the mouth of the Snake River. "From there we proceeded up
Snake River, which we named," Lindeberg writes, "and camped at the mouth
of Glacier Creek [ ?] . . . After locating our camp . . . we pro–
ceeded to prospect along the tributaries of Snake River, which tributaries
we named as follows: Anvil Creek (taking the name from an anvil-shaped rock
which stands on the mountain on the east side of the creek), Snow Gulch,
Glacier Creek, Rock Creek, and Dry Creek, in all of which we found gold in
006 | Vol_XII-0670
NOME
paying quantities, and proceeded to locate claims, first on Anvil Creek,
because we found better prospects in that creek than in the others, and
where we located the "discovery claim" in the name of us three jointly.
In addition to this, each man staked a separate claim in his own name on
the creek . . . the universal custom in Alaska, as it was conceded that the
discoverer was entitled to a discovery claim and one other. After locating
on Anvil Creek, claims were staked on Snow Gulch, Dry Creek, and Rock Creek,
after which we returned to Golofnin Bay and reported the discovery."Lindeberg, Brynteson, and Lindblom, having decided to form a
mining district in the Snake River [ ?] area, immediately organized a
larger party, which included including Dr. A. N. Kittleson, G.W. Price, and P.H. Anderson,
returned to the Snake River, elected Kittleson recorder for the district,
formulated rules for the staking of the creeks, prospected and staked
some more claims and finally returned to Golovnin Bay for winter quarters.
The news spread to Council City, St. Micheal, and even the Yukon country,
and soon the wild stampede began, which was to continue all winter, began ."At this period," continues Lindeberg, "very few mining men
were in the country, the newcomers in many instances being from every
trade known. The consequence of this was soon well known; a few men with
a smattering of education gave their own interpretation to the mining laws,
hence jumping mining claims soon became an active industry. Especially
from Council City came the jumpers , who were the . . .They were angry to
think that they had not been taken in at the beginning, so a few of them
promptly jumped nearly every claim on Anvil Crook, although there was an
abundance of vacant and unlocated ground left which has since proved to be
more valuable than the original claims . . . This jumping . . . poisoned the
minds of all the newcomers against every original locator of mining claims,
007 | Vol_XII-0671
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and as a consequence every original claim was relocated by from one to a
dozen different parties." The most troublesome of these "Council City
jumpers" was H.L. Blake, of the July, 1898, party, who considered that the
had a right to the Anvil Creek claims through having prospected them
before Lindeberg and his group had heard of the district, this despite the
fact a t hat he, Blake, had pronounced the area relatively worthless. In the
face of such thorough-going opposition Lindeberg and his partners, with
legal support from Judge L. B. Shepard, the United States commissioner at
St. Michael, hauled supplies in to Snow Gulch and Anvil Creek early in
1899 and began active mining. Every day, however, added to the crowd of
"lawless men" in Anvil City, as the town was then called, who joined forces
with the Council City jumpers and continued to cause trouble. One of the
reasons for this "trouble" was that by the end of 1898 the right of staking
by power of attorney had been so overworked that abou 40 men held 7,000
acres in claims. It was, of course, impossible that for so few men [ ?] actually
to work this number of claims, a condition which constituted an open
invitation to the jumpers.Meanwhile, news of the finds reached St. Michael, 100 miles away,
and even traveled the 900 miles up the Yukon to Dawson. The stampede of
miners from Dawson, Fortymile, Circle, and Rampart down the Yukon to Kaltag
and from there overland to Anvil City was immediate and torrential.
Formerly a faint and little used winter trail, the route turned into a
broad, hard-packed snow highway. Late in the spring winter some even made the
trip on bicycles. Roadhouses sprange up every 20 or 25 miles along the way,
and the value of dogs, mules, and horses all along the Yukon tripled over–
night, so eager were these miners to stake their c la ims on Anvil Creek
before the inevitable, rush from Outside could begin.
008 | Vol_XII-0672
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By May, 1899, the new town had an estimated population of 250.
With the breakup of the ice in June several vessels from Puget Sound put in
at Anvil City and found a population of about 400 living in tents and a
few driftwood cabins. Mining had begun on June 20. The reports brought
back by these veseels on their return trip were the first reliable confirma–
tion of the many wild speculations Outside as to what was going on at Anvil
City. In the course of the summer several more ships put in there, and, by
the late fall of 1899, the exodus from the Yukon had swelled the population
to 3,000.Meanwhile relatively little actual mining, as compared with the
number of claims staked, was under way. Gold had actually been found only
on a small section of Anvil Creek, but almost all the ground on this and
other streams had been staked by power of attorney without any prospecting
having been done. The holders of these claims hoped to profit from new
discoveries made by others, but in the letter of the law such staking of
unprospected ground was illegal. During the summer of 1899 probably only
six or seven hundred men were actually engaged in mining, and over, whereas
over 1,000 were idle and unable either to find employment or, they insisted,
new ground to work. It is only to be expected that the claim jumping grew
to such proportions as to threaten the development of the entire district.
There was, of course, no civil government in the new town. Appeals could
be sent to Judge Shepard, at St. Michael, was but his response was necessarily
delayed. In an effort to correct this condition and "for the protection
of property," Kittleson asked that Captain E.S. Walker, of the U.S. Army,
and a few soldiers be sent up from St. [ ?] Michael. Their arrival did not
add to Kittleson's popularity in Anvil City. In 1905 he told Hess that
during that summer of 1899 "the original stakers on Anvil Creek who were
then attempting to work their claims practically had to stand over them with
009 | Vol_XII-0673
NOME
guns all the time to keep from being [ ?] overrun by parties of gamblers,
professional jumpers, and other riffraff." One is tempted to agree with
Alfred H. Brooks when he says: "Had these discontented men spent less time
in protesting and airing their grievances and more in prospecting they would
have been better off, as subsequent operations have shown that there remained
much valuable placer ground which had not then been preempted."On July 10, the unemployed malcontents called what they defined
as a "miner's meeting," although none of the actual claim holders was present.
It was decided in advance that at this meeting all existing claims should
be declared null and void. Informed of th a i s plan, Kittleson reported it to
the military authorities who detailed several soldiers to attend the meeting.
In his statement to Hess, [ ?] ittleson continues: "When the resolution was
introduced, declaring all the locations void and the land open for relocation,
the lieutenant ordered that the resolution be withdrawn within two minutes,
stating that he considered it not for the good of the community, and that if
it was not withdrawn he would clear the hall. The men tried to argue with
the lieutenant, but he was firm and at the end of the two minutes ordered
the sergeant ... to clear the hall, which was done." Well in advance of
this meeting, confederates had been stationed in the hills to await the
passing of this resolution and the setting off of bonfires in Anvil City
as a signal for them to descen d upon Anvil Creek and restake all the claims.
The failure of the resolution also spoiled this part of the plan.On July 13, the military, obviously confused by the conditions
in the town, posted an order which read in part: "All disputed titles,
whether to mining claims or town lots, shall at once be brought before
the civil authorities for settlement. So long as the civil authorities can
handle such matters the military authorities will take no action. In case
010 | Vol_XII-0674
NOME
it becomes necessary for the military authorities to act, the claim or
lot will be held in its condition at the time, neither party being allowed
to do any work to change the conditi l o n of the same." Taken literally
this order made all mining activity illegal, for every claim in the area
was disputed. It was not very many days, therefore, before a modification
was posted which read as follows: "The instructions contained in the order
of July 13, 1899, posted at Anvil City, will be amended so as to permit
original locators at work on their claims to continue their work in the
event that anyone jumps the claim. The matter can afterward be settled
by the civil authorities." The need was for a solution now, not "afterwards,"
and the appeal to "civil authorities" was a cry in the void, but, quite
suddenly, the immediate problems of the new mining town were solved by the
discovery of what proved to be the richest beach placers, or "poor-man's
diggings , " ever found.John Hummel, an old prospector from Idaho, went down to the beach.
A great many reasons have been given for his going there, and all of or none
of them may be true. Too weakened by scurvy to get to the gulches along
Anvil Creek, he is said to have wandered down to the shore for lack of
anything better to do. It may be that he planned to "avail himself of
the old time whaleman's cure of sand and salt water." Hummel would never
have found a cure for his scurvy in this treatment, but he did find gold
in the sands of the beach. Within a few days the news spread throughout
the area, and the unemployed miners, as well as some who were already
profitably at work on the creeks, flocked to the shore. Only the simplest
equipment was needed — a shovel, a wheelbarrow, a bucket on a long handle
for dipping up sea water, and the material for making a rocker or a long
tom. With this equipment a man could earn $20 to $100 a day on the beach.
2,000 men were very soon thus employed, and, it is estimated that $1,000,00027 [ls?]
011 | Vol_XII-0675
NOME
was removed with such primitive hand-powered equipment in the next two
months.But even this relatively harmless activity was not allowed
to proceed without interruption. One company, which had previously
staked a great many so-called "tundra" claims running inland from the water,
[ beach, ?] protested that it owned these strips of beach and must be paid a
royalty of 50¢ a day for the right to mine them. The miners maintained
that a 60-foot band above high water was public property, and went on
with their work. The company then asked help from the military, whose
commander warned that all trespassers on the beach would be arrested.
This order was ignored, and the commander arrested 300 men. But there
was no civil court or magistrate to hear the charge against them, no
jailhouse, and no money for their support while they awaited trial.
The prisoners were all perforce allowed to go free, and they all returned
to the beach. Sometime within the next few years this claim that a
60-foot strip of any beach was public property and open to all comers
was upheld by the Land Office.The pressure at Nome (the name was changed during the
summer of 1899) forced some miners to look for their fortune elsewhere.
These excursions resulted in the finding of gold on the Bonanza and
Solomon Rivers (See Solomon Region) to the east, although it was not
proved to exist in commercial quantities at this time, and on Cripple
and Penny Creeks to the west, which were named and staked during the
summer. At about the same time gold was found near Cape York, and the
York Mining District organized.The Nome of the fall of 1899 housed about 3,000 men in
hundreds of tents, in a few frame and galvanized-iron buildings, and an
an even smaller number of tiny driftwood cabins. As a result of the26 [ ls ?]
012 | Vol_XII-0676
NOME
beach placers, a boom struck Nome. Wages rose from $10.00 a day to
$2.00 an hour, and much of this money was spent every night in the
saloons and gambling houses which mushroomed all over town. Prices
were high, but almost everyone could afford them. Lumber at $100 to
$150 a thousand, and coal at $50 to $100 a ton found ready buyers,
as did eggs at $3.00 a doz [ ?] en and fresh reindeer meat imported from
Siberia at $1.00 a pound. One-room cabins with uncertain squatter's
titles sold for $600 to $700, and corner lots on main streets brought
$10,000. By the fall of 1899 Nome had elected a fire department, a
police force, a mayor, and a town council, which wrote and enforced
city ordinances by common c onsent, the NOME NEWS [ ?] had put out its first
issue, and the Federal government had established a post office and
appointed a United States commissioner for the new district.¶ After the confusion and trouble of mid-summer the town settled down to a
rea [ ?] onable amount of orderliness, for these first comers were mostly
serious-minded men — men dreaming of a fortune, perhaps, but still
willing to work for it. The migration of professional criminals,
Lindeberg's report notwithstanding, waited for the season of 1900.
The fall of 1899 was marked by an epidemic of typhoid which resulted
from the total lack of sanitary precautions and the use of tundra
surface waters for drinking. The only hospital, a small army establish–
ment, was unequal to the burden of 200 cases of typhoid at a time, so
that the mortality from this epidemic was very high.Brooks summarizes the results of this first mining sea–
son as follows : "Up to January 10, 1900, about 4,500 claims were
recorded in the Cape Nome district, but probably not more than 50
claims were developed and not more than 100 even prospected. These
26 [ls?]
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NOME
50 claims probably yielded over $1,500,000 in gold. The beach-mining
operations described above were more of a dramatic incident in the history
of the region than of permanent commercial significance, for the richest
part of the None beach was worked out the first year ... A result of far
greater importance than the actual mining was that some knowledge of the
character of the deposits and the condition of operations had been gained.
Although this information availed little to the more inexperienced men who
were to invade the peninsula during the following year, yet it was of great
practical benefit to those who did the actual mining in 1900."Season of 1900 The last steamers out of Nome in the fall of 1899 brought took
away an estimated 1,000 people whose reports about the
prospects of that fabulous country spread far and wide, not only throughout
Alaska, but also up and down the west coast of the United States. During
the winter of 1899-1900 a gold rush comparable to the great Klondike stampede
gathered steam. Several factors contributed to the failure of this rush and
to the growth, within the next year, of the generally held conviction that
Nome was a fake in the hands of swindlers and that there was no gold anywhere
in the district.In the first place, the most popular expectations
were also the farthest from the truth. The majority of the
1900 stampeders, not realizing that the beach had already been
well worked out, planned to arrive at Nome, to make a quick
haul on the beach, and leave by the next boat. They brought
with them but very little money, no supplies, hardly any mining
equipment, and no knowledge of the industry. Their hopes were
naturally doomed to failure.¶ Another popular belief was that
the beach deposits were constantly being renewed by the action
26 [ls?]
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NOME
of the water, from which premise it was argued that if a man
could earn $20.00 a day with one long tom or rocker, he needed
only larger and more equipment to earn $200.00 a day. Converts
to this line of reasoning invested in complicated, costly, and
hopelessly useless machinery with which to work the beach sands
and the supposedly rich but, of course, nonexistant underwater
deposits along the Nome beach.¶ Another cause for failure
was the appearance of an unprecedented number of gamblers,
professional promoters and shysters who chose this opportunity to
form illusory gold mining companies, for which they sold blocks of sto c k
and made extravagant promises. Numberless individuals lost
everything they had without their money ever leaving the States.
Even the mining companies with honest intentions failed in
almost every case through ignorance of fundamental mining
methods and of the true conditions in the Nome district.¶ Still Another very unfortunate circumstance for the new city was that it
could be reached so easily from Seattle and other west coast
ports. There was no Chilkoot Pass along the way to weed out
the weak, the lazy, and the indecisive from the able and
desirable citizens. The voyage up the coast was a pleasant one
except for the crowding on board ship to which most of the
stampeders had resigned themselves before sailing. Passengers
whiled away the ten-day trip by estimating the size of their
fortune future fortune , gambling it away, and taking pictures by the light of the
late setting sun.¶ By July 1, 1900, more than 50 ships had
left over 20,000 people plus their loads of freight on the Nome
beach. "The scene on the beach," French writes, "was absolutely
chaotic. Thousands of tons of freight of every conceivable
description were piled high from the water's edge far up the
beach and for two miles along the water front. Everything was
30 - 2 ﹍ 28 6
015 | Vol_XII-0679
NOME
in an appalling state of confusion. Machinery, all sorts of
supplies, hay, grain, lumber, hardware, provisions, liquor, tents,
stoves, pianos, sewing machines, mirrors, bar fixtures —
everything that one may imagine was there. The delivery of goods
to their rightful owners was next to impossible. In many
instances steamship companies claimed that their responsibility
for goods ceased when the goods went over the ship's side. As
this performance took place about a mile out to sea, a very
risky and expensive trip on lighters had still to be made before
the landing, through the surf, was accomplished... Goods once
on the beach were still far from their destination, even
though the actual distance to be covered was not great. Trans–
portation along the beach was either by wagon, at $10 an
hour — and a wagon could only haul haul only a few hundred pounds and
move at a snail's pace — or goods could be moved on lighters,
which were towed by steam or gasoline launches. The charges
made by these launches for such towing were frequently as high
as $500 a day... Hauling anything on the tundra was next to
impossible. Dog teams abounded. Six to twelve dogs, harnessed
tandem fashion, could pull a small wagon carrying not to exceed
two hundred pounds."The line of tents housing the 'established' citizens
stretched for over 5 miles along the beach, but newcomers were
lucky to arrive on shore with their hand luggage. Tents,
machinery, and other hold freight awaited the convenience of the
lighters, and was in most cases dumped without ceremony on the
beach where it lay a prey to the looters who nightly 'worked'
the beach for whatever they could carry away. Nome had one
27 - 2 ﹍ 25 6
016 | Vol_XII-0680
NOME
or two frame lodging houses, but no hotels, and a bunk cost
$2 or $3 a night, if one were available. Every night a small
army of men slept out of doors on the boxes and bales which
littered the beach. Food was ex orbitantly high. Three eggs
cost $1.00; bread, butter, and coffee, $1.50. The fortune–
hunters, who had come with very little money intending to live
on their earnings on the beach, discovered that those who had
stayed on during the winter of 1899-1900 had completed the
staking of the entire area, and that a man could travel for days
in any direction without seeing any unclaimed ground. The
beach itself was a solid mass of extraordinary appliances designed
to recover gold from above and below the waterline, for, despite
the advice of experts, almost all newcomers continued to believe
that the sea swept gold onto the beach with every lap of a wave.
As Brooks says, "There was a flood of gold-saving devices,
varying from a patent gold pan hung on a pivot and turned by
a crank to complex aggregates of wheels, pumps, sieves, and
belts, which required a 100-horsepower engine for their
operation." The most successful beach equipment was still the
light, simpole, portable rocker or long tom which could be carried
at a trot to any part of the beach where gold had been found.
Such finds were became daily less frequent, and were, in every case,
worked out in a few hours. The rumor was born that there was
no gold at Nome. A single, well-equipped company could have
made a fortune on the beach in 1900, but with so many individuals
pushing each other aside, no one few even made a living.Other kinds of misfortune struck Nome during that
summer of 1900. A smallpox epidemic was controlled only by the
28 - 2 ﹍ 266
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NOME
prompt action of Captain D. H. Jarvis, of the Revenue Cutter Service.
On August 9, a southwesterly storm ripped up the beach, destroyed all
the more elaborate 'permanent' appliances, smashed the piles of freight
and baggage, demolished most of the buildings al l o ng Front Street,
Nome's main thoroughfare which ran along the beach, and left behind
a mass of wreckage and debris. This storm put an end to beach placer
mining for the season, except by the owners of the few rockers and long
toms which had been saved from the debacle.The next chapter of the Nome story took place was written in Washington.
Up to this time, by the Act of 1884, Alaska had been governed according
to the laws pertaining in Oregon, that act having read in part: "The
general laws of the State of Oregon now in force are hereby declared
to be law in said district (Alaska)." Legally speaking, Alaska was an
extension of Oregon. The Oregon civil code contained two sections
legalizing the acquisition and holding of land and the title thereto
by aliens. In 1899, under the protection of this law, Lindeberg and
his partners had, for a considerable sum, conveyed all their holdings
on Anvil Creek to the Pioneer Mining Company of California, formed by
the locators and friendly California capitalists. Charles D. Lane
and his partners had done the same with the Wild Goose Mining Company
in respect to their holdings in the Nome and Council City Districts.
The locators and present partners in both these companies included
some aliens and some citizens. There were a great many at Nome who
felt that aliens should not be allowed to hold land titles, and this
feeling had been one of the causes for the attempted July 10, 1899,
seizure of all claims on Anvil Creek. A group of shrewd lawyers, later
incorporated as Hubbard, Beeman & Hume, took up the cause of the
26 [ls?]
016b | Vol_XII-0682
NOME
jumpers, and, late in 1899, sent a representative to Washington
with the one purpose of enlisting the aid of certain powerful politicians
and affecting a change in the United States mining laws. One of these
politicians was Alexander McKenzie. The Nome lawyers and McKenzie
were given the opportunity they needed on March 1, 1900, when Senator
Carter introducted Bill 3919 , making provision for a civil government
for Alaska , was introduced This bill included the Oregon regulations protecting
aliens. Upon the reading of these particular sections, a North Dakota
Senator proposed the substitution of the "Hansbrough amendment"
which would have, under certain conditions, validated any claims the
Anvil Creek jumpers might already have made. Not only did this am l e nd–
ment arous e the instant opposition of the Senators from Nevada,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Colorado, but , also , closer study, that
of McKenzie and his supporters as well, since this amendment was not
strong enough to give them a clear claim to all Anvil Creek holdings.
On April 4, the Senator from North Dakota (fittingly enough, McKenzie's
home state) introduced a modified amendment which, although it
categorically barred non-citizens from locating, holding, or convey–
ing mining claims, likewise put an end to staking through power of
attorney, and declared further that those claims already staked through
power of attorney upon which $100.00 worth of labor or improvement
had not been made within 90 days of staking were null and void. From
the point of view of the claim jumpers and their representatives, this
proposal started out well and ended very badly. McKenzie and his block
opposed it, the original Hansborough amendment, and the Oregon stipula–
tions through almost a month of angry, stubborn, bitter, and extremely
personal argument on the floor of the Senate. On May 1, fearing that
27 [ls?]
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NONE
Alaska would lose her code of laws entirely if the controversy continued,
a group of disinterested Senators affected a compromise, and the bill
was passed denuded of all three of these [ ?] controversial sections.
Although McKenzie had lost his fight for a positive legal basis for
his intended raid on Anvil Creek, he had succeeded in Killing the
Oregon provisions, which left the two questions — title holding by
aliens and staking by power of attorney — in a kind of legal limbo.The new Alaska Code divided the Territory into three judicial
divisions, the secon d [ ?] of which was to have headquarters at Nome.
Strongly influenced by McKenzie, President McKinley not only appointed
Arthur H. Noyes Judge for the new district, but also named C.L.
Vawter United States Marshal, Joseph K. Wood District Attorney, and
several more of McKenzie's friends and supporters to lesser positions
in the new court to be set up at Nome. Before leaving Washington,
McKenzie put a few more bricks into the foundation of his plan.
Under the laws of Arizon a he organized the Alaska Gold Mining Company,
with offices in New York City, and with an authorized capital stock
of $15,000,000, named himself president and general manger of this
company, arranged with Hubbard, senior partner of Hubbard, Beeman &
Hume and the only partner then in Washington, to buy from the jumpers
all their "titles" on Anvil Creek and to pay for these titles with
Alaska Gold Mining Company stock. McKenzie, therefore, not only bought
a pig in a poke, but he promised to pay for it with the same pig in
the same peke.¶ McKenzie, Noyes and "the court" sailed out of Seattle
together. On the way they put the finishing touches on a scheme of
confiscation which, as McKee remarks, they were able temporarily to
bring to "a prosperous state of realization." On July 19, 1900, their 25 [ls?]
017 | Vol_XII-0684
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steamer put in at Nome. While Noyes remained on board, McKenzie hurried
ashore. Within two days, by threatening to boycott their cases out
of court and by convincing them that Hubbard had already done business
with him, he had induced Beeman and Hume to hand over to him [ ?] , in
exchange for stock in the Alaska Gold Mining Company, the contingent
interest (amounting to 50%) which their firm had in all the jumper
Anvil Creek claims, had demanded and received a one-fourth interest
in the business of Hubbard, Beeman & Hume for himself and another one–
fourth for Joseph K. Wood, and had made Hume deputy district attorney.
On July 20th these negotiations were legalized. McKenzie still held
more than 50% of the stock in his own company. He had bought half a
big and paid for it with considerably less than half of the same pig.On July 21, Noyes stepped ashore, and, without waiting for
the organization of the court.
018 | Vol_XII-0685
NOME
appointed McKcnzie receiver of at least four of the richest
claims in the Nome District. As has already been pointed out,
every claim for miles around was in dispute. McKenzie and
Neyes put this confusion to their own use. Without notifying
the claimants, Noyes directed McKenzie to take immediate
possession of these mines, to manage and work them, and to
preserve the gold and "dispose of it subject to the further orders
of the court." Noyes particularly enjoined the original
claimants from interfering with the mining activities of the
receiver, and, in a further order, directed McKenzie to take
possession of, and to deliver to him, all personal property
on one of these claims. The receiver's bond in all cases was
fixed at $5,000 despite the fact that one of the commandeered
claims was then yielding $15,000 a day. Petitions to the court
for an appeal from its orders were refused, and Noyes announced,
in effect, that the orders of his court were not appealable, that
its jurisdiction was exclusive. Tompkins remarks: "The ease with
which apparent success was obtained in this case suggested the
same course regarding approximately twenty other valuable
claims. The owners were impotent to protect their own interests.
Mining activity on the Seward Peninsula practically ceased. To
develop a claim and prove its value was to risk losing it.
Even prospecting came to a standstill."Fortunately for the miners, one of the first victims
[ ?] of Neyes perfidy of the receivership plan was Charles D. Lane, manager of the Wild
Goose Mining Company, who held valuable claims both at Nome and
at Council City. Lane knew his rights and was not intimidated
by Noyes or de t erred by the difficulties of the situation. He
sent papers with sworn affidavits and instructions to his
019 | Vol_XII-0686
NOME
lawyers in San Francisco, dispatching them secretly on a fast
vessel out of Nome. Judge Morrow, of the United States Circuit
Court of Appeals , made orders allowing appeals in all five cases
reported, and commanding Noyes to halt all proceedings in his
court. McKenzie, who, meanwhile, had become known far and
wide as the "King of Receivers" and "The Big One," was ordered
to "cease all action in the suits pending and to turn back to
the defendants all the property seized." This news reached Nome
on September 14 and its three daily newspapers printed the writ
in full under headlines reading: "McKenzie Thrown out of His
Job," "Death-blow to the New York Ring," etc.¶ By no means
defeated by this turn of events, and despite having been served
with all the requisite papers, McKenzie maintained 'upon advice
of his lawyers' that the write were irregular and void. He
refused to return the gold-dust he had already mined, while
Noyes merely stayed all proceedings in his court and neglected
to issue orders which would have forced McKenzie to obey the
writs.¶ At about this time Meanwhile the 'great' storm of Sept. 12 hit was attacking
the Nome beach. McKenzie attempted to withdraw the gold-dust
from the vaults of the Alaska Banking and Safe Deposit Company,
but was stopped by a detachment of troops and several claimants
together with their lawyers. "All this happened," continues Mc–
K ee, "when the storm was at its height, the miserable streets
of the city hybrid 'city' knee-deep in mud, and when, without
the semblance of a harbor, and open to the clear sweep and
fierce attack of the Arctic gale, entire sections of the place
were under water, and houses and wreckage generally drifting
about. It was an excellent background for a dramatic incident."28 - 2 ﹍ 26 6
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NOME
¶ Since the only 'court' in Nome was temporarily in abeyance and
of no use in any case, a second report had of necessity to be
delivered to the United States Circuit Court of Appeals in
San Francisco. It lacked only a month to the winter freeze-up,
and it was feared, for a time, that the storm would conspire
with the lateness of the season to hold up proceedings for
that year. However, on September 17, the storm blew out and
Mc K ee, making last-minute preparations to sail for Seattle on
the Tacoma, received a visit from Samuel Knight. On behalf of
the Wild Goose Company, Knight had been fighting the receiver–
ship ring all summer. He gave Mc K ee papers addressed to the
proper officials in San Francisco on which could be based
proceedings against McKenzie for contempt of court and that would lead to his arrest.¶ Ten days later the Tacoma put in at Seattle. Mc K ee delivered
the papers and, as McFee he , a lawyer himself and restrained in
his language, says: "The day following, the Circuit Court of
Appeals, with great astonishment, learned in what respect its
mandates had been held; and, shortly afterward, two deputy
United States marshals were despatched to Nome on one of the
last vessels sailing for that port. Thwarting the ring by
reaching Nome before the ice had closed communication with the
outside world, they duly arrested the receiver (McKenzie) and
brought him before the court in San Francisco whose orders he
had deliberately defied." It was not until the following spring
that Noyes was brought to California. These two men ( S s ee
their Biographies) were tried and found guilty, but their
punishment can in no manner be equated with the amount of damage
they did in Nome.The fall of 1900 brought a lull in the local
28 - 2 ﹍ 26 6
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NOME
excitement and a general accounting was possible. The big
September storm had destroyed all the buildings on the south
side of Front Street, left hundreds of people homeless and
wrecked on the beach or swept out to sea over $1,000,000 worth
of property. Typhoid, pneumonia, and small-pox had taken a
toll o f the population, but the threat of the freeze-up
removed a great many more than any disease although still it is
estimated that 10,000 people remained at Nome during the winter
of 1900-1901.¶ French describes the Nome of camp as of October, 1900:
"The buildings of Nome were, many of them, highly creditable
and were sufficient in number to accom m odate the people who
would remain there all winter. Several well built hotels
existed, and a large theatre in which a typical western variety
show could be seen, as well as weekly prize fights... Front
Street was lined with shops, saloons, dance halls, gambling
houses and restaurants of all sizes and shapes, open for business
day and night. Late in August the United States military
barracks were completed."¶ Front Street, early in the season,
had billowed with dust, while all other streets in the town were
practically impassable because of the tundra mud; but with the
rains which started in August and continued until the freeze-up,
even Front Street turned into a mud lane. Stedman Avenue, also
known as "Hogan's Alley," had been planked over during the
summer, and in the next few years several other streets were
similarly distinguished. After the last indigents had been
shipped home through public or private charity , an estimate of
placer mining activity for the 1900 season could be taken, and,
considering the amount of trouble and confusion which the summer
had seen, the accounting was remarkably good. Value estimates29 - 2 ﹍ 276
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NOME
for the Nome area appeared as follow were :
Anvil Creek-------------------------------------------------- $1,750,000 Glacier Creek, including SnowGulch------------------------------------ 750,000 Dexter Creek----------------------------------------------- 300,000 Extra Dry Creek-------------------------------------------- 15,000 Dry Creek--------------------------------------------------- 25,000 Newton Gulch--------------------------------------------- 10,000 Bourbon Creek--------------------------------------------- 5,000 Saturday Creek-------------------------------------------- 10,000 Oregon, Hungry, and Mountain Creeks- 50,000 H igh bench placers near Nome---- 145,000 Nome beach----------------------------------------------- 350,000 $3,410,000
Final estimates set the total 1900 placer gold output for all of
Seward Peninsula at $4,750,000. Nome vindicated herself in
these figures although she was to suffer for several years from the
name Noyes and McKenzie had given her civil administration.Season of 1901 ¶ The rush of 1900 was never repeated. Disappointed
and despairing individuals men [ ?] enlarged upon the
conditions pertaining at Nome during difficulties of the summer of 1900; they complained
that the sea had not renewed the beach placer deposits and des–
c r ibed the town as a nest of thieves and ruffians [ ?] by in the hands
of corrupt and unscrupulous officials. Large, established
mining enterprises in the States which might , had they been known
apprised of the true situation at Nome , might have invested magnificent
sums toward the its development of the country , withdrew to a safe
distance from what they considered a foolish and dangerous
situation.¶ The 10,000 who stayed at Nome put a particularly long and
cold and extended winter to good use. When Mc K ee returned on
June 24, 1901 he was able to report that not only had Nome
acquired a "new and well-appointed post-office," but also that
the town "seemed very orderly, much improved, and more sub–
stantial in general appearance," and added: "It had been duly
incorporated as a city. About a mile of the principal streets
had been boarded over... The banner sign, 'City Morgue,' had
26 - 2 ﹍ 246
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NOME
now assumed more modest proportions; pe ople who had wintered at
Nome looked strong and well; and the doctors somewhat pla in tively
said that the camp had been' disgustingly healthy.' ... The
average individual who had spent the winter there had lived
very comfortably, with plenty of good things to eat and drink,
and I was informed that the place had been very gay 'socially.'
Some were in fine feather, others hopeful, and but few dis–
couraged."¶ Seen in perspective it can be understood that the
summer of 1900 was the 'Chilkoot Pass' to Nome. The men who
had remained at Nome were either already miners or in experienced
men or willing and able to learn the mining business. They all looked for–
ward confidently to the new season, but the weather conspired
against them. The thaw was late and the summer dry, yet
$3,000,000 was removed from creek placers around Nome that year,
and $20,000 from the beach. However, the most intensive effort
went into the improvement of mining methods so as to reduce
mining costs. Experimental steam pumping plants were installed
on Anvil Creek, but the cost of fuel ruled them out. During
the winter some of the high-bench and tundra inland placers were
successfully exploited by drifting. Although their production
was small, the feasibility of winter mining had been proved.¶ Prospecting in outlying districts increased. Gold was discovered
in the northeastern part of Seward Peninsula, and the development
of the Kotzebue District began. Ditch construction on Ophir
Creek under the direction of Charles D. Lane progressed, and
a dredge started operation on Solomon River. During the winter
of 1901-1902 drift mining increased in the high benches near
Anvil Creek and in the tundra which served partially to solve
the seasonal employment problem, to stabilize the economy of
29 - 2 ﹍ 276
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NOME
the new district, and to reduce the size of the migratory
population.Seasons of 1902-1904 ¶ The arrival of a new judge, Hon. James Wickersham
(q.v.), had in September, 1901, faith in the administration
at Nome, but too late to improve that mining season. During
the 1902 season the gold in the bed of Anvil Creek was
practically exhausted, but parallel channels in the valley were
discovered and mining, with water supplied by two pumping plants
and a system of ditches, continued on Anvil, Glacier and Dexter
Creeks. Despite these improvements the production of the Nome
District decreased to $2,800,000 in 1902.¶ The winter of 1902–
1903 saw a remarkable increase in drift mining with an estimated
$500,000 removed by this method from the bench es lowland back of it and the tundra.
The Peninsula, and particularly Nome, was prosperous. Twenty–
seven steam and seven sailing vessels brought 75,000 tons of
cargo to the peninsula, and most of these shipments were for
Nome. The Seward Peninsula, Railway (formerly called the Nome
Arctic Railway) was extended from Nome to the head of Dexter
Creek. Ditch construction flourished; the Miocene ditch now
extended to the head of Nome River and sent a branch to the
Snake River.¶ In 1903 hydraulic lifts appeared on Glacier and
Anvil creeks, and prospecting with churn drills covered the
tundra prairie belt between Nome and the mountains. The major part of
the season was spent in unproductive or 'dead' work; and yet,
despite the exhausting of some of the shallower placers, the
production for the Nome District in 1903 is estimated at
$2,400,000 — a decrease of only $400,000 over from the previous
year.¶ The winter of 1903-1904 witnessed saw the removal of $1,000,000
by drift mining from the high bench and tundra lowland deposits in the28 - 2 ﹍ 26
025 | Vol_XII-0692
NOME
Nome area, and some low-lying gravels and ancient beach placer
in the tundra prairie were explored. Up to July 10 , 1904 the season
remained dry and more than half the mines in the Nome district
were idle because of lack of water. Then came heavy rains and
mining began, but the season had been [ ?] seriously
abbreviated. More ditches were built; a steam shovel operated
successfully on Anvil Creek and hydraulic elevators were at work
on Glacier and adjacent creeks.¶ The most startling development
of the 1904 season was the discovery of rich placers on Little Creek,
a few miles north of Nome, which served to prove the contention
of the experts that there was still the possibility of signi–
ficant finds in the area. However, although the legal compli–
cations were gradually dwindling and disappearing, the miners
in the Nome area had still to learn that large enterprises must
be put in the hands of experts. Brooks , writing only a few years
later, remarks, "Probably two-thirds of the incorporated com–
panies have made failures or achieved only partial success
because of poor management." The greatest increase in production
during this season was that of the high-bench placers, while
the creek placers showed a considerable decrease.Seasons of 1905-1906 ¶ Mining along the "second beach line", as it
was called, marked the winter of 1904-1905, and
an extension of this same line, long predicted by the geologists,
was discovered running from Hastings to Bourbon Creek and at
Jess Creek, 10 miles west of Nome. $1,500,000 was recovered
from Little Creek within 12 months of the first discoveries
there.¶ The summer of 1905 was remarkable for a very late
spring and a freeze-up starting around September 18, or about
one month ahead of shedulew schedule. The emphasis was again29 - 2 - ﹍ 276
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NOME
on ditch construction throughout this summer. Seward ditch
now ran for 37 miles from the head of Nome River to the southern
slopes of Anvil Mountain; Cedric ditch ran for 24 miles to
Arctic Creek west of Nome. Despite all this unproductive work
$3,400,000 worth of gold was removed. from the Nome District.¶ During the winter of 1905-1906 the Little Creek discoveries
sent many prospectors out on the tundra prairie and a "third beach
line" was discovered. This line had been predicted by the
Geological Survey in 1899. So much work was done with steam
thawers and hoists out on the frozen tundra that Nome suffered was
threatened with a coal shortage which had to be alleviated by
drawing on Government coal stored at Fort Davis. By the end
of that winter $2,500,000 had been recovered from the tundra
gravels. This remarkable success drew attention away from the
creek placers, whose production had gradually been dwindling,
and work on the tundra prairie was continued throughout the summer.¶ This
was just as well, for the summer of 1906 was unusually dry, so
that work on the creeks would have been difficult , if possible
at all. Under new management the narrow-ga u ge Seward Peninsula
Railway was extended over the pass above the head of Nome River
to Salmon Lake and from there t o Lanes Landing, on the Kuzitrin.
Steamboat connections with Puget Sound were improved, and the
city of Nome began to show the effects of several years of
prosperity. Many substantial buildings appeared, and the town
began to lose the transient, flimsy look of its early years.¶ Brooks, writing in 1908, while mentioning these improvements ,
and reaffirming his faith in the value of the deposits in the
area, repeats a warning. "The necessity of intrusting the
management of large enterprises," he writes, "only to men
of technical training, experience, and proved ability has not30 - 2 ﹍ 296
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NOME
by any means been fully realized. It is common knowledge that
the failures of mining companies are in a large measure charge–
able solely to the ignorance of the men responsible for their
management. This is because the public has not been educated
to the point of regarding mining as anything but a gamble, and
holds in small esteem those who would put i t on a sound
business basis."1910 to 1948 As early as By 1910 Nome was already turning to
other sources of income than the mining of gold,
a tendency which has increased with the years.One of these new 'industries' was the tourist trade.
In March, 1909, Dan Dix wrote a glowing report of Nome , "the
metropolis of Northwestern Alaska." Here was "a well-governed
municipality," he wrote, with "splendidly equipped modern schools,
numerous religious and social organizations," electricity, the
purest drinking water in the world, local and long-distance
telephone service, substantial business structures, warehouses
and well-built homes, flowers, "hill-sides green with grass,"
and "attractive vegetable gardens on the outskirts of town."
The article reads not so much like a modern travel folder as like
the text of a sermon dedicated to correcting certain cruel
misap p rehensions. Nome was growing up, developing a pride.
Her citizens resented the shadow of the past and began to
emphasize the fact that the villains had all come from Outside,
that the heroes had all belonged to the town itself.A second important source of income was the transfer
of freight and passengers bound for other parts of the peninsula.
Despite the fact that T he harbor had never been dredged out and27 - 7 ﹍ 256
028 | Vol_XII-0695
96 NOME
ships still anchored one or two miles offshore, delivering
cargoes by lighter or barge; but Nome soon was developed grew nevertheless into the
a commercial center for the southern part of Seward Peninsula.¶ One writer who visited Nome in 1919 mentions that in rough
weather freight and passengers could not be landed on the
warehouse wharves, but were rather loaded into "a sort of
mammoth basket or cage" suspended from a staging anchored in
the sea, "and swung by cable high over the waves ... on to the
dock." Nasty weather was as frequent as ever and the harbor water front as
unprotected. There was much talk [ ?]
029 | Vol_XII-0696
NOME
of dredging out the mouth of the Snake River, but this has not been
done even to this day.Meanwhile the production of gold continued, although
not at the fabulous rate of the early days, the heavily mineralized
deposits having been depleted. Still, Nome remained the leading gold
district on the peninsula. There was a gradual absorption of the smaller
outfits by the larger, until, in 1934, it was possible for C.W. Henderson,
of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, to write: "Gold production in Alaska has
become stabilized. Excepting the Kennecott copper mine (now idle) and
small placers the production of gold for several years past has come
chiefly from the low-grade Alaska Juneau lode mine ... the Fairbanks
Exploration Co. in the Yukon district and the three modern dredges of
the Hammon Consolidated Gold Fields at Nome, both subsidiaries of the
United States Smelting, Refining & Mining Co." Brooks' lesson had been
learned and applied.¶ In the very same paragraph, however, Henderson
felt it necessary to add: "Operations (of placers) begin in May, unless
delayed by a late spring, and close in October, unless stopped by an
early winter." Nome placer miners, who continue to the present day to
produce the major part of Alaska's gold output, were still working a
short season which was as unpredictable as ever. The Nome district
suffere [ ?] for many years from the lack of a year-round source of employ–
ment. This lack was later solved in part by the development of methods
by which the deep layers of permafrost could be thawed by steam piped
underground under pressure. As a result of this technique dredges were
able to work the year around.Agnes Burr, who visited Nome in 1919, writes of a modern,
030 | Vol_XII-0697
NOME
prosperous city with telephone and wireless service, several a choice of hotels,
numberless stores, and churches, a good school, and a fine hospital.
She, too, mentions the vegetable gardens where she noticed lettuce,
rad d ishes, cabbage, and turnips flourishing, but she makes more of the
Eskimo village on the sandspit between Snake River and the ocean, and
of the rich variety of native handiwork — carved ivory, baskets,
beadwork, moccasins — available in the shops of Nome. By 1920 the
population had shrunk from the 2,610 of 1910 to only 852.¶ After the 1906 peak of $7,500,000 , Gold production rose gradually up to about 1920 and then in dollar values gradually dropped to the $1,533,000
began to fall off. of 1932. In 1933 ,however, the reduction in the gold content of the
dollar had the effect of raising the price of gold from $20.67 to $35.00
per fine ounce, a boost of 69%. Gold mining revived. The United States
Smelting Refining & Mining Co. in its report for 1933 was looking forward
to developing certain low-grade mines in the Nome area which it had not
paid to work under the old statutory price. New mining methods came into
use and the production of gold, in dollar values, began to rise.¶ In addition to gigant i c dredges, hydraulics and other electrical machinery,
the larger companies were now thawing the deep permafrost layers by
driving pipes to the desired level and forcing steam under pressure
against the most heavily mineralized layers. Thawed in this manner,
the lower levels never froze again, while the surface, which did refreeze
thawed with the coming of summer. In 1937 the United States Smelting
Refining & Mining Co. using this method operated its three dredges in
the Nome district for a total of 510 days out of the year , while prospecting,
thawing, and development work continued throughout the year. Here
was the answer to the seasonal employment problem of the area. Companies
set up per manent mining camps on the tundra prairie , outside of Nome itself on the tundra prairie , with 37 [ls?]
031 | Vol_XII-0698
-30- NOME
well-built bunkhouses, recreation halls, family units, and surroundings
sufficiently attractive to influence encourage the em ployees to bring their families
and settle permanently. In this way a great deal of expense entailed
in recruiting men for summer work, in transporting them to and from
Seattle, and other west coast ports, was avoided.¶ The amount of gold
produced as well as the value of the product continued to increase right
up to the beginning of the second World War. Then, practically over-night,
the men and most of the machinery used in the mines was were taken over by
the U.S. Army which needed both manpower and equipment for the building
of innumerable bases and airstrips throughout the Territory. Finally,
after gold was declared nonessential on October 8, 1942, gold mining
could be carried on by only by special permit and only by overage
workmen using nonessential materials. By the end of 1944, only 86
operators (42 of which had crews of less than 5 men) employing a total
of 669 men were mining gold in Alaska. In 1941, 554 placer operations
had employed 4,921 men.¶ Nome ming mining , indeed, gold mining throughout the
Territory, has not yet recovered from the effects of World War II.
(See Bluff Region) The price of gold remains fixed at $35.00 but the
cost of labor, supplies, and taxes has jumped out of all proportion to
anything the Territory has ever known before. Military construction
employing civilian labor goes forward on a wage scale the mining companies
cannot match. As of this writing, (1948) , very few companies have reopened their
mines. Even the giant Alaska Juneau Gold Mining Co., famous for applying
mass production methods to the mining of low-grade ores, has not
reopened since it shut down in 1944 as a result of the War Labor Board
decree increasing wages and authorizing retroactive payment. In 1945 26 [ls?]
032 | Vol_XII-0699
-31- NOME
Bain writes: "The ending of the war found most of the gold mines
closed, stripped of tools and equipment, and with their former working
forces widely scattered."However, some progress has been made. In 1945 the
United States Smelting Refining & Mining Co. repurchased the bunkhouses
and other property at Nome which had been taken over by the Army, but
the release of this property came too late in the year for much con–
structive work to be done that season. Lee Brothers operated a dredge,
and Herbert Engstrom a dragline in the Nome area in 1945.¶ The future
holds several possibilities. Many Canadian companies, having profited
from gold mining during the last few years, are beginning to show an
interest in investing their surplus in Alaska mines. United States
construction companies, which handled enormous military installations in
all parts of the Territory during the war , are working their way into the mining busi–
ness. Mining is, after all, largely a matter of moving vast quantities
of dirt from one place to another. If directed by mining experts, these
companies should be able to make a success of gold mining, since, as
Bain says, "they are well-financed, are experienced in moving dirt and
other operations common in mining, and are controlled by men accustomed
to taking risks."¶ Prospecting continued throught the war, and the Army
Air Forces are now completing a set of maps for the entire Territory,
compiled by trimetrogon photography on the scale of 1:500,000. Both of
these activities will help to take the guess-work out of Alaskan mining.
However, the best that can be said for gold mining there today is that
it lies in temporary partial abeyance awaiting the turn of economic and
political events. No one can be sure of what will happen to the industry in the next
ten years to the industry upon which Nome mainly depends.25 [ls?]
033 | Vol_XII-0700
NOME
Meanwhile the city of Nome was undergoing various
changes. In 1920, Billy Mitchell, then Brigadier General Mitchell,
Assistant Chief of the United States Air Force, sent a group of Army
planes to fly from New York to Nome and return. This maneuver, which
was successfully accomplished, was the first of a series of long–
distance flights to include Nome. (See Wiley Post; James Mattern; Hans Mirow; Sigismund Levanarsky) By the early 1920's, the old narrow-gauge
Seward Peninsula [ ?]
034 | Vol_XII-0701
NOME
Railroad line had been bought by the Alaska Railroad Co. and demoted. It
was now known as the Pupmobile Railroad, or the "Kougarok Limited." and It
consisted of a fleet of flat cars or truck bodies , fitted with railroad wheels ,
and was used for carrying freight and supplies out to the tundra mines. Lined
with benches, the Pupmobile was and still is used to show tourists the sights
out on the tundra. Sheldon, 90 miles from Nome, is the end of the line.¶ This period also saw the beginnings of the now world-famous Nome to Candle
and return dog race, or, Alaska Derby, as it came to be called, which roused
the pioneer gambling spirit of the town. The total purse on the race runs
to thousands of dollars every year.In 1934 most of the business and re [ ?] i–
dential sections were destroyed by fire. With special attention to making
the streets both wide and straight, characteristics of which the old town
could not boast, the entire city was subsequently rebuilt.Aside from the gold mining, the greatest 'rise and fall'
story of the Nome District during the last forty years has been that of the
reindeer industry , It is interesting to note, that just as this industry
which has helped toward the growth of the area and which contributed so did it help toward its dis–
covery , -- for [ ?] one of the men the man Dr. Sheldon Jackson brought from Norway in 1898
to help him get reindeer from Siberia was none other than Jafet Lindeberg. ¶ Starting with the original tiny herd band which Jackson obtained from Siberia in 1891, the
herds grew to about 1,200 in 1900, 50,000 in 1914, and 650,000 in 1932.
¶ After Jackson, Lomen is the name most generally associated with the Alaska
reindeer industry. From the arrival at Nome, early in the century, first
of Judge Gudbrand G. Lomen (q.v.) and his son Carl, and then of the other
four sons, Alfred, Ralph, George, and Harry (See Lomen Brothers), this name
became associated, not only with reindeer but also with a wide range of
legal, legislative, mining, and commercial enterprises activities in the Nome District.¶ Because of his own Norwegian ancestry, however, Judge Lomen took a particular
interest in and was in turn trusted by the Norwegian-speaking Lapp herders who were struggling30 [ ls ?]
035 | Vol_XII-0702
NOME
with the legal intricacies of the reindeer industry in Alaska. The elder
Lomen's interest spread to his sons, and, although Carl is usually spoken
of as the "Reindeer King," the Lomen family worked together toward the
development of their several business enterprises, and especially their
reindeer holdings.¶ By 1910 the Seward Peninsula herds had increased
beyond the local demand for reindeer meat as food and the hides for boots,
coats parkas , mittens, leggings, socks, trousers, and sleeping bags. The Lomens
believed there was a tremendous potential market for reindeer meat in the
States, and the hides were already in great demand for the manufacture of
fine gloves and leather jackets. By 1930 the Lomen Reindeer and Transpor–
tation Corporation of Nome managed the largest white-controlled reindeer herds in
Alaska, maintained cold storage plants at Teller and Golovnin, and a cannery
and by-products plant at Golovnin. Meanwhile, Nome had come to be considered the capital
of the reindeer industry and which had long since proved itself to be a
fine year-round source of employment and of community as well as private
income.¶ It is impossible to trace here the hectic, contradictory history
of this industry from its peak in the early 1930's to its present disintegra–
tion. (See Reindeer Industry of Alaska) The U.S. Government, which
finally passed the Reindeer a A ct, transferring all white-owned herds to
federal ownership, was only the last of many agencies which finally forced
the Lomens and most other whites out of the reindeer business. But they retained their position
as the first family of Nome. The present Lomen Commercial Company with
Alfred Lomen, President, and Carl and Ralph, Vice-Presidents, continues to
serve the community and, through it, all of Seward Peninsula.¶ Starting with Judge Lomen, the efforts of this remarkable family to improve their
adopted town have drawn them into public life as well as into business.
Judge Lomen was Mayor of Nome from 1917-1919, U.S. Attorney for the Second
Division, 1918-1921, and U.S. District Judge for the Second Division in 192128 [ ls ?]
036 | Vol_XII-0703
NOME
and 1925. Carl Lomen was Chief Clerk of the U.S. District Court at Nome
several times between the years 1901 and 1908. Alfred Lomen was a member
of the Senate Territorial Legislature in 1929, 1931, and 1933, and Ralph
Lomen was a member of the Nome City Council in 1915 and a Representative
to the Territorial Legislature in 1927. Other Alaska communities may well
envy Nome the concentration of public-spirited ability, energy, and
resourcefulness represented by the Lomen family.The Nome of the last decade bears little resemblance
to the city of 20 or 30 years ago. The 1939 population figure appears as
1,559 although the actual population is estimated at 2,800 in winter and
4,000 in summer, with a ratio of two-thirds white and one-third Native.
Sidewa k l ks are all planked and streets either planked or graveled.
Although there is still no harbor, boats out of Seattle and from other
parts of Alaska make eight or ten 8 or 10 round trips a y a ear. Commerce from Nome rose
to 21,265 tons, with a total valuation of $4,796,000, in 1936. In addition
to the U.S. Army post office, there is a second-class Federal post office,
and three airplane companies maintain year-round passenger, mail, and freight
service with other parts of Alaska and Outside. The municipal landing field
has a strip is 3,200 feet long, and well-lighted, hard-surfaced Mark Field is 6,000
feet long. The U.S. Army maintains a telegraph and radiotelephone unit
of the Alaska Communication System at Nome.Among the recent improvements are a new Federal Building,
which houses the main offices for the Second Judicial Division, and the
post office building, both built in 1938. A municipal building houses the
police department, a central pumping system, and a fire department with
modern motor equipment. Nome has six churches, a Roman Catholic Mission, and
a fine school system. The public school, which has an attendance of about
200, employs 8 teachers and a school nurse, and is housed in a new, modern
building with a gymnasium and a well-stocked library. Nome also has a28 [ls?]
037 | Vol_XII-0704
NOME
the only high school in the Second Judicial District. Since this school
is accredited, its graduates may enter college without special examination.
The graded Alaska Native Service School, with an attendance of about 160, in 1939
emphasizes vocational activities such as boat and sled building, skin
sewing, and ivory carving.¶ Since Nome is the headquarters for all
government activities in Northwestern Alaska, several representatives,
both official and private, are stationed there — 2 two for the Alaska Road
Commission, and one each for the Bering Reindeer Unit, Office of Indian
Affairs, and the U.S. Weather Bureau. There are, in addition, a Deputy
Marshall and U.S. Commissioner of the U.S. Department of Justice, an
Assayer and Field Engineer for the Alaska Department of Mines, and a Liquor
License Officer, and a Land Registration Clerk from the Alaska Department
of the Treasury.¶ In 1946, eight Nome citizens had seats in the Territorial
Legislature: 3 Republicans and 1 Democrat four in the House, and 2 four Republicans
and 2 Democrats in the Senate. The American Red Cross has a Field Director,
the Alaska Steamship Company an agent, and the Standard Oil Company of
California a distributor at Nome. One of the lighterage companies and one
of the light and power companies are run by the United States Smelting,
Mining and Refining Co., but, in addition, one of each of these services
is privately separately owned. Several [ ?] services of a kind relatively rare
in Alaska are available in Nome: 2 laundries, a Railway Express agency,
3 transfer and storage companies, 2 fuel and 2 ice and water dealers,
a dairy, a garbage collection , (delicately named the Nome Sanitary Service),
a bakery, bank, barber, public bath, beauty shop, candy store, and dry
cleaner. Perhaps omit? Offering a sharp contrast to the more lurid names names like the "Malemate Saloon," so characteristic of the Stampedez
town, one of the four restaurants is called the [ ?]
"Snack Shack." Two private physicians, an osteopath, and an optician27 [ls?]
038 | Vol_XII-0705
NOME
practice at Nome, and, until recently, 1948 there was a modern 23-bed hospital
operated by the Methodist Church. This hospital burned early in 1948
and patients were transferred to the Air Base hospital. Plans for the
building of a fire-resistant 35-bed hospital with a 10-bed tuberculosis
ward are now in progress. The famous newspaper, the NOME NUGGET NOME NUGGET , is now being published lc
three times a week. ¶ The fact that there are four 4 curio and gift shops, [ ?]
3 three licensed fur dealers, and 1 one retail fur dealer shows how much the
Cap or small? handicraft and fur-farming industries contribute to the community.¶ In the summer the arrival of the N n atives from King Island and Little Diomede
Island to fish and to barter their beautiful hand-made articles for winter
supplies makes of Nome one of the few predominantly white towns in Alaska
where Eskimos may still be seen in their native, everyday dress, living
their lives relatively untouched by the troubles and taints of civilization.
The demand for native-made products grew steadily with the tourist trade
during the 1920's and 1930's and, with the influx of civilians and U.S.
Army personnel during and after World War II, it gained an unprecedented
lead over the supply. It is estimated that the arts and crafts industry
brings more than $500,000 a year into the Nome area. A . Polet, famous
pioneer merchant, who set up his first store in Nome in 1900, features
and encourages all native arts and crafts. ¶ Fur farming is already well on its way to becoming a
full-scale industry. The long, relatively cold winter months are ideal
for the raising of fur-bearing animals, and the Nome district is particu–
larly well known for [ ?] mink and its white, blue, and silver foxes.
We have already discussed the development of the [ ?] reindeer industry.24 [ls?]
039 | Vol_XII-0706
NOME
For the future one of the most promising industries
would seem to be commercial fishing in Bering Sea where king crab, shrimp, cod,
halibut, herring, and salmon abound. In addition to contributing directly
to the economy of the district, the development of this potential fishing
industry would serve to reduce freight rates between Seattle and Nome
by giving vessels a return cargo.The annual Northwestern Alaska Fair which is held at
Nome late in March or sometime in April lasts for four days and is attended
by visitors from all over the Territory and from Outside. Most of the
fair-goers arrive by air, since, in honor of the occasion, many airplane
companies sell special round-trip tickets at one-way rates. Indoor exhibits
are set up in the Territorial School auditorium and include n N ative handicrafts, ?
furs, art work, flowers and vegetables, curios, relics, and mining products,
and there [ ?] is a variety of outdoor events as well. The ninth 9th such Fair ,
was held in 1947 , and included two complete reindeer camps where Eskimo
families demonstrated all aspects of the life of a native herder —
methods of butchering, preparing, and preserving the meat for food, and
the manner in which the by-products are fashioned into wearing apparel
or used in the making of sleds and harnesses. Outdoor events included
reindeer racing and dog racing, and the Fair ended with a skit entitled
"Days of ′99" which all attended in "Gay 90's" costumes, or hopeful
fascimiles thereof. Fair week is also the date of the Farthest North
Bench Show for Malemute and Siberian sled D d ogs and of the All-Alaska Championship
Dog Race (158 miles), Nome to Golovnin and back.Big game hunters come to Seward Peninsula in July to
hunt walrus and in April and May to hunt polar bear. With the help of the25 [ls?]
040 | Vol_XII-0707
NOME
competent guides available at Nome , large r herds of walrus can usually be found
within 2 or 3 days' travel from Nome, and the haunts of the enormous
white bear are only 5 or 6 hours distant by plane. Sport fishermen also
come to the area for the trout, salmon, whitefish, pike, and grayling
in near-by streams.More than $103,000,000 in placer gold has been
recovered on Seward Peninsula since 1900 , of which 85% of this came from the
Nome area. Nome citizens have not forgotten this fact, but they are
looking to other less freakish, however less s pectacular industries to
carry them into a prosperous future. 9 [ls?]
041 | Vol_XII-0708
* marks most important references NOME
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska Facts; What Alaska is Today. A word picture of America's last frontier Alaska Facts; What Alaska is Today. A word picture of America's last frontier
and what it offers to those interested in this vast and what it offers to those interested in this vast
territory territory . Juneau, Alaska, Alaska Facts (c1945)Alaska Life, the Territorial Magazine Alaska Life, the Territorial Magazine . May, 1945. (Nome and Northwestern
Alaska Issue)Alaska Planning Council. Alaska Development Plan. Alaska Development Plan. January, 1941. Juneau,
Alaska, The Council, 1941.Bain, H. Foster. Alaska's minerals as a basis for industry Alaska's minerals as a basis for industry . Washington,
D.C., Bureau of Mine s , 1946. (U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Information Circular Information Circular 7379. December, 1946)Baker, Marcus. ... Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington
D.C., G.P.O., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin
No.299. Series F. Geography, 52) (59th Congress, 1st
S.House. Doc.No.938)Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Alaska, 1730-1885 History of Alaska, 1730-1885 . San Francisco,
History Company, 1890.Beach, Rex. "Looting of Alaska." Appleton's Booklovers Magazine Appleton's Booklovers Magazine ,
January-May, 1906.Brooks, ( A .H. (and others). ... Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on progress Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on progress
of investigations in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914, of investigations in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914,
1919, 1920 1919, 1920 . Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1908-22.
(U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins Bulletins No.345,379,442,
592,622,714,722)* Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) ... Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C.,
G.P.O., 1901. (U.S. Geological Survey)Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) ... Report on Progress of Investigations of Report on Progress of Investigations of
Mineral Resources of Alaska in 1905 Mineral Resources of Alaska in 1905 . Washington, D.C.,
G.P.O., 1906. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin
No.284. Seriea A, Economic Geology, 72)Brown, John W. An Abridged History of Alaska An Abridged History of Alaska . Seattle, Wash., Gate–
way Printing Co., 1909.Colby, Merle. ... A Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier A Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier . N.Y.,
Macmillan, 1942. (American Guide Series)
042 | Vol_XII-0709
NOME
BIBLIOGRAPHY (Cont'd.)
[[cont]]Collier, Arthur J. (and others) ... Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin- Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Penin-
sula, Alaska, Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, sula, Alaska, Including the Nome, Council, Kougarok,
Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Port Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington,
D.C., G.P.O., 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin ,
No.328)Dall, William H. Alaska and Its Resources Alaska and Its Resources . Boston, Lee and Shepard, 1870.
* French, L.H. Nome Nuggets. Some of the Experiences of a Party of Nome Nuggets. Some of the Experiences of a Party of
Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska in 1900 Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska in 1900 . N.Y.,
Montross, Clarke & Emmons, 1901.* French, L.H. Seward's Land of Gold. Five Seasons Experience with Seward's Land of Gold. Five Seasons Experience with
the Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska the Gold Seekers in Northwestern Alaska . N.Y., Mont–
ross, Clarke & Emmons (n.d.)Greely, A.W. Handbook of Alaska, Its Resources, Products, and Handbook of Alaska, Its Resources, Products, and
Attractions in 1924 Attractions in 1924 . 3d ed. N.Y., London, Scribner,
1925.* Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula, a Book of Information about Nome and Seward Peninsula, a Book of Information about
Northwestern Alaska Northwestern Alaska . Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan
press, 1905.Henderson, Lester D. Alaska, its Scenic Features, Geography, History, and Alaska, its Scenic Features, Geography, History, and
Government Government . Juneau, Alaska, Daily Alaska Empire Print,
1956.Henshaw, F.F., and Parker, G.L. ... Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsu- Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsu-
la, Alaska. With a Sketch of the Geography and Geol- la, Alaska. With a Sketch of the Geography and Geol-
ogy ogy by Philip S. Smith, and a Description of Methods Description of Methods
of Placer Mining of Placer Mining , by Alfred H. Brooks. Washington,
D.C., G.P.O., 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water- Water-
Supply Paper Supply Paper 314)Hilscher, Herbert H. Alaska Now Alaska Now . Boston, Little Brown, 1948.
Mabie, Janet. " Where is a Lomen, there is Alaska. " Christian Science Christian Science
Monitor. Magazine Section Monitor. Magazine Section . July 1, 1946, pp.6,13.* McKee, Lanier. The Land of Nome. A Narrative Sketch of the Rush to The Land of Nome. A Narrative Sketch of the Rush to
Our Bering Sea Gold-Fields, the Country, its Mines and Our Bering Sea Gold-Fields, the Country, its Mines and
its People, and the History of a Great Conspiracy its People, and the History of a Great Conspiracy ,
1900-1901. N.Y., Grafton Press (c1902)Merrill, Charles White, and Meyer, Helena M. Gold and Silver Gold and Silver . Washington,
D.C., Superintendent of Documents, 1946. ( ) P reprint
from U.S. Bureau of Mines Yearbook Yearbook , 1946)
001 | Vol_XII-0710
NOME
BIBLIOGRAPHY (Cont'd.)
[[cont]]Pilgrim, Mariette Shaw. Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography, and Alaska, its History, Resources, Geography, and
Government Government . Caldwell, Idaho, Caxton printers, 1939.Roberts, Brian. " The Reindeer Industry in Alaska. " (Reprinted from
The Polar Record, The Polar Record, No.24, July,1942, pp.568-572)Smith, Philip S. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon and Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon and
Casadepaga Quadrangles, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Casadepaga Quadrangles, Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1910. (U.S. Geological
Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 433)Stefansson, Vilhjalmur. The Arctic in Fact and Fable The Arctic in Fact and Fable . (N.Y., Foreign
Policy Association, 1945) ( Headline Series Headline Series . March–
April, 1945. No. 51)Sundborg, George. Opportunity in Alaska Opportunity in Alaska . N.Y., Macmillan, 1946.
Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, and Alaska Business Index Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska, and Alaska Business Index . Vol. 1947 I.
Juneau, Alaska, Seattle, Wash., Tewkesbury publishers,
c1947.Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyshlennik and Sourdough Alaska, Promyshlennik and Sourdough . Norman,
Okla., University of Oklahoma press, 1945.U.S. Bureau of Mines. Minerals Yearbook, 1934, 1938, 1945. Minerals Yearbook, 1934, 1938, 1945. Washington,
D.C., G.P.O., 1934-47.U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II.
Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean Yakutat Bay to Arctic Ocean . 4th ed. Washington,
D.C., G.P.O., 1938. (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.
Series No.607)*Wickersham, James. Old Yukon Tales — Trails — and Trials.
Washington, D.C., Washington Law Book Co., 1938.
001 | Vol_XII-0711
Ruby Collins NOME, CAPE, ALASKA
October, 1948
300 wds
NOME, CAPE, southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, near 64° 21′ N.Lat.,
165° W. Long., is a rounded bluff about 300 feet high. A border of low
land runs around the edge of this cape, but behind this beach the land
rises to an 820-foot summit about one mile inland from the point. The
water off this cape is farly deep, and the dirunal rise and fall of the
tides is about two feet. About one mile to the west of the point, Hastings
Creek, with its main tributary, Saunders Creek, flows into Norton Sound.The matter of the name of this cape, and, resultantly, of the city
Sources: VSGB: USCP & Supplement; Baker
of Nome itself, has been the subject of considerable speculation. In
1833, Tebenkof called this cape Tolstoi (broad or blunt) Cape, and it
appeared as such on most maps, until Kellett, in 1849, identified it on
certain British Admiralty Charts, made after the Franklin Search expedi–
tions, as Cape Nome. In April, 1901, Sir William Wharton, hydrographer
to the British Admiralty, went on record as not knowing the source of the
name 'Nome' on Kellett's chart. Professor George Davidson, of the U.S.
Coast Survey of 1867 and 1869, is the originator of the most [ ?] generally
held current opinion that the name " Nome " resulted from a mistake on the
part of a draftsman while copying an original of Kellett's chart.
Davidson believes that Kellett's original chart read "? Name" opposite
the cape in question, which notation the draftsman cop e i ed as "C. Nome."
In any case, subsequent to the 1849 Admiralty charts, this cape appeared
consistently as Cape Nome, and, as a result, Anvil City, about twelve
miles west of the cape at the mouth of the Snake River, was rechristened
"Nome" during the summer of 1899.
001 | Vol_XII-0712
Ruby Collins NOME RIVER REGION, ALASKA
October, 1948
700 wds.
NOME RIVER, southern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises in the
untimbered Kigluaik Mountains and flows almost directly south for about
thirty miles into Norton Sound. Fort Davis, lies at the mouth of the Nome
River, three miles east of the city of Nome (q.v.).Buffalo and Divide Creeks, uppermost tributaries to the Nome River,
rise south of Mount Osborn and enter the Nome from the west. For ten
miles below the mouth of Divide Creek, the Nome Basin is narrowly constric–
ted on both sides by heights of 2,000 feet or more. For this reason, the
tributaries to this section i of its course are torrential, as is the Nome
itself, and are all relatively short strems. From north to south these
tributaries are: Dickens, David, Dorothy, Alfield, Clara, Hobson,
Manila, and Sampson Creeks.During the remaining twenty or so miles of its extent, the Nome
basin gradually widens, merging finally with the coastal plain. The
tributaries to this section, therefore, tend to be longer as one travels
south, and, at the same time, the gradient of the Nome River drops from
fifty to ten feet to the mile as one approaches the mouth. Again from
north to south the tributaries to this section of the Nome are: Basin,
Banner, Dewey, Dexter, Buster (with its affluent Lillian Creek), Extra
Dry, Hazel, Osborn, McDonald, and Otter Creeks.Although Otter and McDonald are short streams, Osborn Creek, as
might be expected, is one of the longest affluents to the Nome River.
It is formed by the junction of New Eldorado Creek and several unnamed
streams, and flows first south and then southwest to join the Nome only
a few miles above Fort Davis.The entrance to Nome River is obstructed by shifting bars, but
there is usually enough water in the channels to allow the passage of
002 | Vol_XII-0713
NOME RIVER REGION
light draft vessels. However, southwesterly storms, which occur frequently
late in the summer and on into the fall, endanger the anchorage in this
part of Norton Sound. The only protection from these storms is behind
Sledge Island (q.v.), a few miles offshore and about twenty-eight miles
west of the mouth of the Nome River.Fort Davis was established as a military post in 1899, and is now
a military reserve.Colors of gold were found on the Nome River and all its tribu–
taries subsequent to the great strike on Anvil Creek, in the Snake River
system. (See Nome article.) Throughout this area, paying placers were
worked for about a decade after the turn of the century, when all gold
mining on Seward Peninsula, as elsewhere in Alaska, entered a period of
gradual decline.By 1900, T t he Seward Peninsula Railroad, a narrow-guage line, constructed
by the Wild Goose Mining & Trading Co., Charles D. Lane, President, ran
from Nome to Anvil Creek and from there to Dexter Creek. Thereafter it
was extended up the Nome Basin to the headwaters of that river. At
about 64° 57′ N. Lat., it veered northeastward, past Salmon Lake, and
down the Kruzgamepa River, and then ran northward to Shelton, on the
Kuzitrin River, for a total distance of 70 miles. This railroad was
one of the great engineering feats of the early years of the Nome District.
At first, no filling of the marshy, summer tundra was done. The tracks
were laid on wooden ties lying loose on the ground. Very often the weight
of the cars , loaded with machinery intended for the mines in the interior of
the peninsula , would press these ties down into the mud so that tracks
and wheels alike disappeared. Still the line was kept running. Although
considerably rebuilt, it is still running, having been taken over by
the Alaska Ra i lroad and rechristened "The Pupmobile", or the "Kougarok
003 | Vol_XII-0714
NOME RIVER REGION
Limited." Truck bodies, fitted with railroad wheels, and a variety of
flat cars are now being dra w n by dog teams over this same line which
serves as a supply route to the Kougarok District and as one of the
favorite tourist side-trips in the Nome area.Sources:
VSGB: USCP & Supplement; Baker
Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of parts of Seward Gold Placers of parts of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port
Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908.
001 | Vol_XII-0715
Ruby Collins NORTON BAY
August, 1948
1,056 . wds –
25 . wds. - Bibl.NORTON BAY, a northern arm of Norton Sound, reaches
northeastward into the western coast of Alaska. The bay extend s from
Cape Denbigh, its eastern entrance point, northward to Point Dexter,
then eastward, northward, and westward to Bald Head and Moses Point,
and so southwestward to Cape Darby, the western entrance point.About midway between Point Dexter and Bald Head there
is a de e pth of 36 feet and the water shoals gradually from this point
as the shores of the head of the bay are approached from any direction.
The rim of extremely shoal water, 4 1/2 to 9 feet in depth, is
several miles wide, however, in the northeastern part of the bay.
Sailing southwestward toward Cape Darby the water gradually becomes
deeper, maintaining 24 feet close to shore for about 20 miles, and then
dropping off sharply to 90 feet directly off the eastern side of that
cape.Eastward from Point Dexter, along Reindeer Cove, the shores
of Norton Bay are low and marshy for about 12 miles to the mouth of the
Ungalik River. The Ungalik rises in the highlands northeast of the
bay in the divide d s eparating the coastal waterways of this part of
Alaska from the inland headwaters of the Kateel and Gisasa r R ivers in the
Koyukuk section of the Yukon system. The Ungalik flows in a generally
southwesterly direction for from about 65 miles t o enter t j h e east side
of Norton Bay.¶ The small native village of Ungalik, near the river
mouth, is the point at which the long winter trail along the shores of
Norton Sound divides, one branch striking northward for Candle and
Kotzebue Sound across the neck of Seward Peninsula, and the other trending westward along the north shore s
of Norton Sound and for the coastal points on Seward the P p eninsula. Ungalik
has a 1,700-foot landing area for wheeled planes 1,700 feet long .26 [ls?]
002 | Vol_XII-0716
NORTON BAY
Beyond the Ungalik River the shore s of Norton Bay bends
northward to the mouth of the Inglutalik River, which flows down from the
same mountains which feed the Ungalik , southwestward into the bay.
The region bordering the lower Inglutalik is swampy , and the mouth is
obstructed by bars and mud flats. It is from this point westward that
the waters of Norton Bay are so exceedingly shallow.Koyuk River, the major tributary to Norton Bay, enters
from the north a few miles above the mouth of the Inglutalik. The
headwaters of this river rise in the Bendeleben Mountains northwest of
the bay, and in a segregated group of hills containing 2,610-foot Mount
Monument, several miles to the northeast. The Koyuk flows southeastward
for 60 or 70 miles , is joined by receiving several unnamed tributaries , and then, along
the last 10 miles of this stretch, receives Peace River from the north
and Kenwood Creek from the south. A few miles below Kenwood Creek, the
Koyuk twists abruptly southward, flows in this direction for about 15
more miles, and then veers westward to empty into Norton Bay.Haycock (population 81 in 1939), about 10 miles up from
the junction of the Peace and Koyuk; Dime Landing, a few miles
upstream from the mouth of Kenwood Creek; and Koyuk at the mouth of the main that
river are the only settlements in this area. All these villages are
on the northern branch of the winter trail which crosses the base of
Seward Peninsula on its way to Kotzebue Sound. Dime Landing was not
reported in the 1939 Census, but Koyuk had a population of 100 at that
time, a post office, a Native Cooperative Store, and an Alaska Native
Service School. There is also a 1,500-foot landing strip near the town.
Haycock is a gold mining community which has a Territorial school,
a general store, a post office, and a 1,400-foot civilian airfield.
In 1947 four companies, Coplin & Hamm, Dime Creek Dredging Co., Rylander27 [ls?]
003 | Vol_XII-0717
NORTON BAY
Johnson & Hagberg, and Swanson Bros. were working placer mines in the
Haycock area. Most of this activity is on Dime Creek, [ ?] with
crews ranging from one man to 7.Around the head of Norton B ay the from Koyuk, the shoreline dips
southwestward to Bald Head, on which is located Isaac's Roadhouse, and
then retreat s northwestward again to the mouth of the Kwik River.Kwik River rises about 18 miles inland in a lake-studded
area east of the Darby Mountains and flows, despite several meanderings,
almost due southward into Norton Bay. The Tubutulik River enters the
bay a few miles west of the Kwik. The Tubutulik heads against streams
rising in the Darby Mountains, and in Death Valley, and all running
southward to form the main stream, which flows southeastward from the main–
land, which partially cuts the mouth of the Tubutulik off from the bay.
There is a 5,000-foot landing strip just south of this spit. The
Kwiniuk River enters Norton Bay near the site of this landing strip.
Elm Mission Roadhouse and Walla Walla Shelter cabin are a few miles down
the we t s t side of the bay. All these points are connected by the winter
trail which continues on around the edge of Seward Peninsula. Since
there are no more towns on Norton Bay be e l ow the shelter cabin mentioned
above, the trail veers westward and crosses directly over to Golovin Bay
(q.v.). Cape Darby is about 20 miles southwest of Walla Walla.According to the report of Ellis, assistant surgeon to the
expedition, Captain James Cook explored a great many of these points on
Norton Bay in September, 1778. After sailing eastward from Sledge Island
and "seeing many white porpusses," he cleared Cape Darby and entered
the bay, keeping well to the north shore. "This part of the coast was
high, "Ellis wrote, "though not remarkably so; that next the sea was in27 [ls?]
004 | Vol_XII-0718
NORTON BAY
some places very rocky, in others, low and level, and well covered with
verdure, but there was no appearance of wood." Cook must at this time
have been offshore somewhere between from Cape Darby and Moses Point. The next day he
sailed farther north, but when the soundings showed only four fathom,
he hauled off to the SSE. "A remarkable smooth, but rocky hummock
bore N. 13 deg. W. four or five miles distant," the report continues,
"this hummock captain Cook c alled Bald Head." That night they anchored
off Cape Denbigh and thereafter continued down the mainland coast toward St.
Michael Island (q.v.)8 [ls?]
U.S. C.P. & Suppl; Tewkesbury; Baker;
Ellis, W. Authentic nar r ative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and Authentic nar r ative of a voyage performed by Captain Cook and
Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, Captain Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,
and 1780; in search of a North-We t s t Passage. and 1780; in search of a North-We t s t Passage. London, Robinson, 1782
001 | Vol_XII-0719
Ruby Collins NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
October, 1948
2500 wds - Text
50 wds - Bibl. NORTON SOUND, an important arm of Bering Sea, deeply
indenting the west coast of Alaska, may be said to have an entrance extending
from Cape Romanzof on the south ( See Hazen Bay Area) to Cape Rodney on
the north, an airline distance of between 160 and 170 miles. If Norton
Bay, a northeasterly arm of the Sound is included, Norton Sound extends
over 360 miles inland from an imaginary line drawn between its two
entrance points.But not only its size makes Norton Sound such an impor–
tant extension of Bering Sea. Much of the south shore of the Sound is
formed by the fan-shaped Yukon Delta, through which, despite the ever–
increasing use of air-freight, supplies are shipped up the Yukon. These
supplies usually come by way of St. Michael Island, farther up the Sound.
Economically speaking, however, the north shore of the Sound is by far
the most important, for it is here that the famous gold mining districts
of Bluff, Solomon, and Nome (q.v.) are located.Coastal Outline The various arms reaching off and points extending
into Norton Sound are so large and well-defined that they
have been separately named. (For many of these see individual articles.)Just above the Yukon Delta is Pascol Bay, which leads
northward into shoal-locked Stephens Pass. This pass separates Stuart
Island from St. Michael Island, which itself is cut off from the mainland
only by a tidal slough called St. Michael Canal.Above St. Michael Island, Norton Sound indents the coast
and receives, along with many lesser known streams, the Unalakleet River.
This shallow bay extends northward to a rectangular neck of land with
Cape Denbigh as its southern and Point Dexter as its northern points.Norton Bay extends eastward and northward from Point Dexter,
002 | Vol_XII-0720
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
and receives the Ungalik, Inglutalik, Koyuk, and Kwik Rivers. From
east to west, Bald Head, Moses Point, and Cape Darby are the prominent
points on the north shore of Norton Bay.Continuing westward, Cape Darby and Rocky Point mark the
entrance to Golovnin Bay, which in turns leads northward into a
smaller, shallow arm known as Golovnin Sound. Fish River, famous as the
main route to the Niukluk and thence to the rich Council gold mining dis–
trict, empties into Golovnin Sound.From Rocky Point westward to Cape Nome, Norton Sound again
shallowly indents the mainland, this time bordering the Bluff and Solomon
gold mining districts. From Cape Nome to Cape Rodney, the shoreline is
relatively straight. Nome, at the mouth of the Snake River, about twelve
miles west of Cape Nome, is one of the most famous gold mining towns in
all of Alaska.West of Nome, Norton Sound receives the lesser gold streams,
Penny, Cripple, and Sinuk. About six miles south and slightly east of the
mouth of the Sinuk , is tiny Sledge Island.Navigation From a navigational point of view Norton Sound presents
certain problems. The Yukon Delta section is fringed for
five to thirty miles offshore by a shoal which is impassable to deep-water
vessels. This shoal, although varying in width, continues around the entire
coast of Norton Sound, cutting off most of the coastal settlements from
direct service by ocean-going vessels. Off the Unalakleet A a rea (q.v.),
this shoal is several miles wide. Shoal water surrounds Cape Denbigh and
Point Dexter, and completely fills in the head of Norton Bay.Golovnin Bay is extremely shallow, but westward from Rocky
Point to Cape Nome, the fringe of shoal water narrows considerably so that
deep water vessels can approach within a mile of Bluff and Solomon. From
Cape Nome westward to just beyond Nome, however, this shoal widens again,
003 | Vol_XII-0721
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
so that all shipments to Nome must be lightered ashore. Since Nome is
the central freight transfer point for much of southern Seward Peninsula,
the lack of a deep channel and docking facilities there is particularly
awkward.Westward from Snake River to Cape Rodney, although the water
is shallow very close to shore, greater depths exist than elsewhere in the
Sound. The deep water anchorage between Sledge Island and the mainland
offers ocean going vessels their only protection from the southerly storms
which rage against this section of the coast of Norton Sound in the late
summer and fall.Outside these coastwise shoals depths in Norton Sound range
from forty-eight to seventy-two feet. Through out the bottom of the Sound
is remarkably even, the depths decreasing toward shore with unusual
regularity.Weather Seward Peninsula [ ?] itself protects N orton Sound
from northerly weather, but the Sound is only partially pro–
tected by the Yukon Delta from southerly winds, and is completely open to
the full force of southwesterly s o t orms.The north side of the Sound is, of course, particularly
affected by these southwesterly winds, since their effect is to raise the
level of the water all along that side of the Sound. Northerly winds, on
the contrary, tend to lower the water along the north [ ?] ide of the Sound.
Because of the fringe of shoal water previously described, the effect
o f a southwesterly wind on the level of the water is almost instantaneous.
These southerly storms, which blow up quickly and frequently during August
and September and occasionally during other months of the year, are very
dangerous and have written a history of destruction and loss of life in
the towns all along the coast from Rocky Point to Cape Rodney. During
004 | Vol_XII-0722
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
such a storm no landing of any kind can be j m ade through the breakers, and
deep-draft vessels , lying at anchor in the various roadstead s , must w e ither
put out to sea or seek shelter behind Sledge Island.Ice Although it reforms as young ice every year, T t he ice in Norton Sound, as in all parts of Bering Sea,
Although it reforms as young ice every year, may be divided
into two kinds: 1) that forming late in the year, which, in the course
of the winter is piled up into heavy masses by the force of the winds, and
2) that forming late in the winter or early in the spring in the spaces
left by the movement of the old ice.The use of the beaches and bays of Norton Sound for the dis–
charge of cargoes is governed, of course, by ice conditions. Ice closes
the Sound to all navigation sometime between mid-October and early
November and does not usually break up before the middle of June.For & Precipitation West of Cape Nome, Norton Sound is subject to the
same fog conditions as Bering Sea. Late spring and early
summer bring much fog and considerabl e rain. In early fall the fog de–
creases, but the strength of the gales increases, and snow is likely any
time after mid-September. Strong winds from any direction usually bring
precipitation of some kind with them, but this may be only showers or
snow squalls with westerly or northerly winds, whereas the precipitation
with easterly or southerly winds usually lasts until the wind shifts.Northerly and northeasterly winds prevail in this western
part of Norton Sound from about October to May, and are more likely to
blow from directions in the southern half of the compass from June to
September. The spring and summer fogs, although dense, are often less
than 100 feet deep, so that it is sometimes possible to direct a ship
through a fog by sending a man aloft [ ?] where he will be above the fog it and able
005 | Vol_XII-0723
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
to see prominent landmarks. Although there is much cloudiness in this
western section of Norton Sound, an average of sixty to eighty percent
of the sky being covered all year, this condition is more prevalent in
mid-summer than in any of the winter months.East of Cape Nome, the weather in general is better than
in the previously described parts of Norton Sound. Fogs are rare at
St. Michael, and will amost always clear away as one proceeds up the Sound.The only abnormal phenomena in this part of the Sound is
the southern mirage in the vicinity of St. Michael (q.v.). This mirage
is also sometimes apparent in Norton Bay.Trails From the time of the freeze-up in mid-October or early
November to about the middle of June, the uniformly low shoreline of
Norton Sound, which in summer is an impassable stretch of mud, is turned
into a fine winter trail. A well-established dog-team trail runs all
around Norton Sound sending many branches inland, up the important rivers
such as the Yukon, Unalakleet, Fish, Nome, and Snake, and cross-country
to the innumerably mining camps in the interior. One main branch cuts
northward across the head of Norton Bay and the neck of Seward Peninsula
to the Kotzebue region.¶ The freeze-up is so complete that tractors,
and possibly trucks, could be used along these same trails, since all
rivers, lakes and well-protected bays are frozen solid enough to support
very heavy weights. Airplanes equipped with skis can also operate from
most coastal and inland points during the winter.Vegetation Although generally spoken of as "barren tundra", the
shores of Norton Sound support a variety of vegetation.
Along the streams which enter the Sound, small willows and alder are
abundant. These trees are seldom over twenty feet high, and, because
of the extreme dampness of the terrain in summer, are usually rotten at
006 | Vol_XII-0724
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
the heart, but they are useful as firewood. They are not large enough,
however, for use as building material. The native women use willow and
alder bark to color dressed rain deers reindeer skins a beautiful red–
brown.In the spring the coastal plain is covered with a luxuriant
growth of grasses and flowers. Kentucky blue grass is indigenous to the
region, and wood meadow-grass and blue joint grass thrive. The latter
averages three feet in height, but, under favorable conditions, attains
four and even five feet.In the gardens of Nome, probably the most northerly town on
the coast of Norton Sound, lettuce, radishes, cabbage, and turnips, as
well as a great variety of flowers , flourish. It must be remembered that,
although the winters are long and cold, the summer days, throughout this
area, are relatively warm and abnormally long. The vegetation of the Nome
District, for instance, has the advantage of twenty-two hours of sunlight
on the longest summer day.Maximum July temperatures at Nome read in the mid-seventies,
and this reading is decreased by only a few degrees in June and August.
With the thawing of the upper permafrost layers in this particular area,
the terrain around Nome is transformed from the snow-highway, described
above, to an endless stretch of mud. With the rise of air temperatures
in June, July, and August, and the gradually lengthening of the days,
all vegetation finds itself in an approximation of hot-house conditions.
It is hardly surprising that growth occurs and is occasionally phenomenal.All the early explorers of Norton Sound make particular
mention of the profusion of small fruits and berries available on the shores
of the Sound. These include: red and black currant s , gooseberries, cran–
berries, raspberries, bearberries, twinberries, dewberries, mossberries,
and rose berries.¶ Until very recent time s ailors have depended largely
007 | Vol_XII-0725
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
upon supplies of this k ind of fresh fruit to prevent scurvy. Captain
James Cook made a landfall in the Unalakleet area south of Cape Denbigh
on September 11, 1778. "At two in the afternoon," writes Ellis, assis–
tant surgeon to the voyage, "boats well manned were sent on shore, for the
purpose of getting wood, of which we saw great plenty upon the beach.
The sides of the hills ... were well clothe d with birch and willows, but
they were of small size; among these were great numbers of red and black
currant trees, with plenty of fruit. The higher parts and summits of the
hills wer e almost entirely covered with crow and whortle-berries, which
afforded a most pleasing and salutary repast to everyone on board...The
boats were soon loaded, but we found great difficulty in getting them
off, on account of the little depth of water, which obliged us to heave
a good deal of our cargoes overboard." Considering the fact that Cook
and his two crews aboard the Resolution and the Discovery had been
sailing since July 12, 1776, when they put out from Plymouth, England,
and that they were destined to continue their voyage well into 1779, it
can well be imagined how hard was the loss of this boatload of fresh fruit
from the shores of Norton Sound.Names Cook was the first white man to sail through this Sound.
He discovered it during the voyage in September, 1778,
during the voyage mentioned above, and named it Norton "in honour of Sir
Fletcher Norton (afterwards Lord Frantley), speaker of the House of
Commons." Cook likewise named various prominent features of the Sound
and its coast, including Stuart Island, Shaktolik, just below Cape Den–
bigh, Cape Denbigh itself, Cape Darby, across the entrance to Norton Bay,
and Cape Rodney, northern entrance t p oint to Norton Sound.Other early arrivals to this part of Bering Sea were the
Russian fur-traders. St. Michael Bay and Island were discovered and
008 | Vol_XII-0726
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
named by Captain Michael Tebenkof in 1833. The Russians also explored
the [ ?] lower Yukon in 1837 and 1838. They named, or were the first
to record, Pastol Bay, Tolstoi Point, Egg Island, just off this point,
the Unalakleet River, Rocky Point, and Cape Topkok, in the Bluff District.Dr. William Healey Dall, who went to Alaska in 1865 in
the employment of the Western Union Telegraph Company, and who returned
several times subsequently as a member of the U.S. Coast Survey and the U.S.
Geological Survey, is responsible for recording many of the names all
along the coast of Norton Sound. Alfred Hulse Brooks, and Edward Chester
Barnard, both of the U.S. Geological Survey, are responsible for many
others. (For the story of the name "Nome" see the article, Cape Nome.)Occupations The chief occupations of the Native inhabitants,
who comprise the majority of the population of these
shores, are trapping, hunting, fishing, fur farming, and reindeer herding,
in addition to such typically Native industries as ivory carving, sled,
[ ?] harness , and boat making, etc. With the exception of these latter
occupations and reindeer herding, the white inhabitants are similarly
employed. In addition, there are certain generally white occupations.
The most important of these, of course, is gold mining. In recent years
there has been an increasing interest in the commercial development of the
king crab, shrimp, cod, halibut, herring, and salmon fishing in the Sound.Nome, with an estimated 1939 popu a l ation of 1,500, gives
employment to a wider variety of workers than its size would imply. As
the headquarters for the Se d c ond Judicial District of Alaska, it is the
residence of many Territorial and Federal officials. As the freight
transfer point to other parts of southern Seward Peninsula, it needs
crews for its lighterage services and workers for its warehouses and
storage establishments. As the educational, religious, medical, cultural,
009 | Vol_XII-0727
NORTON SOUND, ALASKA
and business center for northwestern Alaska, it employs a great variety
of people. (See Nome article.)With the discovery of pitchblende only one hundred miles
from Nome, in October, 1948, it is reasonable to assume that the
future of that particular section of the coast of Norton Sound may hold
as exciting and unpredictable developments as took place in the same
area at the beginning of the twentieth century.Sources: Baker; Twekesbury; USCP, 1947 ed.; VSGB
Ellis, W. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt. Cook and Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt. Cook and
Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779,
and 1780 in search of a North West Passage and 1780 in search of a North West Passage . London,
Robinson, 1782. Vol.II, pp.9-13.Dall, William H. Alaska and its resources Alaska and its resources . Boston, 1870.
001 | Vol_XII-0728
Ruby Collins NOXAPAGA RIVER, ALASKA
November, 1948
600 - Text
75 - BiblNOXAPAGA RIVER, central Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is a northern tribu–
tary to the Kuzitrin River (q.v.) in the vicinity of 164° W. Long.Brooks reported this river as the Kugrukruk or Kugirukuk in
1900, but Gerdine obtained the Eskimo name by which it is now known
in 1901.The Noxapaga is formed by the junction of Berry and Eldorado
Creeks at about 65° 40′ N.Lat., 164° W. Long. It rises in the divide
separating the Noxapaga watershed from the Goodhope River system to
the north. The Noxapaga continues almost directly south down an ever–
widening valley which merges, after eight or ten miles, with the
interior basin known as the Kuzitrin Flats. After bending westward
about midway of its course, the Noxapaga continues returns to its southward
trend and enters the Kuzitrin.Considering that the Noxapaga is only about twenty or twenty–
five miles long, it receives a great many tributaries. Travelling
downstream , the western affluents are: Aurora (with its own tributary,
Money Creek), Goose, Turner (which is joined by Boulder Creek), Little
Garfield, and Mascot (which receives Tina Creek. East Fork, which
rises south of Imuruk Lake, is the longest and the only eastern tribu–
tary to the Noxapaga.Mining Consequent upon the Kougarok gold rush of 1900, gold
was discovered on several of the streams in the Noxapaga
system. A U.S. Geological Survey map , dated 1913 , shows gold placers
on Goose, Boulder, and Garfield Creeks.In 1901, the placers on Boulder Creek yielded $7,000, but,
002 | Vol_XII-0729
NOXAPAGA RIVER, ALASKA
although large nuggets were fairly common and the gold [ ?]
throughout the area was coarse, subsequent years were not as produc–
tive.Placers on Garfield Creek were all confined to the upland parts
of its valley, a few miles south of Baldy Mountain, which could can be
reached by trail from the Kougarok River. However, the expense of
getting supplies to Garfield Creek, combined with the shallowness of
the pay streak to reduce activity along it from the six operators in
of 1900 to only one in 1908.Up until 1940 , very little work was done in the Noxapaga area,
but, starting with the U.S. Bureau of Mines Mineral Industries U.S. Bureau of Mines report
for that year, the Fox Bar Dredging Co. is mentioned as [ ?] having
been active in the southern part of the Kougarok Valley and in
"scattered camps on streams tributary to Noxapaga River," and that
new dredges seem "to have re s ulted in a larger output of gold than
heretofore." It is unfortunate that the wartime regulation making
gold "nonessential" followed so shortly upon this revival of interest
in the Noxapaga river system. (See Nome and Bluff articles.)
As of this writing (1948), gold mining in Alaska has not recovered
from the effect of this ruling and from the war generally, neither
along the Noxapaga nor anywhere else in the Territory.There are no true settlements on the Noxapaga or its tributaries,
although there is a 1,400-foot landing strip in the v icinity of East
Fork. Several winter trails connect this strip with Nome, Solomon,
and other Norton Sound points, with Teller, on Port Clarence, and with
points in the Kougarok and Kotzebue distric t s to the north.
003 | Vol_XII-0730
NOXAPAGA RIVER, ALASKA
SOURCES
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Wash., D.C., 1906.
U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper 314 Water-Supply Paper 314 . Washington, D.C., 1913.
Guide Book of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska Guide Book of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Alaska .
Brooks, Alfred H. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay
Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.Smith, Philip S. Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940 Mineral Industry of Alaska, in 1940 . Washington,
D.C., 1942. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 753-A)U.S.C.P. Alaska. Part II. 1947. U.S.C.P. Alaska. Part II. 1947.
Colby, Merle. Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier . N.Y., 1942.
001 | Vol_XII-0731
Ruby Collins
29 April 48 NUSHAGAK, ALASKA
300 wds
NUSHAGAK, ALASKA (Meshagak) is a native settlement and
post office on Nushagak Point, eastern side of Nushagak Bay (q.v.),
7 or 8 miles north of Clark Point (q.v.). It was established in
August, 1899, and had a population of 41 in 1939. The settlement
has a store, a school, and a Russian church. Like the inhabitants
of other Bristol Bay villages in this area most of the people of
Nushagak turn fisherman during the brief salmon canning season from
mid-June to late July. For the remainder of the year the chief
activities are hunting and trapping. Clothing, general provisions,
and trapping supplies are available from the store in the village,
and, although other game is scarce, reindeer meat is usually
available. In addition, most of the salmon canneries operating
in the settlement maintain stores during the canning season and
operate repair shops which will sometimes take on outside work.
During the season the canneries maintain their own radio stations,
and the mail steamer from Seward makes monthly calls from May to
August each year.Nushagak has no wharf so that landing cargo at low water
is difficult. Vessels must approach the shore as close as their
draft permit and then use small boats or barges to complete the
landing. The mud at low tide is deep and sticky, but, because of
the extreme range of the tide, an easy boat landing may be made at
high water.The present site of Nushagak is probably the same as that
Sources: Baker; Colby; Towkesbury; Sundborg; USCP & Suppl.; VSGB
of a trading post established by the Russians in 1818 or 1819 and
called Alexandrovsk, perhaps in honor of Alexander Baranov, who
ordered the post established. It has been variously reported since
then as Alexander, Alexandrovski, and erroneously as Alexandra.
002 | Vol_XII-0732
NUSHAGAK, ALASKA
It is now generally known as Nushagak. About 1 1/2 miles to the
north of the settlement is Kanulik, where the Moravian Mission,
Carmel, was established in 1899.
001 | Vol_XII-0733
Ruby Collins
24 May 48 NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA
1500 wds
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA, a northern arm of Bristol Bay, is one
of the centers of the red salmon canning industry for which this entire
region is famous. The bay is about 15 miles wide at the entrance between
Etolin Point, the eastern entrance point on the mainland, and Protection
Point, the western entrance point on Nushagak Peninsula. The bay extends
northwestward for about 12 miles to Ekuk Bluff, where it is 7 or 8
miles wide, and then turns northward for about 9 miles to Nushagak where
it is about 3 miles wide. The bay extends for a few more miles in a
northeasterly direction to a point into which the Nushagak River (q.v.)
flows from the east and Wood River (q.v.) flows from the northwest.
Besides these two major tributaries, Nushagak Bay receives Clark Slough,
about midway on the eastern side, and the Snake and Igushik Rivers [ ?]
on the western side. Two islands, one unnamed and the other called
Williams Island partially obstruct the head of Nushagak Bay. The extreme
northwestern tip of the larger, unnamed island is called Picnic Point.Nushagak Bay is one of the many Bristol Bay tributaries reported
in 1938 by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to be incompletely surveyed
and dangerous to navigate. The tidal range in this area runs from 15 to
24 feet. Because of the funnel-shaped configuration of the mouths of
these rivers and bays, tidal currents are extremely strong and can
attain a velocity of 6 knots. The depths in these bays and rivers are
never very great, even at high water, so that vast areas of shoals and
mud flats are uncovered at low tide. The shores of Nushagak Bay are
obstructed by shoals and bars, [ ?]
and rip tides are a good indication of shoal water at all times.
002 | Vol_XII-0734
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA
Strangers to this bay should attempt its ascent only in the daytime on
a rising tide, and they would be well advised to radio ahead for a pilot
from one of the many cannery vessels which operate in the bay. Nushagak Bay
has not been surveyed since 1909 or 1910, and it is suspected that
considerable change in the channels has taken place since that time.
Of the two possible channels only the eastern, beyond Etolin Point, is
currently in use.Etolin Point is the southern extrem[e?]ity of a blunt peninsula
which separates Nushagak Bay from Kvichak Bay (q.v.). The point is com–
prised of three bluffs, the middle and highest measuring about 90 feet.
A 150-foot hill a little over a mile s northeast of the point is the
first summit to show when approaching from seaward. Etolin Point was
named by Lütke in 1830 for the Russian explorer Etolin, at one time
governor of the Russian American Company, and, from about 1821 to 1882,
surveyor of the Alaska coast from Bristol Bay to Cape Newenham. For
eighty years Etolin's charts were the only ones covering this area.Ekuk Bluff, about 13 miles north of Etolin Point, is a
ridge about 150 feet high, which It carries a light structure marking the
channel over a bar which lies off the bluff. This light structure
should not be confused with the church steeple which is the first mark
to appear on Ekuk Bluff. Although most of the channels in Nushagak
Bay change somewhat from year to year, the channel off Ekuk Bluff, as
marked by this lighted range, was reported in 1938 to have remained
constant for 9 years. The only change noted in that time was that
depths over the bar increased from 17 to 21 feet.The small native settlement of Ekuk lies on the spit north
of the bluff. The water inside this spit drains completely off at
low tide. During the canning season , which runs from mid-June to
003 | Vol_XII-0735
NUSHGAK BAY, ALASKA
late July, Libby, McNeill and Libby maintain a cannery and radio station
at Ekuk. The company wharf is 150 feet long and is fitted with a marine
railway. Fresh water is available on the wharf, but the supplies of
gasoline,diesel , and fuel oils are for company use only. This wharf has
a depth along side of 7 feet at high tide. An Eskimo settlement called
Ekuk was recorded by Baker in 1906 as "near the mouth of Nushagak River."
This may be the same as the present t wo ow n of Ekuk. The name was first
assigned by Lütke in 1828, who wrote it Ekouk. It has also been called
Yekuk.Clark Point, a few miles north of Ekuk Bluff, is a post office
and settlement with a population estimated at 22 in 1939. The village
has a high water tank and two salmon canneries. The Alaska Packers
Association cannery has a wharf 70 feet long fitted with a 12-ton crane
and a marine railway. Freshwater is available on the wharf. Since the
wharf is dry at low water, supplies must then be brought by lighters to
vessels offshore. The U.S. Fish Commission named Clark Point in 1890,
perhaps in honor of Prof. Samuel Fessenden Clark, of William s College.Nushagak (q.v.), one of the larger settlements on the bay, is
about 6 or 7 miles northward from Clark Point.Snag Point is a small settlement near the mouth of Wood River
(q.v.) on the west side of Nushagak Bay. There is a cannery about two
miles north of Snag Point, and the Alaska Salmon Co. operates radio station
KZV in this vicinity. The Choggiung Public Utility District, organized
in 1939, proposes to establish a modern sanitary water supply for the
settlement. The same year funds were raised to build a new church. Snag
Point is on the long winter trail running from Lewis Point, on the mouth
of the Nushagak River, and points on the Kvichak River (q.v.) to Dilling–
ham, Owens, Togiak, and other villages to the west.
004 | Vol_XII-0736
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA
Dillingham (q.v.), a few miles southward from Snag Point, is
the largest settlement on Nushagak Bay.Kanakanak, a few miles south of Dillingham, is a post office
and settlement which had a population of 177 in 1940. Like the inhabitants
of other Bristol Bay villages in this area, the people of Kanakanak turn
← fishermen during the brief salmon canning season from mid-June to
late July. For the remainder of the year the chief activities are hunting
and trapping. The village is on the winter trail connecting with Dilling–
ham and points to the eastward and westward. The hospital, which burned
in 1932, was being rebuilt in 1940. The U.S. Signal Corps operates
radiotelegraph station WXK in Kanakanak, and planes from Anchorage stop
here. In 1938 a United States Deputy Marshal andCommissioner was
stationed in the village. Moser reported this town in approximately its
present position in 1897. The Eleventh Census of 1890 gave the population
as 53, making Kanakanak one of the older substantial settlements of the
area.Daly, a few miles south of Kanakanak, is a settlement and
cannery which, in 1939, was operated by the Pacific American Fisheries,
Inc.Coffee Point, a few miles south of Daly, was so named by traders
in this area and was recorded by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1891.
Several salteries are grouped around the mouth of the Snake River which
enters Nushagak Bay from the west a few miles south of Coffee Point.
Several more salteries and the small settlement of Igushik are found
at the mouth of the Igushik River about midway down the western side of
Nushagak Bay. Igushik had a population of only 16 in 1939 but appears
on a map dated that same year to be the site of a commercial radiotelegraph
and radiotelephone station. The Igushik River drains from Amanka Lake,
in the foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains, and takes an extremely tortuous,
005 | Vol_XII-0737
NUSHAGAK BAY, ALASKA
generally southeasterly course to Nushagak Bay. The name, which has been
variously reported ever since Tebenkof first recorded it in 1849, would
appear to be based on one of two similar Eskimo words, the first meaning
crooked , and the other meaning snake . The Igushik River is fed by many
small streams running from the countless tiny lakes which dot the
interior of Nushagak Peninsula.For 10 to 20 miles inland the territory around Nushagak Bay is
soft tundra sprinkled with lakes. Since summer overland travel is impossible,
mail and supplies of all kinds must be transported either by air or by water.
In winter, however, the long trail which starts at two points on
Shelikof Strait and runs westward to points on Kuskokwim Bay joins many of
the settlements on Iliamna and Clark Lakes with points on Kvichak and
Nushagak Bays. The ice does not usually leave Nushagak Bay until about
the middle of May, and has been known to obstruct navigation until June 17.
The pack having been completed, cannery vessels leave the bay in August, and
T t he ice probably does not begin to form again until late in the fall.
In recent years the [ ?] salmon companies have substituted streamers for
the sailing vessels previously used. At one time, however, some of
the most famous of the clipper ships were employed in the salmon trade.The weather in the Nushagak Bay area is considered better than fart
farther westward. Winds from the east bring rain and fog; light winds
from the southwest bring fair weather, but strong winds from the same
direction bring rain; and winds from the northwest bring fine, clear
weather. There is little fog during the summer, but August and September
are usually stormy.
001 | Vol_XII-0738
Ruby Collins Text - 200 wds.
February, 1949 NULUK RIVER, ALASKA
NULUK RIVER, northwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, was reported
by Gerdine, in 190 1 , as the Nooluk .This river heads in mountains of the interior of Seward Peninsula
which extend eastward from the York Mountains and which separate this no r thern
drainage system from that of the Agiapuk, a tributary to Imuruk Basin. The
Nuluk is formed by the confluence of the widely branching North and South
Forks, and then flows i follows a generally northwesterly course for about 35
miles to the lagoon which borders this section of the north coast of Seward
Peninsula. On some early maps this shallow body of water is identified as Arctic
Lagoon, but the most recent maps leave it nameless.The mountains in which the Nuluk rises are of Port Clarence lime–
stone, and, about 15 miles from its head, the river has eroded a canyon varying
from 100 to 1,000 feet in depth.After examining this river in 1901, Collier did not find that it
was a good stream for any kind of mining endeavors. The coastal gravel extends
up the Nuluk farther than it does on other rivers of the region, but no colors
have been found in them and the unaltered limestone through which the early
course of the river flows does not contain mineralized veins.Sources;
Baker, Marcus. Geographic [ ?] Dictionary of Alaska Geographic [ ?] Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington,1906.
Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula, Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Professional
Paper Paper No.2)
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0739
Ruby Collins
26 May 48 NUSHAGAK PENINSULA, ALASKA
200 wds
NUSHAGAK PENINSULA, in the southern part of Alaska,
Sources: USCP & Suppl; VSGB; Baker
separates Nushagak Bay from Kulukak Bay, both northern extensions of
Bristol Bay. The peninsula stretches in a southeasterly direction
from the foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains at about 59° N. Lat., 159°
W. Long. to Cape Constantine at about 58° 23′ N. Lat. This cape was so
named by Ustiugof in 1818. The northeastern section is crossed by the
meandering Igushik River which flows from Amanka Lake at the head of
the peninsula to Nushagak Bay. The peninsula is mostly low, marshy
tundra dotted with countless tiny lakes and cut by numerous creeks
and streams. Tuklom Igloos lie near one of these small lakes. The only
settlement of any size on the peninsula is Igushik at the mouth of the
Igushik River. Protection Point, an extension of the southeastern side
of the peninsula, is the western entrance point to Nushagak Bay. This
point was called Povorotnoi, turn , by Tebenkof in 1849, but was renamed
by the U.S. Fish Commission in 1890. Kulukak Point, a sharp northwestern
extension of Nushagak Peninsula, about 30 miles northwestward from
Cape Constantine, is the eastern entrance point to Kulukak Bay (q.v.).
° in Sundborg; Colby; Allen
001 | Vol_XII-0740
Ruby Collins
4 May 48 NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA
1,000 wds
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA (Nushegak, Nouchagak), the largest
tributary to Nushagak Bay (q.v.), a northern arm of Bristol Bay,
is about 220 miles long. The Nushagak, with its largest tributary,
the Mulchatna (q.v.), drains a V-shaped strip of southeastern Alaska
northeast of Bristol Bay, bounded on the east by the foothills of
the Alaska Range north of Lake Clark and on the west by the Kilbuck
Mountains just west of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.). The Nuyakuk River
(q.v.), second largest tributary to the Nushagak drains from Tikchik
and Nuyakuk Lakes which themselves are fed by streams from the Kil–
buck Mountains. Wood River (q.v.), which joins the Nushagak at its
mouth at the head of Nushagak Bay, drains from Lake Aleknagik, another
Tikchik Lake, which also receives tributaries from the Kilbuck
Mountains.The Nushagak rises in a group of small mountains about
2800 feet high called the Nushagak Hills at about 60° 35′ N. Lat.,
156° W. Long. from which point it takes a devious, southwesterly
course to the head of Nushagak Bay. The Nushagak has many tributar–
ies along its early course above 60° N. Lat. most of which are in–
dicated by dotted lines, and some of which are as yet unnamed.
The Chichitnok and King Salmon Rivers enter from the west a few
miles from the head; Vukpalik Creek and Harris Creek enter from the
east about 6 and 23 miles below the mouth of the King Salmon.
9 or 10 miles southward from here the Nuyakuk enters from the west, and
about 18 miles south of this confluence the Mulchatna flows in from
the east. From this point to its mouth the Nushagak is fed by many
small streams and creeks including Nunachuak Creek, just below the
mouth of the Mulchatna; Elilakok Creek, a few miles farther down ; Klutuk
002 | Vol_XII-0741
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA
Creek, about 18 miles farther south; and Kokwok River, 6 or 7 miles
below the Klutuk. Just below 60° N. Lat. the Nushagak swings south–
eastward, then southwestward again, a pattern which is repeated
several miles up-river from its mouth. This part of the river, therefore,
resembles an enormous 3. In addition to the several small
tributaries already given for this section of the Nushagak, there
are numberless unnamed streams, which drain ing from the hundreds of
tiny lakes dotting this part of the coastal lowlands to which flow
into the Nushagak from both sides. Beginning at about 59° 15′ N.Lat.
the river follows two winding courses at once, these sometimes
being connected by short channels and sometimes proceeding for
miles side by side without joining. One such section near the mouth
of the river is called Keefer Cutoff, the southern end of which
receives Portage Creek from the southeast. Just below this cutoff,
at about 58° 55′, the river veers sharply westward from its
southward course, then widens considerably and arches northwestward.
The lower part of the river has, therefore, the appearance of a
massive, blunt hook. Scandinavian Slough connects the alternate
channel west of Keefer Cutoff with the a point on the river proper
several miles nearer its mouth. Little Muklung River enters the
Nushagak from the north very near the mouth, and the mouths of the
Nushagak and Wood Rivers join at the head of Nushagak Bay.Like so many other Bristol Bay rivers, the Nushagak
The Nushagak River system contains countless numbers of
lakes making it an ideal habitat for the red salmon for which this
whole Bristol Bay region is famous. From mid-June to late July
003 | Vol_XII-0742
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA
companies maintain canneries along the mouth of the river Nushagak
and Wood Rivers and at the head of Nushagak Bay. The Nushagak is
one of the many Bristol Bay rivers reported in 1938 by the U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey to be incompletely surveyed and dangerous
to navigate. The tidal range in this area runs from 15 to 24 feet.
Because of the funneleshaped configuration of the mouths of these
rivers and of the bays into which they empty, tidal currents are
extremely strong and can attain a velocity of 6 knots. The depths
in these bays and rivers are never very great, even at high water,
so that vast areas of shoals and mud flats are uncovered at low tide,
leaving only the shallowest of channels between them. Despite these
difficulties, small vessels drawing up to 2 1/2 feet can navigate
the Nushagak River for about 155 miles up from its mouth.Settlements Recent maps show no settlements along the Nushagak River
above its confluence with the Nuyakuk. Koliganek, a small, native
village s lies on the southern bank of this junction. Several miles
south of the mouth of the Mulchatna River, but on the west side of
the Nushagak, is Akokpak, another small, native settlement, and on
the east side, at the mouth of Nunachuak Creek is the village of
Nunachuak which had a population of 50 in 1939. The native
settlements of Elilakok, Inakpuk, and Tunravik lie within about 12
miles of Nunachuak, and about an equal distance still farther south
is Ekwok, a village and post office on the west bank of the
Nushagak. Ekwok has a federal school staffed with a teacher and a
community worker. Ekwok This settlement is on the mail route running from
Dillingham (q.v.) to Iliamna and had a population of 68 in 1939.
Recent maps show a shelter cabin at the mouth of Portage Creek at
the southern entrace to Keefer Cutoff. Lewis Point, on the north
004 | Vol_XII-0743
NUSHAGAK RIVER, ALASKA
side of the Nushagak about 10 miles from its mouth, is on the
long winter trail which joins points on Iliamna Lake (q.v.) and the [ ?]
Kvichak River with Dillingham, Owens, Goodnews (q.v.) and other Bristol
Bay towns to the west.Early Russian explorers and, in 1828, Lütke reported the Nushagak
Sources: USCP & suppl., VSGB; Baker; Colby; Sundborg; Tewkesbury
R iver with recognizable variants of its present name. In 1778,
however, Cook appears to have referred to it as the Bristol.
Schanz recorded it as the Tahlekuk, about 1890, while Baker note d ,
in 1906, that the local fisheries refer red to it as the Main River.
It is now generally known as the Nushagak.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0744
RUBY COLLINS NUYAKUK RIVER, ALASKA
4 May 48
200 wds
NUYAKUK RIVER, southeastern Alaska, one of the important
tributaries to the Nushagak River (q.v.), drains from the eastern end
of Tikchik Lake at about 59° 56′ N. Lat., 158° 12′ W. Long., and
takes a narrow, winding southeasterly course to join the long Nushagak
at about 59° 49′ N. Lat., 157° 27′ W. Long. The Nuyakuk is about 28
miles long and is marked by falls and rapids early in its course,
after which it widens and flows less swiftly. Recent maps show no
named tributaries to the Nuyakuk, although it is fed from north and
south all along its course by many streams and creeks rising in the
numberless small lakes which dot this section of the coastal lowlands.
The two permanent settlements on the Nuyakuk are Kaskanak, at its head,
and koliganek, on the south bank of its junction with the Nushagak.At one time the Nuyakuk was called the Tikchik River (q.v.)
and was so reported by Baker , in 1906. Some confusion still exists
today. The Nuyakuk was carefully traced but incorrectly indicated
on a U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey World Aeronautical Chart dated
January, 1947. On this map the name Nuyakuk was printed along a
stretch of the Nushagak River, leaving the entire course of the
Nuyakuk unidentified.Sources: vsgb
° in USCP, Baker, Colby, Greely
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0745
Place with Geography. Taken from Gasser "Agriculture in Alaska"
Palmer, in the Matanuska Valley, contains a business section
which is growing rapidly; in 1948 a large hotel was being built. There
are churches and civic organizations and a Farmer's Cooperating Association.
An excellent fair is held there annually. As evidence of growth, the
large school building is inadequate to house the children; and the town
is considering incorporating (1947).
001 | Vol_XII-0746
Ruby Collins PENNY RIVER, ALASKA
October, 1948 200 wds
PENNY RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, empties into
Norton Sound about eleven miles west of Nome, at the mouth of the Snake River (q.v )The headwaters of the Penny are cut off from the Kigluaik Moun–
tains, in which the Snake River rises, by the broad basin of the upper
Sinuk River (q.v.) and its tributaries.The Penny is perhaps fourteen miles long, and, for the first
half of its course , is constricted to a narrow valley by untimbered heights
of over 1,000 feet. Along this part of its course, the Penny receives
Wheel Gulch, Rabbit Creek, and Honey Creek.Below this point, the Penny Basin broadns out considerably, until,
for the last few miles, the river follows a meandering, deeply entrenched
course across the coastal plain to Norton Sound.Along this lower stretch, the Penny is joined by Willow Creek
and several unnamed tributaries.There are no settlements on Penny River now, although, at one
Sources: VSGB; USCP & Supplement; Baker
time, there was considerably gold mining activity all along the stream.
The village of Submarine Paystreak is on the shore of Norton Sound half–
way between Nome and the mouth of the Penny River.
001 | Vol_XII-0747
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 Text - 200 wds PINGUK RIVER, ALASKA
PINGUK RIVER, northwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, rises
northeast of Brooks Mountain, across the divide from California River (q.v.),
and flows northward into a lagoon which lies between Lopp Lagoon and
Shishmaref Inlet. This lagoon appears as Arctic Lagoon on some maps drawn
early in the twentieth century, but is unidentified on more recent maps. The
mouth of the Pinguk is about 30 miles northeast of Cape Prince of Wales.Although the early mountainous section of the Pinguk is relatively
straight, its lower course section folows a serpentine course across the gravels of
the coastal plain.About ten miles above its mouth, the Pinguk forks. The large
western fork is known as York River. At one time the eastern fork was called
the McKillop River, but it is not identified on recent maps.York River rises in the eastern end of Brooks Mountain and flows
northeastward to the Pinguk. In the lower part of its course it occupies
a valley two to three hundred feet deep. Along this valley slate bed rock
is exposed , and the river has also been found to contain tin. (For a general
description of theAlaska tin industry see York Mountains article.)Sources:
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward Peninsula ,
Alaska Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional Professional
Paper Paper No.2)
001 | Vol_XII-0748
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 Text - 660 wds. Bibl - 25 wds PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE, ALASKA
PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is the
point at which North America most closely approaches Asia. The Cape lies
only 55 miles across Bering Strait from the U.S.S.R.This Cape is really a northerly one section of the base of Cape Mountain,
a 2,300-foot peak of comparatively regular outline which occupies much of
this part of Seward Peninsula. To the south and southwest the mountains slope
down to the sea, while the low sand beach, which forms the face of the cape,
extends northward for a few miles and then turns northeastward toward
Shishmaref Inlet (q.v.).The small native village of Wales lies on this beach. It has a
post office, a store, a school, and several reindeer corrals. The Kingegan
Mission, named for the original native word for the Cape itself, is now located
there, and the r e is a 1,600-foot landing strip nearby. Tin City (q.v.)
lies a few miles southeast of the Cape.Very deep water, up to 120 feet, will be found on approaching the
Cape from the southeast. This depth continues along a northwesterly line
until, about five miles northward, it is several miles offshore. A line of
18-foot shoal water begins very close to the southwestern point of the Cape,
but leave s the shore almost immediately, continuing about one miles offshore until
the Cape makes northeastward. At this point this shoal presumably joins the
long and treacherous Prince of Wales Shoal.Many times vessels of the old whaling fleets struck this shoal
ten or fifteen nautical miles offshore. The western face of the shoal is especi–
ally abrupt, depths decreasing rapidly from 120 feet. It is recommended that
all vessels approaching from southward give the shoal a wide berth, and that
they not haul eastward until 40 or more miles beyond the Cape. Southbound
vess el le s must take care not to be caught , by falling too far eastward , between the
25
002 | Vol_XII-0749
PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE
shoal and the northern shore of Seward Peninsula. From Point Hope a course
laid for Cape Dezhneva clears the shoal. Cape Dezhneva is high land and
therefore gives makes a better landfall than the Diomedes, which are usually in fog.
Because the limits of Prince of Wales Shoal are not definitely known, no buoys
have been established to mark it. The remoteness of the locality and the heavy
ice conditions would, in any case, make buoys impracticable.Although this cape is said to have been named Gwozdef by Bering,
in 1728, and the Eskimo name Niekta Niekta or Nychta Nychta has also been reported, its
present name , given by Cook on August 9, 1778, is now universally used.On July 30, 1816, Kotzebue passed around Cape Prince of Wales
on the trip which was to re s ult in his dscovery of the sound which still
bears his name. He describes the country about the Cape in the following
words: "From Cape Prince of Wales extends a low land to the west, on which we
observed many jurtes and frames built with whalebones, to dry fish on. As we
were only three miles from the shore, we could plainly discern a number of
people standing together in groups, to admire the wonderful large ship, but
without making the least preparation for coming on board. I therefore took
advantage of the wind, and fair weather, and sailed along the coast,which
takes an E.N.E. direction from Cape Prince of Wales, consisting of low land,
but has a far more pleasing appearance than St. Lawrence Island. The whole
low ground is covered with a luxuriant green: there are no trees at all, but
some low bushes; and only a little snow on the summits of the mountains in
the interior of the country. Many habitations, which cover the coast, [ indcate ?]
indicate a numerous population. A baydare which we saw under sail, had by no
means the intention of approaching the ship, but took its course to the north.
I kept as close to the shore as the d pe ep th, which was scarcely five fathoms,
would permit, and therefore I could not have missed any deep bay or opening.
The depth increases slowly and regularly, and as the low land is scarcely
001 | Vol_XII-0750
Ruby Collins
October, 1948 360 wds RODNEY, CAPE, ALASKA
Rev. Nov., 1948
RODNEY, CAPE, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, (64° 39′ N.Lat., 166° 25′ W. Long.) the most
westerly point on the southern coast of the peninsula, lies between the
mouth of the Sinuk River and Cape Woolley, at the mouth of Igloo Creek
about ten miles to the north.A four-mile stretch of lake-strewn grassland separates Cape Rodney
from the highlands which enclose the lower Sinuk River. The shore is
a low sand beach along which runs a winter trail, leading eastward to Nome
and northward to Port Clarence and Cape Prince of Wales.The coast between Cape Rodney and Cape Woolley cannot be approached
close to because of the shallowness of the water. From August 1 to
November 1 each year, Cape Rodney is marked by a light.Captain Frederick W. Beechey, who visited this section of the
Alaska coast in August, 1927 1827, gives the following revealing des–
cription of this cape: "Point Rodney is low, and the water being shallow,
it is difficult to land. From the beach to the foot of the mountains there
is a plain about two miles wide, covered with lichens and grass, upon which
several herds of reindeer were feeding ; but the communication is in
places interrupted by narrow lakes, which extend several miles along the
coast. Upon the beach there was a greater abundance of driftwood than we
had noticed on any other part of the coast ; ...there were several trunks which
appeared to have been recently torn up by the roots. Near the spot where we
landed [ t.. a number of ?] were ... a number of posts driven into the ground,
and in the lake we found several artificial ducks, which had been left as
------------------------------------------------Sources: Bakers; VSGB; USCP & Supplement
Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of aVoyage to the Pacific and Beering's Narrative of aVoyage to the Pacific and Beering's
Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 Strait ... in the years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . [ Vol.II. ?]
London, Colburn & Bentley, 1831. Vol.II, p.251-252.
002 | Vol_XII-0751
RODNEY, CAPE, ALASKA
decoys; but we saw no natives. About two miles from the coast the country
rises to peaked hills of great height, covered with perennial snow.
It was calm throughout the greater part of the day, with very fine weather.
The temperature...at noon reached to 55°, which was twenty-one degrees
higher than it had been on the opposite shore [ Asia ] ."
003 | Vol_XII-0752
PRINCE OF WALES, CAPE
visible when you are in nine fathoms' water, it is not to be wondered at,
that Cook, who kept in this part at the depth of seventeen fathoms, should
not have seen the low land at all."Sources:
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906
Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's
Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 Straits ... in the years 1815-1818 . Translated by H.E. Lloyd.
London, 1821. vol.I.U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II. 1947.
U.S. C. [ ?] G.S. Chart No.9380
V.S. Guide book for Alaska
001 | Vol_XII-0753
Ruby Collins
August, 1948 ST.MICHAEL ISLAND
1,356 wds.
25 wds - BibeST. MICHAEL ISLAND, off the west coast of Alaska in the
southeastern section of Norton Sound, is cut off from the mainland by
a tidal slough called St. Michael Canal. "This," Dall wrote in 1870,
"has been aptly named the Canal by the Russians, and it divides midway
into two branches which are, it seems to me, equally tortuous, though
they are styled the Straight and the Crooked respectively." The
island is separated from Stuart Island (q.v.) by Stephens Pass, and
is about 17 miles long by 13 miles wide. In 1871 Whymper gave this
description of St. Michael Island: "The island is thick with moss,
covering up, in some places, a bed of clay; berries in summer are
abundant,and can be obtained fresh in winter by digging through their
thick covering of snow. There are no trees whatever ..." Although
generally low, the island has two elevations: 472-foot St. Michael
Mountain, about in the center, and Stephens Hill, on the Stephens Pass
side. Except for these two high points the island is a marsh overgrown
with lichens, mosses, and sparsely growing grass. The shores are
irregular and low. In 1942 four reindeer herds, ranging individually
from 2,517 to 15,179 head, and totalling 32,809 head, were reported
by white owners. Two other herds are known to exist, but no figures
as to their size are available.In 1833 Captain Michael Tebenkof discovered St.Michael
Bay and built a fortified trading post on the island, which he called
Michailovskii Redoubt. By 1870 , when Dall visited the post , it was
already being called St. Michael. "The for s t," "he wrote, "is composed
of log buildings with plank roofs, placed in the form of a square,
and with the intervals filled by a palisade about ten feet high, sur–
mounted by a chevaux-de-frise of pointed stakes. This is also continued
round the eaves of the buildings. There are two outlying bastions, pierced27 [ ?]
002 | Vol_XII-0754
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND
for cannon and musketry... There is a flag-staff leaning apologetically
as if consciously out of place, and a gallery for the watchman, who is
on duty day and night, with reliefs, and who tolls a bell on the hour
stroke to notify the inmates that he is not asleep...Outside of the
stockade are several other buildings, — a small storehouse used for
furs, a large shed where boats are drawn up in winter, a blacksmith's
shop, and a church. The latter is octagonal in shape, with a small dome,
surmounted by a cross, and a beam bearing a bell at the side of a
small porch which covers the doorway." Whymper had this to say:
"The station is built on the model of a Hudson's Bay Company's fort,
with enclosure of pickets, and with bastions flanking it. Inside are
the [ not ?] store-houses and dwellings of the employes, including the
"casine"...or general barrack, bath and cook-houses. These painted
yellow, and surmounted by red roofs, gave it rather a gay appearance."
A little over twenty years later, after the sale of Alaska to the
United States, De Windt reported: "Were I to ... to live in Alaska ...
I should certainly select St. Michael as a place of residence; for,
although the inhabitants are practically prisoners during nine months
of the year it is a bright clean little place, a contrast to the dirty
slipshod towns of the interior. First and foremost, there are few
mosquitoes, which is in itself an incalculable blessing...and, although
rain and fog are prevalent in autumn, and mid-winter brings down
terrific blizzards from the north, the short wintry days are generally
bright, still, and pleasant. Plenty of sport is obtainable on the
mainland. Caribou, wild-geese, duck, and ptarmigan abound... Fort
St. Michael ... consists chiefly of warehouses and dwellings erected by
the Alaska Commercial Company, which form one long street, neatly paved
with wood, and kept scrupulously clean in wet or dusty weather."By 1939 St. Michael had a population of 142 and was still
29 [ ?]
003 | Vol_XII-0755
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND
the largest settlement on the island. As the transfer point from
deep water boats to Yukon River boats, St. Michael was on c e more
active than it has been since the opening of the White Pass Railway
from Skagway and the Alaska Railroad from Seward, which now carry
most of the freight formerly brought to the Yukon area by water.
In 1938, however, a motorship shuttle service was running between
St. Michael and Kotzebue Sound (q.v.), north of Seward Peninsula.
The St. Michael of today has a Territorial school, with a nurse
from the Bureau of Education in attendance, a post office, a Roman
Catholic Mission, two general stores, two licensed fur dealers,
and a roadhouse. There is a 50 x 900-foot emergency landing field
on a sand pit near the town, and there is radio telephone communication
with some Yukon River points.12 Co
004 | Vol_XII-0756
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND
Stebbins (population 98 in 1939), on the northwestern point
of the island overlooking Stephens Pass, has an Alaska Native
Service school. Early maps call this town Atroic. The only other
settlements on the island are Fort St. Michael, an army post
and radio station, now abandoned, and Tatchek (Techek) near St.
Michael. All these towns on the Island are connected by winter trail
with settlements on the mouth of the Yukon, with Mt. Village and
other points up the Yukon and down the mainland as far as Scammon Bay,
and with Norton Bay and Seward Peninsula villages to the north.On the mainland across St. Michael Bay from the northeastern
tip of the island, is the small native village of Healy, and just
northeast of this tip is tiny Whale Island. A line of rocks which
are bare at low water run from St. Michael to W hale Island but northward
and eastward of the island the water deepens rapidly making a good
entrance to St. Mich [ aal ?] ael Bay. Beulah Island lies only about one–
quarter of a mile northwestward from Whale Island. It is small
and rounded and only about 50 feet high. The water between Beulah and
Whale islands is shoal, but Beulah island has bold water off its north–
eastern side.Egg Island, about 10 miles northeast of Whale Island,
has been used as a quarantine station. Deep water lies off the
western shore and, although the island is too small to afford much
protection in bad weather, it is the only lee available in this
vicinity in northerly gales.Since T here is no harbor in all the St. Michael vicinity for deep
draft vessels, ocean-going vessels which ships must anchor between St. Michael Bay
and Egg Island. Rocks and shoals are a continuous hazard in this
area. Loose rocks along the shores of St. Michael Bay are sometimes26 Co
005 | Vol_XII-0757
ST. MICHAEL ISLAND
frozen into the ice in winter and then dropped as it goes out in the
spring. These rocks are particularly dangerous to smaller vessels
anchoring in shoal water close to shore. Although fogs are frequent
farther up Norton Sound, they arer rare at St. Michael, but a south–
ward mirage often distorts landmarks in this area and is one of the
major hazards of the vicinity. Muir gives a good description of the
tricks played by this mirage. "The mirage effects we have witnessed
on the cruise thus far are as striking as any I ever saw on the hot
American desert. Islands and headlands seemed to float in the air,
distorted into the most unreal, fantastic forms imaginable, while the
individual mountains of a chain along the coast appeared to dance at
times up and down with a rhythmic motion, in the tremulous refracting
atmosphere. On the northeast side of Norton Sound I saw two peaks,
each with a flat, black table on top, looming suddenly up and sinking
again alternately, like boys playing see-saw on a plank." Because of
this phenomenon astronomical sights taken near St. Michael can not be
depended upon and may be several miles in error although they seemed
good when recorded. The ice forms in St. Michael Bay sometime in
October or November and persists to the latter part of June.19 [ ?]
Sources:
USCP & Supplement; VSGB; Colby; Baker; Tewkesbury
Tompkins, Stuart Ramsay. Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough Alaska, Promyshlennik & Sourdough . Norman,
Oklahoma, Univ. of Oklahoma press, 1945.Muir, John. Cruise of the Corwin. Journal of the Arctic Expedition Cruise of the Corwin. Journal of the Arctic Expedition
of 1881 in search of De Long and the Jeannette of 1881 in search of De Long and the Jeannette . Boston, N.Y.
Houghton, 1917.
001 | Vol_XII-0758
Ruby Collins
April, 1949 SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA
Text - 1340 words
Bibl - 25 "SELAWIK LAKE ( Salawik Salawik, Silawik Silawik , etc.), a tidewater lake
connecting with Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound and the Polar Sea, indents
the shoreline of northwestern Alaska at about 66° 30′ N.Lat., 161° W. Long.This lake is about 27 miles long and about 20 miles wid e at
the greatest. Coming in from Hotham Inlet, Attiunik Point, the southern
entrance point, lies rather high on the western end of the lake. Directly
opposite, at the eastern end, the Selawik River (q.v.) enters the lake.
The mouth to this river is obstructed by numberless tiny islands and
by extensive mud flats rat reaching almost a mile from the shore.Depths in the lake vary from 12 to 18 feet, and 12 feet
can be carried to the westernmost branch of the mouth of the Selawik River.The only other named tributary to Selawik Lake is the
Mangoak, a much smaller stream than the Selawik, which enters the eastern
end from the south.¶ However, Cantwell speaks of a tributary entering midway
of the north side of the lake. "At a point about one-half the distance
from the mouth of the Selawik River to the southern entrance to the lake a
river runs in from the mountains which separate the Kowak and Selawik Rivers.
Here the country is low and marshy, similar to the Kowak delta. Berries
grow in great abundance along the sides of the bluffs and on the level
tundra land, and game is exceedingly plentiful. I shot during the afternoon
eight ptarmigan, one goose, a loon, and an Arctic hare, and could have shot
many more of each of the birds mentioned had we needed them."South of the main mouth of the Selawik , and almost completely
blocked off from Selawik Lake by the Selawik delta and a mass of tiny
islands , is a smaller body of water known as Inland Lake. Stoney found
that this lake was connected with a southern branch of the Selawik and that
it was not over three feet at the greatest, and for the most part, only about
002 | Vol_XII-0759
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA
one foot deep. "There is every indication," he added, "that this second
l k a ke was formerly part of the Selawik Lake. Selawik Lake itself is very
regular in shape and depth. There is little animal life in it; it
was dredged for hours, but no specimens were found."Cantwell, of the U.S.S. Corwin, also explored Selawik Lake in
August, 1884. His report reads in part as follows: "Selawik Lake ... is
nothing more than an extension of Hotham Inlet. In fact it is hard to
determine where the inlet ends and the lake begins on the north side, but on
the opposite side the entrance to the lake is well marked by a sand spit,
[ Attiunik Point ] which projects far out from the land and divides the two
bodies of water very plainly. At night we ran across to this spit, and seek–
ing a sheltered spot, camped. A convenient little harbor here determined
me to leave the launch at this place and to make the trip in the skin boat,
as I was informed that much of the upper portion of Selawik Lake was
shoal."¶ The next day, Cantwell and his two companions continued the r i r
investigation of the lake. "After taking bearings of some prominent peaks
and points around the end of the lake," he writes, "I proceeded along the
south shore, finding from two to three fathoms of water with gradually shoal–
ing water to the beach. The country is the usual high rolling tundra land
of the lower part of the bay and forms a bluff bank to the lake. Along the
front of the bank it is covered with a thick growth of willow and birch,
except where the ice and snow have slipped down from the heights, leaving
a scarred and rugged track behind. A narrow strip of beach composed of white
sand and gravel extends for miles along the eastern side of the lake, and
at intervals long spits extend far out from the shore, so that many little
bays are formed...Toward 5 p.m. we reached a part of the lake where the
shore trends to the northwest, and here we found the water very shoal and
the shores low and swampy. Two hundred yards from the beach a bar extended
to the northwest parallel to the shore and a heavy sea was running on it...
003 | Vol_XII-0760
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA
We got over the bar comparatively dry and camped on the marsh. The place
was alive with geese and ducks, and Andre killed enough in a very short while
to last us a week. We slept under the boat, and as the wind continued
blowing all night we were not troubled with mosquitoes."The following day, August 11, Cantwell happened upon Inland
Lake. "The shores continued low and marshy," he reports, "and at 12 o'clock
I observed a small river running in from the eastward. Upon inquiry I
learned that a large lake could be reached by going up this river, and as I
knew of no such lake was on the charts of this country I resolved to explore
it. We entered the river and found it to be about seventy-five yards wide,
and with two to three fathoms of water. At 2 p.m. we reached a beautiful
little lake about five miles in diameter and almost entirely surrounded by
mountains. Dashing across this lovely little sheet of water we entered a
narrow creek which flows in on the opposite side, and soon after stopped for
dinner at the hut of an Indian living on the banks of a lagoon near by. He
and his family were greatly surprised to see a white man here, but they
treated us very hospitably by giving us some fresh fish and deli c ious salmon
berries, which grew in great abundance on the tundra adjacent to the lake.
At 2 p.m. we left, after giving our host some tobacco, and in an hour's time
emerged on the large lake of which we were in search. The Indians call it
Emogarikchoit Emogarikchoit , or Little Sea Little Sea [ Inland Lake ] , and the river which connects
it with Selawik Lake, Kiactuk Kiactuk , or Fox River Fox River [ the present Throat River ] ."¶ — On the 13th, he reports, "The wind being now fair we sped away along the
edge of the lake until 5 p.m., when I observed a deep indentation on the
shoe, and upon inquiry learned that a small stream connected the lake
at this point with Selawik River about twenty-five miles from its mouth.
Finding that two days would suffice to reach Selawik Lake by this route,
I turned the boat's head in this direction. After an hour's run we reached
004 | Vol_XII-0761
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA
the farthest side of the little bay, which we found very shoal and the bottom
covered with grass. The place seemed alive with fish, and shoals of them
played around and under our boat without the slightest evidence of fear...
The entrance to the river, which is called the Eegyak or Throat River, is con–
cealed and could be easily passed by one unacquainted with the country.
Natorak piloted us into it, however, and we found ourselves between banks
densely clothed with the characteristic willow trees and grass of the low–
lands hereabout. A slight current favored us, and with a smart breeze which
followed the course of the river we rushed along at the rate of seven
knots. No shoals were seen, and the depth of the water was from three to
five fathoms. In common with all these rivers the course of the Eegyak is
tortuous, and its shores afford but little scope for scenic description.
At about 8 o'clock p.m. we arrived at an Indian settlement situated at the
junction of the main stream with a smaller one flowing off to the left, and
here pitched our camp, having made 35.2 miles during the day. The Indians
were exceedingly kind and anxious to help us. They rushed into the water
waist deep and hauled the boat up with all on board high and dry amidst
great excitement, and after building a fire and getting enough wood to last
us through the night, sat down around us and smiled on us with great good
humor."
005 | Vol_XII-0762
SELAWIK LAKE, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Cantwell, John C. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Steamer
Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884 Corwin in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884 . Washington, 1889.Stoney, George M. Naval Explorations in Alaska Naval Explorations in Alaska . Annapolis, Md., 1900.
001 | Vol_XII-0763
Ruby Collins
April, 1949 SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA
Text - 950 wds,
SELAWIK RIVER, chief tributary to Selawik Lake, an inland arm
of Hotham Inlet, Kotzebue Sound, drains the section of northwestern Alaska
between the Hogatza and the Koyukuk Rivers, in the Yukon River system on the
south, and the Kobuk River, on the north.The Selawik ri v s es in the Zane Hills at about 66° 30′ N. Lat.,
156° 30′ W. Long. and flows almost directly westward into Selawik Lake. Low
mountains constrict the upper one-third of the Selawik valley, but westward
from about 158° W.Long. [ ?] it expands into a lake-studded lowland which reaches
many miles southward and merges with the Kobuk River valley on the north.
The Selawik is eighty or more miles long and, although the entrance is
blocked by mud flats, a depth of twelve feet can be carried into the most
westerly outlet to the lake.Lieutenant G. M. Stoney, one of the earliest white explorers
of this river, reported as follows: "The Selawik River rises in the mountains
south of the upper Putnam [ Kobuk ] and flows west to Selawik Lake. Its valley
is rolling but less so than the Putnam's and is interspersed with more lakes.
The river is not so long as the Putnam or the Notoark [ Noatak ] , and its
course is more winding. The current at the place where the river forks is
.8 knots, and less lower down. Many tributaries enter from both banks; they
are deep but of no great length. The banks of the Selawik are as regular
as canal banks. Two fathoms can be carried up to the fork where there is a
five-fathom hole; beyond, the water of the forks was too shallow for the
'Explorer.'" Later he adds: "On the Selawik River a little spruce grows in
small clusters; more of it is found on oneof the northerly branches. The
principal growth is of willow and alder, the latter attaining considerable
size."
002 | Vol_XII-0764
SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA
Stoney mentions two of the named tributaries to the Selawik:
the Tagagawik, which enters from the south about 25 miles from the mouth of
the main stream, and the Kugarak, from the north. The Kawichiark, one of the
few of the many other streams in this system whose name appears on recent maps,
is a tributary to the Kugarak.The river which connects Inland Lake, S outh of the mouth of
the Selawik, with that river is called Throat River. Cantwell identified this
stream by its native name, Eegyak Eegyak . Describing his August, 1884, trip to
Selawik Lake from the junction of Throat River with the Selawik, Cantwell
wrote: "The banks of the Selawik vary but little from those of the Kowak [ Kobuk ]
in character, with the exception that the undergrowth is heavier. The width of
the river varies from six hundred to a thousand yards, and in some places it
expands into bays a mile wide. From four to six fathoms of water were found
in the channel. From the mouth of the Eegyak the Selawik trends in a north–
westerly direction about six miles and then to the south and west to the lake.
Many small lakes and lagoons were observed near the river, and entering one of
these I discovered an extensive sheet of water lying at the foot of the moun–
tains, about six miles from the river. At 4 p.m. we emerged into a large bay
filled with many islands, and the glistening waters of Selawik Lake could be
seen about four miles ahead. We crossed the bay and at 5.30 p.m. reached the
sand - spit forming the north side of the entrance to the lake. Here we camped,
as there was too much sea in the lake for us to go farther. The wind was storng
from the southwest all day and we made 25.7 miles. Average temperature, 85°."At the present time, the only settlements on this river are
Selawik, at its mouth, and Gabolio, several miles upstream.Sealawik had a 1939 population of 239, a post office. an
Alaska Native Service school, five general stores, and a Friend's Mission.
There is also a 1,000-foot landing strip.
003 | Vol_XII-0765
SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA
Gabolio is a much smaller settlement, and was no included
in the 1939 Census.The winter trail which runs southward from the Squirrel and
Kobuk Rivers passes through both Selawik and Gabolio and continues for many
miles up the Selawik River. At the Kobuk, this trail meets another which runs
up and down that long river, on to Kotzebue (q.v.), and from there to many
points on Kotzebue Sound and the northwestern cost of Alaska.
004 | Vol_XII-0766
SELAWIK RIVER, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Cantwell, John C. Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine Semer Corwin Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Marine S t e a mer Corwin
in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1884. Washington, 1889.Stoney, George M. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Naval Explorations in Alaska. Annapolis, Md., 1900.
U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II United States Coast Pilot. Alaska. Part II.
5th (1947)ed. Washington, 1947.
001 | Vol_XII-0767
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 CAPE SEPPINGS, ALASKA
90wds
SEPPINGS, CAPE, on the coast of the Polar Sea, northwestern
Alaska, between Point Hope and Cape Krusenstern (q.v.), was named by Beechey
in 1827.Several small unnamed streams enter the Polar Sea in the
vicinity of this cape, and there is an Eskimo settlement nearby.The mountains behind Cape Seppings approach close to the water,
sloping abruptly down to the sea. The Cape itself is not distinct, many pilots
saying that it is difficult to determine exactly to which point the name
Sappings should be applied.
001 | Vol_XII-0768
7,000
Ruby Collins SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
March, 1949
Revised and typed September, 1949
SEWARD PENINSULA, an irregular land mass jutting out from western
Alaska, comprises approximately 20,000 square miles of land which, in general
outline, suggests a crudely shaped arrowhead with the point directed westward
toward Cape Nunyagmo, on the Siberian coast. From east to west the Peninsula
measur e s about 200 miles, and varies in width between the 80 miles separating
N orton Sound from Kotzebue Sound and the 150 miles s eparating Cape Nome from
Cape Eapenberg. The main mass of the Peninsula lies between 64° N.Lat. and
the Arctic Circle and between 161° and 168° W.Long.Seward Peninsula separates Bering Sea from the Polar Sea . On the south [ ?]
the Peninsula is itself almost cut off from the continent by Norton Bay, a large arm of Bering
Sea, and on the south north it meets by Kotzebue Sound, an indentation of the Polar Sea.
The Peninsula's western extremity, Cape Prince of Wales, is the most westerly
point on the North American continent. This Cape lies only fifty-five miles
across Bering Strait from the Asiatic coast.(No attempt will be made in this article to include detailed [ ?] des–
criptions of individual features of the Peninsula; most of these will be des–
cribed separately in their proper alphabetical places in the Encyclopedia.)Topographically speaking, the dominant forms of Seward Peninsula
are flat-topped uplands, measuring from 800 to 2,500 feet high, which are
broken by broad valleys and lowland basins. Midway of the southern section,
the Kigluaik, Bendeleben, and Darby Mountains form a broken range along a
crescent axis, while the York Mountains (q.v.), and several unnamed highland
areas form isolated groups in the northern half of the Peninsula. Generally
speaking, the watercourses follow broad, gently-sloping valleys. About [ ?] one–
fourth of the drainage flows northward to the Polar Sea; [ ?] the rest finds
its way southward into Bering Sea or one of its extensions, such as Norton Bay,
Norton Sound, or Golovnin Bay. As compared with the minutely-indented and
002 | Vol_XII-0769
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
irregular shore line of southern Alaska, the coast of the Peninsula is
remarkably straight, characterized as it is by long, gently-sloping beaches,
which are broken only occasionally by rocky bluffs or deep embayments and inlets.
Shore Line The gradual sopes of the beaches bordering Seward Peninsula continue
below sea level to form a slowly-deepening shoal around much of its
coastline. In only a very few places are depths of sixty feet or more found
within five miles of the shore. Throughout this vicinity, Bering Sea and the
Polar Sea are so shallow that no soundings above 210 feet have been reported
within 100 miles of the coa s t.Golovnin Bay, about one hundred miles east of Nome , has a depth of
about eighteen feet at the entrance, but large vessels cannot approach nearer
than three miles of the head of the bay. The Nome roadstead is also very shoal
and open to southerly and southwesterly storms which sweep this section of
Seward Peninsula coast every fall. The only protection from these storms is
about twenty-five miles west of Nome, between Sledge Island and the mainland.Por t Clarence, perhaps eighty miles northwest of Nome, is the only
true harbor on the Peninsula. Its nearly circular outline is formed by a long,
low, curving sandspit which e x tends in a northwesterly direction from the main
land. Depths up to fifty-four feet are e found near the entrance, and large
vessels find good anchorage over much of the harbor. Light-draft vessels can
proceed into Grantley Harbor, which extends inland for about fifteen miles,
and which is connected by way of Tuksuk Channel, a narrow, tidal inlet, with
Imuruk Basin. This large body of brackish water in turn leads to the mouth
of the Kuzitrin River which is navigable to light draft vessels for many
miles upstream. This series of waterways opsn opens the heart of the Peninsula to
small vessels.
003 | Vol_XII-0770
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
There is no similar chain of waterways on the north shore of
the peninsula. Northeastward from Cape Prince of Wales the shoreline is relative–
ly straight, but there are several shallow lagoons lying between barrier beaches
and the mainland which are connected with the Polar Sea only by narrow, extremely
shaol channels. Shishmaref Inlet, the largest of these lagoons, can, however,
be used as a harbor by [ ?] light-draft vessels.At Cape Espenberg the shoreline of the Peninsula veers south–
ward to form the western side of Kotzebue Sound. Goodhope Bay, a southwestern
arm of the Sound, is about thirty miles wide and has depths up to thirty feet,
but, because of its size and the width of its mouth, it offers but little more
protection to seagoing vessels than does the open coast of the Peninsula.
Spafarief Bay, a southeastern arm of Kotzebue Sound, leads northward into
Eschscholtz Bay, but both these are so shoal as to be dangerous to any except
small boats. The only good anchorage in this region will be found off Chamisso
Island, in the entrance to Eschscholt Bay and north of Spafarief Bay, a spot
which is known as Chamisso Anchorage.Perhaps the greatest danger to navigation in the waters off
Seward Peninsula is Prince of Wales Shoal which seems to be a ridge of sand
extending for a distance of 35 or 40 miles from the western extremity of Cape
Prince of Wales. Little definite information concerning this sho [ ?] l can be
given. It would appear to be much steeper on the western side than on the
mainland side, and vessels are warned to give it a wide berth when approaching
from either the north or the south. Many of the [ ?] nineteenth century whaling
vessels struck this [ ?] shoal at distances supposed to be fifteen or more miles
from the Cape. A note on recent Coast and Geodetic Survey charts reports that
ships have been known to round the Cape by keeping at all times as close as one
or two miles offshore, but, since neither depths over the shoal nor its exact
position are known, this procedure can be recommended only to small, light
draft vessels.
004 | Vol_XII-0771
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
The sand and gravel beaches which girdle the Peninsula are
separated by a series of headlands or promontories. Cape Darby, Rocky Point,
Cape No [ ?] m e, and Cape Rodney are the most conspicuous points on the southern
shore, while Cape Woolley, Cape Douglas, Point Spencer, Cape York, and Cape [ ?]
Prince of Wales, mark the southwestern side of the Peninsula. As we have
already noted, the northwestern shoreline of the Peninsula is remarkably straight,
except for a few nearly land-locked lagoons. There are, consequently, fewer
promontories along this coast, the only named examples being Cape Lowenstern,
the northern entrance point to Shishmaref Inlet, and Cape Espenberg, the southern
entrance point to Kotzebue Sound. Cape Deceit and Elephant Point, in
Eschscholtz Bay, are the only named headlands on the Peninsula side of Kotzebue
Sound . , and its related waterways.For about five miles on either side of Cape York limestone
cliffs rise to elevations of 600 feet, but west of these cliffs the beaches
are backed by a narrow coastal plain. At the extreme western tip of the Pen–
insula, 2,300-foot Cape Mountain rises just behind Cape Prince of Wales. The
south and west sides of this mountain fall off to the sea in cliffs several
hundred feet high [ ?] , but the north side descends more gradually.Relief Since the drainage system lacks uniformity, the detailed
topography of the Peninsula is irregular. Generally speaking,
however, it may be said that the land forms belong to one of three basic types.
In the order of their importance these are: T he uplands;, the lowlands, and the
mountains. The rock and gravel - floored terraces which occur throughout the
Peninsula might possibly be considered a fourth type, particularly since they
contain the key to the evolution of the topography.Broad, flat-topped or rounded hills, which we call the uplands,
cover the greater part of the Peninsula and are its dominating topographic
feature. Locally, these uplands reveal a striking uniformity of altitude,
005 | Vol_XII-0772
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
although generally speaking they range from a few hundred feet in height,
near tide water, to several thousand feet, in the interior of the Peninsula.
These uplands can be considered a dissected plateau, the summit level marking
a peneplain. Base-levels of lower altitude, remnants of which have been pre–
served as minor plateaus and benches, indicate later epochs of erosion and
exist throughout the Peninsula.The lowlands are of three types. Fringing the shore line and
in some places reaching a width of twenty miles or more, are the most extensive
type of lowland, the coastal plain. As these coastal plains merge with the
lower slopes of the uplands the so-called 'tundra' or moss-covered , grasslands
are formed. Basin lowlands form the second type of lowland, and these, like the
coastal plains, merge with the upland slopes. True valleys, the third type,
are characteristically flat-floored with gently sloping sides, but [ ?] less
common valley types are the steep-walled, rocky canyon s, and the typically
U-shaped valley s which occurs in a few of the higher mountain masses formerly
mountain masses. This last type of valley originates in glacial cirques.Only one considerable range fulfills the requirements of the
third topographic group, the mountains. There are, however, several isolated
mountain masses which rise well above the general summit level of the uplands.
The mountains of Seward Peninsula are rugged and have sharply - cut drainage
channels. Several of them have been subject to recent glaciation.The one true mountain range on the Peninsula, the Kigluaik–
Bendeleben-Darby group, divides the province into two topographic sections.
South and west of this range is an upland ranging from 800 to 3,000 feet in
altitude, and north of the range is another upland with about the same relief.The crescent-shaped axis of this chain stretches northeast–
ward from the vicinity of Cape. W oolley to about 163° W. Long., and then bends
southward to Cape Darby, the eastern entrance point to Golovnin Bay. The
006 | Vol_XII-0773
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
eastern curve of the chain encloses the drainage basin of the Fish River.
The Kigluaik Mountains make up the western end of the chain and contain the
highest peaks, some of which reach an altitude of nearly 5,000 feet. The
Bendeleben Mountains, in the center of the crescent, do not anywhere exceed
3,700 feet, while the most easterly group, the Darby Mountains, do not exceed
3,000 feet. The Kigluaik and Bendeleben ranges are rugged, with sharply-cut
valleys, and both include glacial c i rques. These mountains have been deeply
dissected so that the valley walls are precipitous. Within the mountains the
streams are torrential. The Kigluaik Mountain drainage system is characterized
by remarkably straight valleys and by [ ?] the fact that the largest of these
divide the mountains into irregular masses and subordinate ranges.Extensive lowlands nearly everywhere separate the Kigluaik
Mountains from the uplands. On the north, the extensive flat s which surrou n d
Imuruk Basin stretch eastward and around the end of the range to be con–
tinued by the Kurzgamepa valley. On the south the headwaters of the Kruzga–
mepa and Stewart rivers follow broad depressions. The western end of the Ben–
deleben Mountains, containing 3,760-foot Mount Bendeleben, is also isolated in
this manner, but the transition between the mountains and the upland is more
gradual at the eastern end. In the Darby Mountains there is a similarly
gradual transition between mountains and upland.The highland mass south of these mountains rises to summits
ranging from 800 to 3,000 feet high. Up to an altitude of about 800 feet the
benches are plainly due to stream erosion, but above this level the benches are
of undertermined origin. These highlands have no well-defined ridge system,
and the rivers follow broad, deep valleys which slope gradually upward to the
divides. The summits although rounded are often marked by rocky knobs, many
of which have fantastic shapes. The preservation of these castellated peaks
indicates absence of regional glaciation. The larger valleys trend, in general,
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north and south although minor tributaries have scalloped their margins.
Despite this trend of the major valleys, the higher uplands descend to the
coastal plain by a series of well-defined east-west terraces.Many of the lowlands, which in most cases separate the high–
lands from the sea, are crescent-shaped beaches terminating at either end in
promontories or bluffs whose bases lie in the sea.Lowlands separate the Kigluaik and Bendeleben Mountains from
the uplands which make up the northern two-thirds of the peninsula. This
northerly upland is similar to its southern counterpart, except that the peaks
are slightly lower, ranging from 600 to 2,500 feet in height. Here, too, the
peaks are irregular and the uplands are cut by several mountain masses. These
are less rugged and somewhat lower than the southern ranges. The York Mountains,
which form an irregular mass at the extreme western end of the Peninsula, are
the most extensive of the northern mountains, and reach a maximum altitude of
2,918 feet in Brooks Mountains. On the south, east, and west these mountains
fall off to a well-marked plateau, but on the north they slope off gradually to
an upland which in turn merges with the broad coastal plain. The York Mountains
proper are rugged, with steep valleys. Among the highest [ ?] summits there is
evidence of some glaciation.In the northeastern, or Fairhaven District, there are several
isolated mountain groups, but these would appear to be elevations of the
plateau rather than true mountains.In explanation of the various levels represented by the
topography of Seward Peninsula, Collier writes: "The northern upland, as has
been stated, reaches an altitude of 2,900 feet. Between the summit level and
the lowland there is in many places a series of broad benches, which represent
distinct epochs of erosion...Briefly stated, four epochs of erosion have been
recognized, each of which marks a stage of stability during a general period
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of uplift. The highest and, therefore, oldest of these plateau s is preserved
in benches lying at altitudes of 2,000 to 2,700 feet. This erosion level
has been termed the Nuluk Plateau. A second erosion period, the result of
which has been called the Kugruk Plateau, is marked by a well-preserved bench,
ranging in altitude from 400 to 1,200 feet. The so-called York Plateau gives
evidence of a third local base-level and stands 300 to 700 feet above the sea.
The extensive coastal plain is the result of the fourth and most recent epoch
of erosion. While some if not all of these base-levels are probably represent–
ed throughout the peninsula they have been correlated only in the northwestern
par t ."The valleys of the northern part of the Peninsula stretch in
general north and south. The uplands here merge with the broad coastal lowland
skirting the Polar Sea which everywhere here is wider than along the southern
coastline. In addition, benches are fewer here, and the transition from one
level to another is in every respect more gradual.Drainage The Bering-Polar Sea watershed follows a sinuous line along
the east-west axis of the Seward Peninsula , sending the waters of
more than two-thirds of the area southward into Bering Sea and the remainder
northward into the Polar Sea.From east to west the southern drainage system includes the
Koyuk, Mukluktulik, Kwik, Tubutulik, and Kwiniuk Rivers into Norton Bay, the
waters of the Fish, N iukluk, Casadepaga, and the Klokerblok into Golovnin
Sound, the Daniels, Topkok, Solomon, Bonanza, and Eldorado into Norton Sound east
of Cape Nome, and the Nome, Snake, Penny, Cripple, Sinuk, Feather, and Tisuk
Rivers between Cape Nome and Point Spencer, the southern entrance point to
Port Clarence.The Bluestone River drains most of the area between the
Kigluaik Moutains and Port Clarence. Imuruk Basin receives many smaller
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streams, including Canyon, Fall, Pond, Glacier, Snow, and Cobblestone from the
south, as well as the combined waters of the Kruzgamepa, Kuzitrin, and Mary's
Rivers at its eastern end. The Kougarok, one of the major rivers of the
interior of the Peninsula, enters the Kuzitrin from the north about midway of
its course, while the Noxapaga enters farther [ ?] pstream and also from the north.
The Agiapuk, with American River as its major tributary, enters the north side
of Imuruk Basin.Between Teller Mission, on the north side of Port Clarence,
and Cape Prince of Wales, at the western tip of the Peninsula, several rivers,
including the California, Don, Lost, King, Kanauguk, Anikovik, Baituk, Ocean,
and Cape flow southward from the York Mountains into Bering Sea.Between Cape Princes of Wales and Cape Espenberg, the Mint,
Pinauk, Nuluk, Kugrupaga, Arctic, and Serpentine Rivers flow northwestward
into the Polar Sea, while the Goodhope, Inmachuk, Kugruk, Kiwalik, and Buckland
are the chief streams in the northeastern part of the Peninsula.The Buckland is one of the largest rivers in this part of
Alaska, but perhaps only the last thirty or so miles of its course may be said
to lie on be in Seward Peninsula proper. It is about seventy-five miles long overall,
and the its upper quarter of its extent is still unexplored.Climate Since it is almost entirely surrounded by water, temperatures
in Seward Peninsula do not rise and fall to such extremes
as do temperatures of interior regions in the same latitude. The proximity
of Bering Sea and the Polar Sea, and their various extensions, also supplies
more moisture to the atmosphere over the Peninsula than will be found farther
east. The e ffects of these seas are only partially reduced by the fact that
both are ice-bound for almost half of each year.During quiet winter days temperatures of −40° to −50° will
occur on the Peninsula, but residents do not consider these temperatures danger-
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ous in any way unless they are accompanied by strong northerly or northeasterly
winds. The lowest temperatures occur during January and February, and yet,
during these same two months, sudden thaws and warm rains have been known to open
all streams to flood proportions. These winter thaws are accompanied by open
water in Norton Sound. Very rarely do summer temperatures rise above 80°, and,
in the northern part of the Peninsula, an entire summer may pass without the
mercury having touched 70°. The most common temperatures for July, August, and
September, in these regions, are between 45° and 60°. Minimum temperatures are
32° or lower from about September to the middle of May. The first frost usually
occurs about mid-September, and the last in the middle of June.In September, the temperature of Port Clarence averages about 38.9°
The waters of Kotzebue Sound reach 50.9° in August and sink to 38.3° in October.
Precipitation The total annual precipitation for the southern part of
Seward Peninsula varies from about 18 to 20 inches. There
is a fall of perhaps 25 inches in the northern part. By far the greate [ ?] st amount
of this precipitation falls in the form of rain between the months of June and
October, with snow accounting for only about four or five liquid inches. Throughout the winter, however, T t he snow
is quite sufficient , however for sledging , throughout the winter since it is
usually blown into heavy drifts by the northerly and northeasterly winds pre–
vailing during the winter months. To the many streams on the Peninsula, these
well-packed drifts serve as a good source of water for some months after the
first thaw.The spring thaw is usually accompanied by floods, the frozen
subsoil making for an extremely swift run-off, but is then often followed by a
five or six weeks' drought. It is during this period that the water from
the melting snow drifts supplies the streams with sufficient flow for the work–
ing of placers. The so-called 'rainy season' begins in July, during which
three or more inches of rain may fall in one month. This season continues
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0778
R. J. COLLINS - Photographer
20 MAIN STREET
MILLER FALLS - MASSACHUSETTS
TELEPHONE 2861
011 | Vol_XII-0779
SEWARD PENINSULA, ALASKA
until early September, when another period of low precipitation begins. Snow
begins to fall in September and increases in frequency through January and
into part of February.Throughout the Peninsula, Eexcept in certain spots ar [ ?] ound Nome and in the vicinity of the hot
springs on the Kruzgamepa and the Serpentine Rivers, ground frost, or perma–
frost (q.v.), penetrates to unknown depths. [ ?]Except for the tops of the higher hills and mountains, the entire
surface of Seward Peninsula is covered with a layer of moss and grasses which
forms the so-called 'tundra' or grasslands of the arctic regions. This
covering prevents the underlying gravels from thawing and also quickly absorbs
whatever rain falls during the summer. Rain water so absorbed drains slowly
and at a fairly uniform rate into the nearby streams. Streams which are
bordered for most of their course by territory protected with this covering of
moss and grass therefore have a more reliable water supply than those which flow
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directly out of the relatively bare uplands or mountains almost directly into the sea.Along the shores of Norton Sound storms from the south and
southeast often accompany the wind and rain of September. These southerly
storms are particularly dangerous to the ports along this coast, since they
tend to raise the level of the water in the Sound, driving it in the form of
a pounding surf up the shallow roadsteads of the south side of Seward Peninsula.
The north and northeast storms of the winter season are little noticed in the
southern parts of the Peninsula but do endanger the settlements on Port Clarence,
and Kotzebue Sound. Usually accompanying such northerly storms is a fall of
very dry snow which the strong winds drive along in clouds and heap into
drifts. Such storms may continue for three or four days, and, although the
actual snowfall may be light, temperatures between −30° and −40° will usually
prevail for the duration of the storm. On the other hand, high winds are some–
times accompanied by moderate temperatures, even on the northern side of the
Peninsula.discu [ ?] ✓
Every stream in this entire region freezes across during the
winter, and the smaller streams will freeze solid. In the southern parts,
streams close over about the end of September and open about the middle of May.
If a stream is not frozen to the bottom, it sometimes breaks through during
the winter and floods its own ice covering. This cover freezes quickly, of
course, but sometimes the process is repeated again and again until an entire
river valley is sheeted with ice.partially
Bering Strait is almost always partially open throughout the
winter, although the sea is usually frozen for a distance of several miles
from the land. After the spring break-up, this ice retrats northward through
the Straits, leaving Nome open to navigation by about the middle of June. Port
Clarence and Kotzebue Sound, being shallow and somewhat protected
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teeted from the movement of the sea ice, do not open up until a few weeks
later.Vegetation and The vegetation of Seward Peninsula is arctic in character,
Animal Life stunted both by the coldness of the climate and the shortness
of the growing season. Despite this, many species develop to maturity during
the summer.Most abundant of all are the mosses and lichens, which form
[ ?] he covering over most of the Peninsula, and which vary in color from the pure
white and cream of the reindeer moss to the dark green and brown of the pe e a t
moss. In spring and summer this carpet is thickly sprinkled with brightly–
colored flowers, whose variety and abundance always surprise the Outsider.In the lowlands , where there is little or no drainage, peat
moss grows to such thickness and holds so much water that travel is wearisome
and sometimes impossible. A trip of nine or ten miles over such a terrain is
a hard day's work for a man, and may be quite impossible for a horse. Summer
trails must keep to the ridges and the stream beds, and, since these may not
always proceed in the desired direction, summer overland travel is considerably
restricted.Spruce trees will be are found near Council, on the Niukluk River,
which measure one foot in diameter and fifty feet in height, but a point about
twenty miles west of Council is the westernmost limit of coniferous trees on
the American Continent.Farther westward, cottonwoods are found along the rivers and dwarf
alders on the hillsides. Frequently, impenetrable thickets of willow border many
of the streams, making travel along them extremely difficult. These willows are
usually two inches or less thick and five feet or less tall, but they sometimes attain a
thickness of six inches and a height of twenty feet. These willows constitute the fuel supply the fuel
supply for the many mining camps in the western
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part of the Peninsula, and have even been found in sheltered places in the vicinity
of Cape Prince of Wales.Where these mosses have do not prevailed, a variety of grasses
will be found which supply very good forage for pack animals. This was the only
forage used by the several Geological Survey parties which spent many summers
on Seward Peninsula early in this century, but their reports mention also that
these grasses did not always have time to mature, so that they supplied very
little nourishment after curing. The concensus was that it was necessary to
import feed for pack animals if they were to be kept over a winter on the
Peninsula.During August, several kinds of berries appear. Most impor–
tant of these are the marsh blueberry, similar to the blueberry of the States,
and the salmon berry, also known as the cloud berry and the of marooshka.Since the Peninsula summer corresponds to springtime in the
States, flowers are most profuse during July. The abrupt transition to warm
weather, plus the humidity of the soil and the atmosphere approximate a hot–
house environment which produces enormous blossoms altogether disproportionate
to their stunted stocks. Equalling their size is the variety of these
blossoms. Wild forget-me-nots, fireweeds, the white salmon berry, heather,
and the large yellow Alaska poppy are everywhere to be seen. Even on the
relatively bare hilltops, the bluebell and phlox appear, while the short-stemmed
rhododendron, though hardly two inches tall, exhibits its large and showy
blossoms.Fish and Salmon, grayling, trout, pike, and whitefish abound in the
Game fresh-water streams during the summer, while smelt and other
salt-water fish are fairly abundant in the waters surrounding the Peninsula.
Throughout the Summer Llarge numbers of Eskimos, many from the interior of the Peninsula, gather at
the mouths of the rivers and at particularly favorable points along the coastline
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to fish, hunt, and trap. The dried meat and fish accumulated in this way
supplement [ ?] the less plentiful resources of the wintertime.At one time c C aribou were once numerous, but their numbers have now,
dwindled, despite efforts to raise and breed them, to a fraction of their former their numbers have divindled
strength. considerably. During the winter polar bear are sometime skilled along the coasts,
and a few brown and black bear have been seen. Some game birds, such as the
ptarmigan, snipe, plover, and curlew have decreased in numbers in recent years,
but geese, ducks, sandhill cranes and swans are still plentiful.Commerce As will be immediately realized after reading one or more
of the articles on Seward Peninsula towns and regions, the
mineral resources scattered throughout its extent have dictated its development.
Without the gold, tin, and other metals found there, Seward Peninsula would
never have acquired its present commercial importance nor developed its present
population.By 1905, after considerable initial confusion, the various
mining districts on Seward Peninsula were definit defined and mapped.
Starting at Norton Bay and working [ ?] westward, then northward and eastward
along the coast to Kotzebue Sound, the districts read in this order: Koyuk, Council,
Cape Nome, Port Clarence, Goodhope, and Fairhaven. Completely surrounded by
these coastwise precincts is the Kugruk district, which fills in the center
of the Peninsula.Chief amongst the gold mining towns, of course, is Nome,
site of a major gold rush in the first years of the twentieth century (q.v.). Eastward
from Nome are Solomon and Bluff, once more important and busy than they are
now. The most important settlements in the Port Clarence area are Teller and
Teller Mission, directly opposite each other across the entrance to Grantley
Harbor . while Mary's Igloo, Pilgrim Springs, Shelton, Noxapaga, Davidson's
016 | Vol_XII-0784
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Landing, and Dahl are the leading chief [ ?] Kugruk precinct
villages. The tin mining centers of York and Tin City, south of Cape Prince of Wales, and Wales, just
around the point to the north, are the only substantial settlements on the
extreme western tip of the Peninsula, while and Shishmaref, on the bay of the same
name, is the sole village on the northwestern shore. Turning southward at Cape
Espenberg into Kotzebue Sound, one comes to Deering, Kiwalik, Candle, and
Baldwin, all connected in one way or another with the gold mining activities
in the Goodhope and Fairhaven Districts.Until the airplane came into daily and casual use in Alaska,
as it [ ?] has today, all these towns were completely cut off from the Outside from
November to June. Mail, freight, and supplies now reach almost all parts of
the Peninsula once a week during the winter, which in some cases improves on
the summer schedule of boat deliveries. Winter dog team trails form a web
over the face of the Peninsula connecting the coast with the interior, the
north with the south. For reasons made obvious above , roads are a comparative
rarity in Seward Peninsula, and those few which do exist keep to the towns
themselves or to lead to the relatively near y -by mining camps.The serveral railroads which were built early in the century,
such as the Seward Peninsu al la line out of Nome, and the Council City and Solomon
River line out of Dickson, have fallen into disrepair and relative disuse.
The airplane has only partially replaced them. The former Seward Peninsula
Railroad is now known as the Kougarok Limited, or the Pupmobile, and carries
a miscellaneous assortment of chassis fitted with railroad wheels as far
north as Lanes Landing, on the Kuzitrin.One of the worst and oldest of difficulties standing in the
way of commerce with Seward Peninsula is the lack of a breakwater at Nome to
protect that town from the ravages of the fall storms which yearly pound
against the southern shores of the Peninsula. Over the years, this lack has
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cost thousands of dollars and many lives. It is to be hoped that the bill,
urged by Carl J. Lomen, appropriating $1,020,000 for the Nome seawall will pass the
8 1st Congress. The project was authorized by the 80th Congress, but the
appropriation itself was not approved. When it is finally [ ?] legalized, the
seawall will be constructed by U.S. Army engineers.Exploration Since Seward Peninsula lies only about 55 miles across Bering
Strait from Siberia, it is not surprising that it was first explored
by the white man from the west, and that it was discovered before any other part of
Alaska. For centuries before this time, the natives of the extremities of the two
continents were probably in regular contact with each other. It is a known fact
that they are of closely allied races.It was the Cossack, Semen [ ?] Dezhnev, who, in 1648, sailed eastward
from the mouth of the Kolyma River on the north coast of Siberia and discovered
Bering Strait. In 1711, another Cossack, Popov , was sent to East Cape to induce the
natives there to pay tribute to Russia. He brought back reports of islands to
the eastward of East Cape and rumors of a continent beyond them.Under direct orders from Peter the Great, Vitus Bering, a Dane,
organized an exploring expedition in 1828. Bering started out only a few days
before the death of Peter the Great, but the Empress Catherine carried out Peter's
wishes concerning the discovery and annexation of lands far to the east.In July, 1728, with two small ships, Bering sailed northeastward
out of Okhotsk. On his way he discovered and named St. Lawrence Island, and then
sailed through the strait which now bears his name. He continued along the
Siberian coast to the point where it bends westward at East Cape, and so, having
proved to his own satisfaction that there was no connection between the two contin–
ents, he returned to Kamchatka. On his way back he named the Diomede Islands.
Probably because of fog and thick weather, he did not see the American continent,
although in fair weather it is visible from several points along the route which
Bering followed.
017a | Vol_XII-0786
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The first Russian to set foot on the North American continent
in 1729 without realizing that he had succeeded where Bering had failed. [ ?]
Sibarian Coassack, Afanase Shestakov, and Dmitri Pavlutsky , were put in joint
command of an expedition against the Chukchi. These two men agreed upon nothing,
so that Shestakov sailed off with both ships and most of the men to do battle
without his joint commander. Shestakov and his entire company were killed by the
Chukchi, and Pavlutsky, in order to avoid being sent to avenge the defeat, ordered
that the remaining pilots and the geodesist, Gvosdev, set sail in the St. Gabriel ,
to see what lands lay to the east of XX Okhotsk. The chief pilot being ill, O o nly Federow Fedorov, the
assistant pilot to the original Chukchi expedition, was able to set out [ ?] with this
expedition, and he was already so sick as to be of very little help. The
geodesist Gvosdev, therefore, was the true commander of this spontaneous,
unplanned trip. Gvosdev, therefore, was the true commander of this spontaneous,
unplanned trip. Gvosdev's original log book was lost, and his report, written ten
years later, was necessarily vague, but there is every reason to believe that he
reached the mainland of North America and that he probably sailed around part of
Norton Sound. Gvosdev, himself, speaks of the "large country" discovered as an
island, believing apparently that it was one of those reported by the Chukchi
as lying eastward of the Siberian mainland.After six more years of preparations, Bering commanded another
expedition of two ships, the St. Peter and the St. Paul . Having lost contact with
the St. Paul two weeks out of port, he went on alone, reached southeastern Alaska
and named Mount St. Elias. Bering was already sic k with scurvy. Waiting only
one day on these unknown shores he ordered the ship about and set sail for home.
Contrary winds and gales met them; the entire party was overcome with scurvy, the
ship wrecked and all survivors cast ashore on what is now known as Bering Island.
Here Bering died. In the spring, however, the survivors built a tiny boat, the
St. Peter , and in this they were able to reach home again.
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Bering was followed by a number of Russian explorers, but it
was not until Captain James Cook's voyage along Seward Peninsula, in 1778, that
the region was accurately charted. Otto von Kotzebue visited St. Lawrence Island
in 1816 and later explored and mapped the northern coastline of the Peninsula.
In addition to the large sound which bears his name, Kotzebue named many of the important points on this coast, including Shishmaref
Bay, Cape Espenberg, Eschscholtz Bay, Chamisso Island, Cape Deceit, and
Goodhope Bay. as well as the large sound which bears his name.
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In 1822, the Russian American Company (q.v.), the earliest fur–
trading enterprise in this part of North America, put Captain Khromchenko in
command of an expedition for the exploration of the northwestern part of that
continent. In his ship, the Golovnin , Khromchenko explored Norton Bay and the
bay which bears the name of his ship. Through information received from the natives
around Golovnin Bay, Khromchenko believed that an inland waterway connected that
body of water with Port Cla r ence. Although this error did not appear on any maps
until about forty-five years later, it was copied by cartographers from that time
forward with unfailing persistance.Captain F.W. Beechey, R.N., in command of H.M.S. Blossom ,
made the last noteworthy discoveries on and around Seward Peninsula in 1827.
Sent on a supply and relief mission to the Franklin Mackenzie-Coppermine River
overland expedition, he charted the coast between Cape Rodney and Cape Prince
of Wales, discovered and named Grantley Harbor and Port Clarence, the only true port in this part
of the Peninsula. and Grantley Harbor. He also named Point Spencer and Cape
York. His charts have proved to be remarkably accurate and are the basis upon
which all subsequent maps of these regions have been made.Less important expeditions include those of Commodore Joseph
Billings, who, in 1791, visited the Diomedes and the coast in the vicinity of
Cape Prince of Wales, and the voyages of Etolin, Vasiliev, and others, who,
in 1830, more thoroughly explored Norton Sound and Golovnin Bay.Between 1848 and 1854 this section of the north Pacific was
frequented by the Franklin relief expeditions. searching for Sir John Franklin. Leaders
of these expeditions include Captain Kellett, in the Herald ; Commander Moore,
in the Plover ; Captain Colli n son, in the Enterprise ; Captain M'Clure, in the
Investigator ; and Captain Trollope, in the Rattlesnake . The leaders of many
of these expeditions were also hopeful of finding the long-sought north east west
020 | Vol_XII-0789
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passage. To this end several sledge expeditions were completed, including
Kellett's ascent of the Buckland River form Kotzebue Sound.In 1865, exploration of Seward Peninsula took a completely
commercial turn. The Western Union Telegraph Company, as an alternate proposal
to the thus-far unsuccessful Atlantic cable, proposed to connect North America
with Europe by running telegraph wires through British Columbia and Alaska,
across Bering Strait to Siberia and thence to St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Paris.
The Sewar e d Peninsula route was to run from the head of Norton Bay to the Fish
River, then up the Niukluk, across to Imuruk Basin, Grantley Harbor, Port
Clarence and so to Cape Prince of Wales.Between 1865 and 1867 Baron Otto von Bendeleben surveyed the
✓ discuss route from Golovnin Bay to Port Clarence, established a camp at Grantley Harbor
and strung many miles of telegraph line. The success of the 1867 Atlantic
cable brought these extensive endeavors to a sudden halt.Interest in Seward Peninsula waned for many years after the
purchase of Alaska by the United States, but still i I t was a party including
Daniel B. Libby, one of the members of Bendeleben's expedition of 1866, who mad [ ?]
one of the earliest gold strikes on the Peninsula. Since this strike occurred
on Melsing Creek, a tributary to the Niukluk, it may reasonably be assumed
that Bendeleben's hints as to colors of gold having been noted throughout this
region, while ignored by almost everyone, had not been forgotten by Libby.
In this sense, the abortive Western Union Telegraph expedition may be said to have
contributed a great deal to the development of the Peninsula.Later gold and tin mining developments in all parts of the
Peninsula will be found discussed in detail under the names of the various
rivers and towns which have become identified with these activities. During
1948, a report was published concerning the founding discovery of uranium within one
hundred miles of Nome. The exact location of these deposits is, of course,
021 | Vol_XII-0790
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not known. Other minerals known to exist on the Peninsula are mercury, black
sand, antimony, copper, and silver.Other activities than mining are carried on throughout the
Peninsula. Fur farms exist along its northern shores, particularly at Shish–
maref, where George R. Goshaw deals in blue, white, and red fox pelts in
addition to the blue-white platina pelts which he originated. All t T he Eskimos
in [ ?] this part of Alaska are especially famous for the artistry and intri–
cacy of their walrus bone and wood carvings. These items are of particular
interest to the tourists which who throng to Nome every summer. Nome, itself,
[ ?] as the distribution center for all of southern Seward Peninsula, has a well–
developed lighterage and freighting service, as well as extensive storage
warehouses all along its long water-front:Perhaps the greatest lack in this entire region, aside from
such communication considerations as the Nome sea-wall and railway connections
with other parts of Alaska and the Outside, is a large-scale, non-seasonal
industry. The numerous dredging and hydraulic placer operations throughout the
Peninsula do not supply this lack, since placer mines of any kind are unworkable
during the winter. If this non-seasonal industry were to be some kind of
mining, it would have to involve the development of the lode deposits which
are known to exist. As it is, the various large mining companies import much
of their skilled labor each summer and these employees return to the States
each fall, so that a large percentage of the money earned in Alaska is spent
Outside. Up to this time no panacea has been found for this condition. The
final solution may possibly lie in the extension of educational facilities
throughout the area so that, in time, the already-existing industries might
rely more on local than on Outside employment.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alaska Life , May, 1945.
Collier, A.J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 328)Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions.
Alaska, in 1900 Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions.
Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, 1901.Brown, J.W. Abridged History of Alaska Abridged History of Alaska . Seattle, Wash., 1909.
Collier, A.J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
Washington, 1908. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 328)Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion Shores of Seward Peninsula,
Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)Dall, William H. Alaska and Its Resources Alaska and Its Resources . Boston, 1870.
Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.
Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply
Paper Water-Supply
Paper 314)Moffit, Fred H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
( W ashington, 1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)U.S. Coast Pilot . Alaska. Pt.II . Alaska. Pt.II . 1947 edition.
VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska .
Henshaw, F.F. Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska Surface Water Supply of Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
Washington, 1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply
Paper Water-Supply
Paper 314)Moffit, Fred H. Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska .
( W ashington, 1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 247)
001 | Vol_XII-0792
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 SHESHALEK, ALASKA
90 wds
SHESHALEK (67° 02′ N.Lat., 163° 01′ W.Long.) is a small
Eskimo village and reindeer camp on the north side of Kotzebue Sound,
northwestern Alaska, some ten miles west of the mouth of the Noatak River.In 1880 this village had a population of 100 natives, but,
since it does not appear in the 1939 Census, it would seem to have decreased
in size since that ti m e.The long winter trail running south for southward to Kotzebue and Seward
Peninsula and northward along the arctic coast of Alaska, passes through
Sheshalek.
001 | Vol_XII-0793
Ruby Collins Text - 2,525 words
Bibl - 100 wds.
March, 1949 SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
SHISHMAREF INLET (Chichmareff, Schischmareff, etc.), which
indents the northwestern shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is about
sixteen miles long by eleven miles wide at the greatest. It was so named
by Kotzebue during his explorations of this region in August, 1816. Captain
Lieutenant Glieb Semenovich Shishmaref was with Kotzebue from 1815-1818.Narrow, seven mile long Sarichef Island lies directly across the
entrance to this bay. Kotzebue describes the manner in which he discovered
both in an entry , dated July 31. "After we had continued the survey of the
coast during the whole night in clear weather, we cast anchor, at three o'clock
in the morning, in five fathoms' water, two miles from the shore. It
appeared to me, that a bay ran here deeper into the land, which I wished to
explore. At four o'clock in the morning I left the Rurick accompanied by
our naturalists, in two well-armed boats, and landed opposite our anchoring–
place, near some habitations, in the hope of having some communication with
the inhabitants. We went into the jurtes, which are built in a straight line
along the coast, but were at first only welcomed by dogs, which were not at
all discomposed by our presence, but came fawning up to us; they appeared to
me to be of the same race as those used in Kamtschatka, for drawing sledges.
We had already got upon the roof of the jurtes, without meeting with any
people; fre s h traces, however, which we saw every where showed us, that they
were more fearful than their dogs, and had fled at our approach.¶ "We now
examined the interior of their dwellings, and found them cleanly and con–
venient. The entrance at the S.E. side was an opening, three feet high,
supported by wood, which on the outside was prolonged on each side by mud
walls. We entered, first, into an apartment ten feet long, seven broad, and
seven high: the walls and the top were covered with wood. To the left-hand,
in a pit which extended all along the room, lay pieces of black blubber, about
002 | Vol_XII-0794
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
about a foot square, and beside these lay sieves with long handles. To the
right was a rather narrow pit, two feet and a half deep, and seven long,
[ ?] though not broader than the pit. Now we had a wooden partition before
us, in the middle of which was a round opening one foot and a half in
diameter, through which we were obliged to creep into a spacious anti-room,
the four walls of which were ten feet long, and six feet high; the h eight
increased towards the middle, and at the top was a small four-cornered hole,
covered with a bladder, which served for a window. On the wall opposite the
entrance, broad boards, fastened one foot and a half above the floor, served
for sleeping places, which only took up a third p a rt of the room, and at the
side walls they had placed small ladders quite horizontally, to set up their
utensils. The walls, and top, consisted of small beams, the visible sides of
which were made even. All the i h abitations were built according to this plan,
with the exception of one, where a more numerous family appeared to reside,
as this had two more small side-rooms...¶ "After we had looked about a little, we
found that we were on an island seven miles long, and, in the widest place, a
mile broad. We took a walk across it, from north to south, and saw clearly,
when we were on the opposite coast, that the continent in the east forms a
deep bay, where, on three points, the connection of the land is not to be seen.
We were all rejoiced at this discovery, for though we could not expect an
immediate passage into the Icy Sea, we had the hope of penetrating far into
the country, and there to make important remarks. This island, which lies
directly before the bay, forms with the continent in the N.E. and S.W. a
narrow passage...¶ " After a tour of an hour and a half, we reached the N.E.
passage, which we found to be a mile and a half in breadth; the depth in the
middle of the channel was eight fathoms; the tide was rising, and the current
set into the bay, at the rate of three miles an hour. It was already past
noon, and the sailors, who had been incessantly employed ever since four
003 | Vol_XII-0795
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
o'clock in the morning, were in want of refreshment; we therefore landed
at the N.E. point, where a fire was lighted, and in half an hour an excellent
soup was made of English patent meat. This meat is well adapted for excursions
in a boat, as it is contained in tin boxes, and therefore extremely portable.
After we had sufficiently refreshed ourselves, we observed two to boats, of the
same kind as those in the Aleutian islands, each with one man in it, approach
us with the greatest rapidity from the opposite shore. They came within fifty
paces, when they left off rowing, observing us with attention, communicating
all their remarks to each other, and at last began to count us."All our endeavours to entice the Americans, by friendship, and by
things which we w s howed them, to come on shore, were useless; they hit their
heads with both their hands, and then fell down, as if dead, probably, to
give us to understa n d, that their lives were not safe in our vicinity. It
should seem that they are not acquainted with fire-arms, because they did not
keep out of gun-shot, though a number of muskets were standing near us. The
clothing of the Americans consisted of the entrails of whales..."After they had observed us for a long time, and with much distrust,
they threw two darts towards their habitations, probably a signal agree e d
upon; but we continued our course to the east. The many sandbanks, which are
formed by the current, and the current itself, hindered us much in our
researches, as we could proceed only one mile in three hours; I therefore
gave up my plan for this year, and resolved to proceed in the following year to
a more complete examination in little baydares, which I intended to bring
with me from the Aleutian islands. At present the loss of time was of too
much consequence to me, as the navigation of Beering's Straits continues
only for a short time. This bay received the name of Schischmareff, after
the only officer that served under me. I will not, however, say that this
inl t e t forms a bay, because, perhaps, it only divides the foreland into several
islands. I called the narrow island after our worthy vice-admiral,
004 | Vol_XII-0796
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
Saritscheff."To the eastern entrance point to the Inlet, the mainland point
upon which he and his men refreshed themselves with "English patent meat,"
Kotzebue gave the name Cape Lowenstern.In 1901, Collier reported as follows: "The rivers flowing into
Shishmaref Inlet have received considerable attention from prospectors. A
recording office and Shishmaref post-office are located on Sarichef Island,
at the northeastern entrance to Shishmaref Inlet. The writer was informed
by Charles W. Mashburn, the deputy recorder of the district, that there is a
good harbor for small coasting vessels at this place, and that the Serpentine,
the largest river of the district, is navigable for small steamers for at
least 20 miles inland. Kotzebue reported 8 fathoms of water at this entrance.
Shishmaref Inlet is bordered by a wide coastal plain, made up of gravel, from
the margin of which a dissected erosion plain slopes upward to an elevation
of 500 to 1,000 feet. Ear Mountain, K ugruk Mountain, Midnight Mountain, and
Devil Mountain, rising above this plateau, mark the limits of the Shishmaref
drainage. The Serpentine and Arctic rivers are the two most important streams
of the basin."The Arctic River rises just south of Ear Mountain, a 2,308-foot
peak, and [ ?] follows a generally northeasterly course to the west
side of Shishmaref Inlet. In its upper section, the Arctic occupies a
broad basin containing a number of small lakes, but below this basin the river
has cut a well-defined canyon. The broad , flat divide , which separates the
upper Arctic River from the Kugrupaga system ( q.v.) immediately to the west,
has what appears to be an abandoned river channel running across it.
Other streams in the Arctic River system, most of which enter from the east,
include: Kreuger, Fox, Nug g et, Sango, and Mission Creeks. For the last five
miles of its twenty-five mile course, the Arctic meanders sluggishly across
the marshy grasslands of the coastal plain.
005 | Vol_XII-0797
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
Traveling eastward, the next river to enter the Inlet is the
Sanaguich, first reported by Gerdine, in 1901. This stream rises across a
1,000-foot divide from Portage Creek in the American River system (q.v.).
The Sanaguich continues a fairly straight course [ ?] out of the mountains,
and then wanders across the coastal plain for a total distance of about si x teen
miles. Bonanza Creek, its only named tributary, enters from the east.Serpentive River, the largest stream in the area, enters the
eastern end of Shishmaref Inlet. Rising near Midnight Mountain, the Serpentine
follows a sinuous 45-mile course, from which characteristic the stream
receives its name.Collier reported as follows on the white man's discovery of this
river: "The river was first explored and named by Charles McLennan, who,
with dog team and Eskimo assistants, made a trip into the region from Shish–
maref Inlet in May, 1900. McLennan was probably the first white man to reach
the hot springs on Spring Creek, a tributary of this river. He staked a
number of claims along this creek, and prepared a m ap of the region, a copy
of which was received in Washington in March, 1901. In September, 1901,
the writer found a small settlement at the hot sprin g s, but no trace of the
claim stakes set up by McLennan the year before remained. A small garden had
been made on some of the ground near one of the springs, and vegetables,
consisting of lettuce and radishes, had been grown without difficulty."The Serpentine may be said to originate at the confluence of
Schl i tz and Hot Springs Creeks, or perhaps at the mouth of Bryan Creek, which
enters the main stream just below Hot Springs Creek. Hot Springs rises
in the granite hills north of Midnight Mountain and flows westward to the
Serpentine.These three streams and their tributaries comprise a fan-shaped
drainage system, perhaps twenty miles wide at the greatest. Tribuatries
006 | Vol_XII-0798
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
to Schlitz Creek include Star, Reindeer, Bella, and Mukluk Creeks. Hot
Springs receives many unnamed tributaries, and has the small settlement of
Hot Springs near its head. A winter trail 148 miles long connects this
settlement with Nome.Collier gives a good description of the springs from which the
village and stream receive their names: "Along Spring Creek for a distance
of about half a mile," he writes, "there are hot sulphur springs. Two of
these, the upper and lower ones, were visited by the writer. The upper
spring is on the banks of the creek, probably above any except the highest
floods. The spring is in the center of a broad mound, 10 feet in diameter,
and perhaps 2 feet high, bu i lt up from material precipitated from the spring
water. The temperature of the water is about 212°. The lower springs are
below the high-water mark of the creek. The amount of water is not over
1 miners' inch. For some distance around the spring the ground is warm,
making it an ideal place for wintering in that climate."Tributaries to Bryan Creek include McKinley, Peter, Irene, and
Dick Creeks. Continuing downstream, the Serpentine receives Rock Creek
[ ?] and North Fork from the east. Only one or two miles below
this confluence a stream which is formed by the junction of Lone Butte and
South Fork enters the Serpentine from the west. Lone Butte is identified
on some early maps as Grayling Creek, and South Fork as Quartz Creek, but they
are now generally known by their present names. Lone Butte Creek has no
named tributaries, but South Fork is joined by Quartz, Teller, and Snowshoe
Creeks. Eldorado Creek enters the Serpentine from the west only a few miles
above its mouth.A maze of winter trails and sled roads connect the mining camps
which dot this section of the Port Clarence district. In addition, there
is a 1400-foot landing field at Hot Springs and a smaller 800-foot strip
on Dick Creek.
007 | Vol_XII-0799
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
Shishmaref, the only substantial settlement in this region, had
a 1939 population of 257. This village has a post office and receives mail
twice a month during the season of navigation , that is between June 1 and October 31.
T hroughout the winter mail is delivered once a month by dogsled from Nome
via Teller and Wales. During the winter of 1939 , freight and mail were also brought
in once a month by air. In addition, Shishmaref has a general store and a
Native cooperative store, a licensed fur dealer, and a fox ranch. George
R. Goshaw, a pioneer in the field of fur farming, raise s blue, white, red,
and blue-white platina foxes. He originated the beautiful platina fox furs.
An Alaska Native Service School and a Lutheran Church are also located in
the village.The former site on the mainland has been abandoned for a position
about midway of the length of Sarichef Island. Because of the close confines
of this sand bar, the settlement has an emergency landing area but no
true landing strip. The overland winter trail north from Teller and across
the Inlet, and the coastwise trail around the point of Seward Peninsula
meet at Shishmaref. Anchorage in depths up to 30 feet will be found in the
Inlet about one mile offshore from the town.Shishmaref is predominantly an Eskimo settlement. The Natives,
despite the changes which civilization has brought them, continue to
live through hunting, fishing, and trapping. The Eskimos of this section
are particularly well-known for their needlecraft and ivory carvings. These
artistic products are bartered for staples and all kinds of general supplies
available in Shishmaref.Mining As early as 1901, gold had been found on several tributaries to
the Serpentine, including Dick, Bryan, Eldorado, Hogum, and
Reindeer Creeks, but work was slow in getting underway because only enough
water for sluicing a few hours a day was ever available during the summer
008 | Vol_XII-0800
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
season. By 1905, plans were in progress for the construction of a ditch to
the head of Dick Creek, this being the stream which appeared most heavily
mineralized. A contemporaneous map shows that this dtich was in fact dug
from Dick Creek to the heads of several stream s west of that creek, but, des i p ite
this heavy expenditure of money and effort, the offic ia l report on the
mineral resources of Alaska does not mention Dick Creek again until 1940.
The Serpentine system, therefore, never proved to be a rich gold producer.
(For a general discussion of the Alaska gold mining industry see Nome,
Alaska article.)
009 | Vol_XII-0801
SHISHMAREF INLET, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Colby, Merle. Guide to Alaska. Guide to Alaska. N.Y., 1942.Collier, A.J. Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward
Peninsula. Alaska Reconnaissance of the Northwestern Portion of Seward
Peninsula. Alaska . Washington, 1902. (U.S. Geological Survey.
Professional Paper Professional Paper No.2)Gibson, Arthur. Map of Seward Peninsula. Alaska Map of Seward Peninsula. Alaska . Nome, Alaska, 1908.
Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.
Kotzebue, Otto von. Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's
Straits...in the years 1815-1818 Voyage of Discovery to the South Sea and Beering's
Straits...in the years 1815-1818 . Translated by H.E. Lloyd.
London, 1821. 3vol.U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper No.314. Plate I. Washington, 1913.
U.S. Coast & Geodetic Survey. Aeronautical Chart Aeronautical Chart No.76. 4th ed. 1947.
U.S. Post Office. Post Route Map of Alaska Post Route Map of Alaska . Washington, 1947.
VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska .
001 | Vol_XII-0802
Ruby Collins
October, 1948 520 wds SINUK RIVER, ALASKA
SINUK RIVER (Sinook, Sinrock, Synrock), southwestern Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, which empties into Norton Sound twenty-five or thirty
miles west of Nome, is one of the largest rivers of the southern watershed
of the peninsula.The Sinuk rises in the Kigluaik Mountains, southwest of Mount
Osborn, and flows parallel to these mountains in a southwesterly direction
for about fifteen miles, then turns southward for another twenty miles
before entering Norton Sound.The upper course of the river is closely constricted by mountains
rising to over 2,000 feet. This section receives several short affluents,
including Windy and Charley Creeks. North Star Creek is the main tribu–
tary to Windy Creek.Below Charley Creek the Sinuk Basin widens considerably. The
river passes south of Glacier Lake, from which it receives a short
tributary, and continues in a southwesterly [ ?] direction across a wide
valley. Stewart River, main tributary to the Sinuk, enters from the
east a few miles below the Glacier Lake tributary. Thompson, Lost,
Boulder, Fred, Mountain, Josie, Irene (sometimes called Moose), and
Durant Creeks all enter the Stewart from the south. These tributaries
rise in the mountain chain separating the Stewart River system from
that of the Snake and Penny Rivers (q.v.). The northern tributaries
to this section of the Stewart are Quartz, Slate, Short, Silver, Windy, and
Francisco Creeks.The main tributaries to the Sinuk below the Stewart are American,
Rulby, Trinity, Coal, Washington, Green, Independence, Boulder, and
Granite Creeks.Just below Boulder Creek, the Sinuk enters a discontinuous coastal
mountain chain, receives a tributary from the north formed by the conflu-
002 | Vol_XII-0803
SINUK RIVER
ence of Dry and Camp Creeks, and then enters the coastal plain across
which it carves a torturous, deeply entrenched course to the sound.These mountains of the lower Sinuk continue southeast of the river
and crowd to within less than a mile of the coast between the Sinuk and
Cripple Rivers. East of the Sinuk, several short streams flow into
Norton Sound from these mountains, including, Rodney, Sonora, and Quartz
Creeks.In July, 1898, H.L. Blake and his party (See Nome article), pros–
pected in the Sinuk area without finding gold in paying quantities. Later
examination tended to co n firm these findings, although it was felt that
some of the deposits,along the upper tributaries to this river, might
be profitably worked if enough water could be brought down from the
Kigluaik Mountains to make hydraulic mining possible. However, beaause
of the far richer deposits in nearby streams, such as Anvil Creek in the
Snake River system, what gold there is along the Sinuk has no received
much attention.The only settlement on the river is Sinuk, at the mouth, a small
Eskimo village first recorded by Barnard in 1900.Sources: USCP & Supplement; VSGB: Baker.
Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of parts of Seward
Peninsula. Alaska. including the Nome. Council, Kougarok, Port
Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts Gold Placers of parts of Seward
Peninsula. Alaska. including the Nome. Council, Kougarok, Port
Clarence, and Goodhope Precincts . Washington, D.C., 1908.Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C., 1901.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0804
Ruby Collins
October, 1948 250 wds SLEDGE ISLAND, ALASKA
SLEDGE ISLAND, ALASKA, about five or six miles off the southwestern
coast of Seward Peninsula and about thirty-six miles west of Cape Nome,
is a comparatively round, rocky, flat-topped island rising 604 feet
above the water. Except for a small rocky slope on the east side and a
short sand spit making off from the northern end of the island, the
shores are steep.Sledge Island is only about one mile long by one-half a mile
wide, but still it offers the only protection against southerly storms
for deep-water vessels at a nchor in the Nome roadstead. With strong
southeast winds, the currents between the island and the mainland have
an average velocity of two knots and a maximum velocity of three and
one-half knots setting northwestward. Vessels seeking protection from
southerly storms behind Sledge Island must, therefore, give special
attention to these currents.There was once a small native village on the east side of th is e
island, but, although the huts are still there, the island is now visited
only by occasional parties of Eskimo hunters.Cook, landing on this island on August 5, 1778, and finding a
Sources: Baker: VSGB; USCP & Supplement
sledge on the shore, gave it its present name. The native name, Ayak
( Ajak , Asiak , Aziak , etc.) is mentioned by Beechey, who visited this
vicinity in 1826, and [ ?] noted, that, by a strange coincidence, the native
name also means 'sledge.'
001 | Vol_XII-0805
Ruby Collins
October, 1948 SNAKE RIVER, ALASKA
550 wds
SNAKE RIVER, southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is famous
for being the site of the great Nome gold strike in the fall of 1898.Like other rivers in this part of the peninsula, the Snake rises
in the Kigluaik Mountains, south of Mount Distin, and flows almost directly
south into Norton Sound.The upper third of the Snake Basin is closely constricted by
mountains of 2,000 or more feet, so that the river is torrential and is
joined by several other, equally swift, mountain streams.Gold Botton and Grouse Creeks join about sixteen miles from the
coast to form the Snake River, which, soon thereafter, receives the waters
of Last Chance Creek and its main branch, North Fork.Below this confluence, the Snake Basin gradually broadens out,
until it is four or five miles wide at a point about seven miles from the
coast. Below this point the river veers to the east and becomes deeply
entrenched in the coastal plain. From north to south, along this lower
third of its course, the Snake is joined by Borg, Blanchford, Divining,
Bangor, Boulder, Balto, Sledge, Alpha, Lindblom, Rock, Glacier, Monument,
Russell, American, Sunset, Anvil, Center, Bourbon, and Dry Creeks. Twin
Mountain Creek enters Boulder a few miles above its confluence with the
Snake. Snow Gulch and Bonanza Gulch are the important gold-bearing
tributaries to Glacier Creek, while Hot Air Bench, an old channel of
Glacier Creek, opposite Snow Gulch, has likewise proved to have rich
deposits.Discovery claim on Anvil Creek was, of course, the first strike
in this region and is now judged to be the richest ever made in Alaska.
One nugget valued at $1,100 was found there, and, between the years 1903
and 1908, over $5,000,000 worth of gold was recovered from the placers
002 | Vol_XII-0806
SNAKE RIVER
along tiny, six-mile Anvil Creek. Lindeberg (q.v.) named Anvil Creek
after the peak above which it rises. He called this peak Anvil Mountain,
because of the shape of a rock formation at its summit. Little Creek
enters Anvil a few miles above its mouth.Center, Bourbon, and Dry Creeks, all s h ort streams, rise south of
Anvil Mountain and flow southwestward into the Snake. Dry Creek, [ ?]
economically the most important of the three streams, is formed by the
union of Bear Creek, Newton Gulch, and Left Fork.Glacier Creek and Little Creek are small villages on the streams
of the same name, while Nome, the largest town on Seward Peninsula, lies
at the mouth of the Snake River.The entrance to the Snake River is shallow and marked by shifting
bars, although it has been improved by the contruction of two parallel
400-foot jetties. Ocean-going vessels cannot approach nearer than a mile
or two, and all cargoes must be lightered ashore. Southwesterly storms,
which are frequent during August and September, but which occur at other
times as well, endanger the entire anchorage in this part of Norton
Sound, so that deep-draft vessels must make for tiny Sledge Island (q.v.),
about twenty-four miles west of Nome, which offers the only protection
in southerly weather. During such storms no landing of any kind is possible
at Nome.Sources:
Baker: VSGB: USCP & Supplement
Collier, Arthur J. (and others). Gold Placers of parts of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, including the Nome, Council, Kougarok, Port
Clarence. and Goodhope Precincts. Washington, D.C., 1908.Brooks, Alfred H. (and others). Reconna is sances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, D.C., 1901.
001 | Vol_XII-0807
Ruby Collins
September, 1948 SOLOMON RIVER REGION
2,160 wds. 150 wd. - Bibl.
THE SOLOMON RIVER REGION, which lies between the Bluff and
Nome regions (q.v.), will here be considered to extend from Topkok Head,
a promentory on the southern shore of Seward Peninsula, to the mouth
of the Bonanza River, about 15 miles to the west. Several rivers drain
into this northern section of Norton Sound including Cache Creek, just
west of Ta ylor Lagoon, Pine Creek, and the famous Solomon and Bonanza
Rivers. The coastal plain, which in many ways is similar to the Nome
section, stretches from the shoreline to the foothills and ranges in
width from practically nothing at Topkok Head to 4 or 5 miles in the
Bonanza River section. The so-called 'beach' is really moss-covered tundraInsert p.1. Solomon River Region
Bonanza Creek rises in the highlands several miles
to the west of the headwaters of the Solomon and flows first
southward and then southeastward into a narrow, eastern arm of
Port Safety lagoon which is cut off from Norton Sound by a long
mud flat. A U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey map, dated 1907,
shows Ca l ifornia, Gold Run, and Jackson Creeks joining the
Bonanza from the east. Ohio Creek enters Jackson from the
north, and several other unnamed streams join the main river
from both the east and the west.two main tributaries to Big Hurra c h Creek a re Lion and Little Hurrah.
Also from north to south the most important tributaries to the Solomon from the west are
Johns, Shovel, which carries the waters of Adams, Kasson, West, and Mystery26 [ ls ?]
001 | Vol_XII-0808
Ruby Collins
September, 1948 SOLOMON RIVER REGION
2,160 wds. 150 wd - Bibl
THE SOLOMON RIVER REGION, which lies between the Bluff and
Nome regions (q.v.), will here be considered to extend from Topkok Head,
a promentory on the southern shore of Seward Peninsula, to the mouth
of the Bonanza River, about 15 miles to the west. Several rivers drain
into this northern section of Norton Sound including Cache Creek, just
west of Ta ylor Lagoon, Pine Creek, and the famous Solomon and Bonanza
Rivers. The coastal plain, which in many ways is similar to the Nome
section, stretches from the shoreline to the foothills and ranges in
width from practically nothing at Topkok Head to 4 or 5 miles in the
Bonanza River section. The so-called 'bech' is really moss-covered tundra
which is frozen solid except for about three months of the year, so that
the placer gold mining activity, for which the region is famous , is subject
to a short season and unusually difficult conditions.Good anchorage may be had 2 miles off this shore, but no
lights are visible on shore and the only protection from heavy winds is
to stand out to seaward. According to a 1902 survey, there is a depth
of 3 feet on the bar at the entrance and inside the Solomon River, but
experience is necessary to find the channel. InsertInsert Only a low divide separates the headwaters of the Solomon
River from the Casadepaga immediately to the north. Flowing almost
directly south, the Solomon drains an area of about 134 square miles, and
receives several tributaries along its 20-mile [ ?] course. From the east
the most important of these are Coal, which is itself joined about this junction by [ ?]
Victoria and Boise Creeks earlier in its course, East Fork, Big Hurrah, and Quartz Creeks. The
two main tributaries to Big Hurra c h Creek a re Lion and Little Hurrah.
Also from north to south the most important tributaries to the Solomon from the west are
Johns, Shovel, which carries the waters of Adams, Kasson, West, and Mystery26 [ ls ?]
002 | Vol_XII-0809
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
Creeks, and the last two tributaries to the Solomon, Jerome and Manila
Creeks.¶ For the first 15 miles of its course, the Solomon occupies a fairly
broad valley between highlands rising to about 1,600 feet, [ ?] d has a
gradient of about 50 feet to the mile. Arthur J. Collier writes of this
section of the river: "In the floor of this valley the river is entrenched,
leaving a system of gravel terraces from 20 to 50 feet abo ve the water.
Gravel bars from 100 to 500 feet wide, only partially covered at ordinary
stages of the water, fill the river bed." For the remaining 5 miles of its
course, the S olomon crosses the coastal plain in a broad trench and the
gradient drops to 6 or 8 feet to the mile. In a report dated 1908,Collier con [ ?]
tinues: "The river was named by Pierce Thomas, who staked Discovery claim
o i n June, 1899. In the same season the river and its tributaries were
prospected, and in 1900 probably $10,000 worth of gold was mined in this
district. The bed rocks along Solomon River are limestone and schist of
the Nome group. The strikes generally have a north-south direction, but the
dips are low and in some places the rocks lie nearly flat. On the eastern
side of the valley a number of instrusive masses of green igneous rock
have been observed. Veins and stringers of more or less mineralized quartz
are common in the schists, both parallel with the cutting across the
schistosity. Many of them carry gold, and at Big Hurrah Creek a quartz
mine is in successful operation...Although gold has been found along the
Solomon River through its whole length, the placers operated in 1903 and
1904 are all located within 12miles of the coast. The workings are in
benches along the river, where ordinary mining methods are employed, and
in the gravel bars of the river bed itself, where several dredges have
been used...A system of ditches to bring water from the head of the river
and its tributaries to the placers located near the mouth is in construction,
and it is probabl e that about 1,000 miner's inches of water under a head
of from 250 to 400 feet will be available."28 [ls?]
003 | Vol_XII-0810
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
During the years 1900, 1901, and 1902 there was gold mining
activity on most of the tributaries to the Solomon. Several claims were
being worked above Coal Creek. Big Hurrah Creek had, at that time, produced
more gold than any other tributary to the Solomon, although the methods
used were extremely primitive, since hydraulicing was impossible because
of the low gradient of the stream and the thinness of the deposit. The
largest operation was Big Hurrah Mine , then owned by C.D. Lane ( See Council and Nome) on one of the southern benches of the creek
near the mouth of Little Hurrah. Here a great many specimens of [ ?]
vein quartz containing free gold had been found in the placer gravels. In
1903 three such veins were being developed and several prospect holes andInsert 1.
, so that full attention could be given to the development of the lode.
Bill Stiles expressed the current placer-versus-quarz mining
expectations in the following words: "Since the first year of the placer
excitement quartz miners familiar with conditions in the Nome country have
had an abiding faith that the time will come when the quartz mines in
Northwestern Alaska will produce more gold every year than any annual
product of the placer claims. The advantage of quartz mining is that it
can be conducted in the winter season as well as in the summer time."
These expectations were not, of course, to be fulfilled.Creek during this period. Some development was going on i I n the vicinity
of Jerome and Manila Creeks, which enter the Solomon a few miles from
the coast, some development was going on as early as 1900 and continued in a small way for the next few
years. These were considered important at the time because they indicated
that the tundra section of the Solomon might also contain placers of
the gravel-plain type. Very little prospecting had been done along [ Cahe ?]37 [ls?]
003a | Vol_XII-0811
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
During the years 1900, 1901, and 1902 there was gold mining
activity on most of the tributaries to the Solomon. Several claims were
being worked above Coal Creek. Big Hurrah Creek had, at that time, produced
more gold than any other tributary to the Solomon, although the methods
used were extremely primitive, since hydraulicing was impossible because
of the low gradient of the stream and the thinness of the deposit. The
largest operation was Big Hurrah Mine , then owned by C.D. Lane ( See Council and Nome) on one of the southern benches of the creek
near the mouth of Little Hurrah. Here a great many specimens of [ ?]
vein quartz containing free gold had been found in the placer gravels. In
1903 three such veins were being developed and several prospect holes and
open cuts had been made west of Little Hurrah, from which it was believed
the lode had been recognized for about 1,000 feet along the stream.
Big Hurrah placer operations were suspended in September, 1903. (Insert 1) On Kasson
Creek the bedrock was massive limestone fissured and broken up into
fragments, with gold-bearing sediments ly ing on this limestone and pene–
trating the fissures to unknown depths. In some places [ ?] mining opera–
tions had penetrated the limestone for 20 or 30 feet and the pay streak
had been discovered to have a width of from 16 to 100 feet. Claims along
Kasson Creek were then all under one control and were being worked as
a unit. Nine claims were being worked on West Creek in 1903 with probably
3 or 4 men on each, and garnet and magnetite were found to be associated with the gold
in the sluice boxes. Three or fo ur outfits were sluicing along Mystery
Creek during this period. Some development was going on i I n the vicinity
of Jerome and Manila Creeks, which enter the Solomon a few miles from
the coast, Some development was going on as early as 1900 and continued in a small way for the next few
years. These were considered important at the time because they indicated
that the tundra section of the Solomon might also contain placers of
the gravel-plain type. Very little prospecting had been done along [ Cahe ?]37 [ls?]
004 | Vol_XII-0812
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
Cache and Pine Creeks to the east although their gravels were said to
be auriferous. In 1907 a U.S. Geological Survey report tells of the
almost complete mechanization of the Big Hurrah Mine and of the dis–
appointment of miners who had expected to find gold in the beach and
tundra gravels of the Solomon district similar to the immensely rich
strikes near Nome. Scores of holes were dug but no pay had been located by
the close of the summer of 1907. In 1910. Philip S. Smith summarized
Solomon River Region gold mining from 1900-1908: "The larger part of the
production has come from Solomon River itself, from its larger western
branch, Shovel Creek, and from its smaller eastern tributary, Big Hurrah
Creek. Numerous smaller streams have, however, yielded placer returns,
but the wok has generally been carried on by camps of only a few men
each, so that although the production per man may have been considerably
more than wa g es, yet the total production has been small as compared with
that of the Nome region. There is hardly a stream in the basin that has
not been prospected and reported to yield colors, but during 1907 in the
entire Solomon River basin probably less than 125 men were employed in
placer mining. Brooks estimated that in 1900 about $10,000 was taken
from Solomon River and its tributaries. In 1904, however, the production
had increased so materially that Brooks estimated it to be about $200,000.
In 1905, according to Moffit, there was no considerable increase in the
production. In 1906, however, a large dredge completed in the previous
year increased the yield of the region, although the amount produced by
the small operators probably fell off. In 1907 the production increased
slightly, but most of the increase was made by the dredge and the production
of the smaller operators was probably less than that of the preceding year.
In 1908 an exceptionally dry season notably hampered mining work, so that
from thirty to sixty days of the usual one-hundred-day season were lost.28 [ls?]
005 | Vol_XII-0813
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
A new dredge was built and operated for part of the season, so a part
of the decrease in other lines of work was made up for in this way." In
another part of the same report he describe s the towns of Solomon and
Dickson. "The mouth of the Solomon River affords as good a location
for a town as any other place in the immediate region, for boats can dis–
charge their freight from lighters on the beach and the broad gravel-floored
valley of Solomon River gives a good pathway into the interior. In con–
sequence, a town bearing the name of Solomon has sprung up there. In
1902 this place was made a post-office and at present has a semiweekly mail
service to and from Nome. Stores have been opened, at which supplies of
all kinds can be purchased. The town has been more or less deserted
lately, and probably not more than fifty people were living there during
1908. The only other town in the area is Dickson, which was named for T.
Warren Dickson, of New York. It is directly opposite Solomon, on the east
bank of the river. Dickson is the coastal terminus of the Council City and
Solomon River Railroad, and all of its industries and inhabita tn nt s are
connected with the railroad. Its entire population does not exceed 50
persons. This settlement was established in 1903."By 1905, Solomon was the base of all supplies for the
Solomon River country and had a population of 150, three stores,
four hotels, and "the usual quota of saloons." In the same period the
main offices of the railroad had been set up at Dickson, a town site
had been laid out, and several building s had been constructed in accordance
with it.In 1909 hydraulic mining was almost at a standstill because
of the dryness of the season, and only two ditches wee in operation, the
one from East Fork to Big Hurrah Creek, and the one from California to
Mystery Creek. Dredging was not affected by the shortage of water, but
was not carried on very far even so, and the Big Hurrah lode mine was shut27 [ls?]
006 | Vol_XII-0814
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
down except for a few months during the winter. Little sluicing was done
and only three hydraulic plants were in operation in 1913, but the dredging
season was fairly successful. Dredging was the only method in use during
1914, but W. H. Esterbrook, who had taken an option lease on the ground
and equipment of the Seward Dredging Company on the Solomon, installed a
200-horsepower Diesel in his new plant there, which cut fuel consumption
from between 42 and 50 to between 6 and 10 barrels of crude oil a day.
In 1919 four dredges were operat i ng in the Solomon area as opposed to the
five of 1918, but these were still working in 1920. The quartz vein at
Big Hurrah had, [ ?] by this time, been found to be the largest, most
regular, and most continuous of any on Seward Peninsula. This was explained by
S. H. Cathcart to be the result of the character of the country rock of
the Hurrah District, which was slate, rather than the limestone of most
of the peninsula. This slate, being extremely brittle, fractured easily
and broke along sharp,clean lines. However, despite the extent of this
lode deposit the Big Hurrah mine had been idle since 1908.Gold mining in Alaska has suffered a gradual decline (See Nome and
Bluff Region article s ) ever since the late 1930's and was brought to a
standstill by World War II, when gold was put on the unessential list.
Since that time because of the high cost of labor and supplies and the fixed
price of gold on the market, it has not paid the small producer to take the
metal out of the ground, and even such giant enterprises as the Juneau
mine have been forced to shut down. By 1946 the town of Dickson had
disapp a eared, probably as a result of the bana abandonment of the
Solomon to Council Council City and Solomon River Railroad, and Solomon
itself had a population of 106, one general store, and a fourth class
post office. The gold claims of the district were held by E. W. Quigley,
R. O. Robert, and Lee Brothers Dredging Co. However, the town does have28 [ls?]
007 | Vol_XII-0815
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
an Alaska Native Service School and a 5,200-foot landing strip. The
winter trail which skirts the southern shores of Seward Peninsula passes
through Solomon and sends one branch up the river and across the divide
to the Casadepaga, and another northeastward to Council. But Solomon
must now be thought of as a town in partial abeyance, waiting for the
future of Alaska gold mining to be decided — a future which at this writing
is anything but clear.6 [ls?]
008 | Vol_XII-0816
SOLOMON RIVER REGION
References
Tewkesbury
Colby
U.S.C.P. & Supplement
V.S.G.B.
Wickersham, James. ... Bibliography of Alaskan Literature. 1724-1924 Bibliography of Alaskan Literature. 1724-1924 .
ordova, Alaska, Cordova Daily Times Print (c1927)
(Alaska Agricultural College and School of Mines.
Miscellaneous Publication Miscellaneous Publication . Vol.1)Smith, Philip S. ... Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon
and Casadepaga Quadrangles. Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Solomon
and Casadepaga Quadrangles. Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Washingt n, D.C., G.P.O., 1910. (U.S. Geological Su vey.
Bulletin Bulletin 433)Collier, Arthur J., (an [ ?] others) ... Gold placers of parts of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska. Gold placers of parts of Seward
Peninsula, Alaska. (Washington, G.P.O., 1908. (U.S.
Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 328)U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletins Bulletins , 284, 3 4 5, 379, 442, 592, 622, 714, 722.
Washington, D.C., G.P.O., 1906-1922.U.S. Geological Survey. Water-Supply Paper Water-Supply Paper 314. Washington, D.C.,
G.P.O., 1913.Brooks, Alfred H. (and others) Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions. Alaska, in 1900 Reconnaissances in the Cape Nome and
Norton Bay Regions. Alaska, in 1900 . Washington, D.C.,
G.P.O., 1901.Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula, a book of information about
northwestern Alaska. Nome and Seward Peninsula, a book of information about
northwestern Alaska. Seattle, Wash., Metropolitan press,
c1905.Stiles, Bill. "Quartz Mining in Northwestern Alaska." In: ALASKA–
YUKON MAGAZINE, Vol.VII, No.6, March, 1909, PP.474-475.
001 | Vol_XII-0817
Ruby Collins
March, 1949 SPAFARIEF BAY, ALASKA
Text-400 words
SPAFARIEF BAY, an arm of Kotzebue Sound, indents the northern
shore of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Kotzebue named this bay in August, 18 [ ?] 6,
during a survey of Eschscholtz Bay, by way of which he hoped to discover the
northeast passage. It was more closely examined by Beechey. in September,
1826, who reported: "On the 8th, Spafarief Bay, which had been but little
explored by Captain Kotzebue, underwent a satisfactory ex a mination, and was
found to terminate in a small creek navigable a very short distance, and that
by boats only. Its whole extent inland is about three miles, when it separates
into a number of small branches communicating with several lakes, which, in
the spring, no doubt, discharge a large quantity of fre s h water into the sound,
though at this dry season of the year they were of inconsiderable size. A
little to the northward of the creek there is a pointed hill just 640 feet
high by measurement, from whence we surveyed the surrounding country, and found
that this side of the sound also was covered with a deep swampy moss. The
summit of this hill, and indeed of all the others that were ascended in the
sound, was the only part destitute of this covering."The beach was strewed with a great quantity of drift wood, some
of which was in a very perfect state, and appeared to have been recently split
with wedges by the natives, who had carried away large portions of the trunks
to make their bows, arrows, and fishing implements. They were all pine-trees
except one, which by the bark appeared to be a silver birch."Spafarief Bay lies between Cape Deceit, a few miles west of the
mouth of the Kiwalik River (q.v.) and Chamisso Island (q.v.), and leads directly
into Eschscholtz Bay. It is nowhere deeper than thirty feet and is fringed by
a shoal.A winter trail leads directly northward out of Kiwalik, at the
mouth of that river, across the bay to Kotzebue (q.v.), on Baldwin Peninsula.Except in the immediate vicinity of Ki w q alik, the bay is
002 | Vol_XII-0818
SPAEARIEF BAY, ALASKA
surrounded by steep banks of the coastal plain gravels which apparently
are laid down in a submerged valley and since raised to their present elevation.
The highest point on the eastern side of the bay reaches an elevation of
660 feet (Beechey to the contrary), but most of the banks are considerably
below this level.Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska.2 Geographic Dictionary of Alaska.2 d ed. Washington, 1906.
Beechey, F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ... in
the years 1825. 26. 27. 28. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait ... in
the years 1825. 26. 27. 28. London, 1831. 2v.Moffit, F.H. F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. F ia ai rhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington,
1905. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No. 247)U.S. Coast Pilot. Alaska. Pt.II. Alaska. Pt.II.
001 | Vol_XII-0819
Ruby Collins
[ ?] October, 1948 SPENCER, POINT, ALASKA
Revised: November, 1948
610 words Text
25 words Bio
SPENCER, POINT, ALASKA (65° 17′ N.Lat., 166° 50′ W.Long.), western
S [ ?] ward Peninsula, is the southern entrance point to Port Clarence, Bering
Sea. Point Spencer lies about twenty airline miles northwest of Cape
Douglas (q.v.), at the end of a tapering sand spit. This spit extends north–
westward from the mainland, but bends about midway slightly east of north,
thus forming the western side of Port Clarence. The base of the spit is
dotted with lakes, as is the slightly widened tip, just below the Point.Captain Frederick William Beechey gives a good description of the
Point: "The south e rn side of Port Clarence is a low diluvial formation,
covered with grass, and inter e sected by narrow channels and lakes; it
projects from a range of cliffs which appear to have been once upon
the coast, and sweeping round, terminates in a low shingly point (Point
Spencer). In one place this point is so narrow and low, that in a heavy gale
of wind, the sea must almost inundate it; to the northward, however, it
becomes wider and higher, and, by the remains of some yourts upon it, has
at one time been the residence of Esquimaux. Like the land just described, it
is interesected with lakes, some of which rise and fall with the tide, and
is covered, though scantily, with a coarse grass, elymus , among which we found
a species of artemesia, probably new. Near Point Spencer the beach has been
forced up by some extraordinary pressure into ridges, of which the outer
one, ten or twelve feet above the sea, is the highest. Upon and about these
ridges there is a great quantity of drift timber, but more on the inner side
of the point than the outer. Some has been deposited upon the point before
the ridges of sand were formed, and is now mouldering away with the effect of
time, while other logs are less decayed, and that which is lodged on the
outer part is in good preservation, and serves the natives for bows and fishing
staves."
002 | Vol_XII-0820
SPENCER, POINT, ALASKA
On the Bering Sea side of the Spit there is a wide shoal which
extends s ou thward past Cape Douglas and Cape Woolley to Cape Rodney (q.v.).
However, this shoal is widest southwest of Point Spencer, where there is
also a ledge with a reported least depth of one and three-quarter fathom,
so that, when approaching from this direction, deep water vessels must give
the point a berth of at least five miles.The entrance to Port Clarence, between Point Spencer and Point Jackson
on the north shore, is about four or five miles wide, and is clear of all
dangers. Depths in the entrance run between twenty-eight and thirty-six
feet. There is a sheltered anchorage just inside Point Spencer, but south
of this point, a shoal makes into the bay with depths of only fifteen feet
a mile off from the spit.Point Spencer itself is bold, with d p e pths up to forty-two feet as close
as one-quarter of a mile, and it is marked by a light from August 1 to
November 1. Although this light is shown from a white wooden house about
fifteen feet above the water, several poles at Point Spencer are more con–
spicuous than the light in the daytime.Point Spencer was named by Beechey in September, 1827, "in compliment
to the Honourable Captain Robert Spencer," of the Royal Navy. With his usual
modesty, Beechey remarks: "As we receded from Point Spencer, the difficulty
of distinguishing it even at a short distance accounted for this excellent
port [ Port Clarence ] having been overlooked by Cook, who anchored within
a very few miles of its entrance."Sources:
USCP; Baker; VSGB; C&GS Chart 9302; Aeronautical Chart 76
Beechey, Capt. F.W. Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...
in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28
Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait...
in the Years 1825, 26, 27, 28 . London, 1831. Vol.II.
001 | Vol_XII-0821
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA
1,080 words
SQUIRREL RIVER, in northwestern Alaska, is one of the chief
northern tributaries to the Kobuk (q.v.), one of the largest waterways in
this part of the Territory.The Squirrel rises in the divide between its watershed and that
of the Noatak (q.v.), and drains an the area between the western end of the Baird Mount
Mountains and Hotham Inlet. It receives its largest t ri butaries from the Baird
Mountains, and on the north, and flows in a generally southwesterly direction
to the Kobuk, entering that river about sixty-eight miles upstream from
Hotham Inlet.Travelling downstream, the important northern tributaries are
Omanha, Timber, Klery, Central, and Canyon Creeks. Timber Creek is joined
by Spruce and Cross Creeks; Klery by Snyder, Gold Run, Crooked, Martin, Rocky,
Jack, Bear, Boldrin, and Peluk Creeks; and Canyon by the waters of Jay, Otter,
and Mink Creeks.The Squirrel-Noatak divide is hardly over 1,000 feet high, but
the mountains in which the major tributaries to the Squirrel rise reach
elevations of three or four thousand feet. On the highest peaks rocks weathered
to fantastic shapes are the prominent landmarks for the surrounding country
side. The mountains to the south of the early course of the river are only
about one thousand feet in height at the greatest, but the short chain [ ?]
bordering the southern end of the river contains 2,675-foot Deviation Peak and
another unnamed point 2,800 feet high.The entire course of this river is above the Arctic Circle
so that the open season is limited to only about two months of every year.
Because Kotzebue Sound is extremely shallow and somewhat protected from the
main movement of the pack northward in the spring, it is not open to naviga–
tion until sometime in July. By the middle of September the rivers are
already frozen again. Because of the considerable elevation of the terrain
002 | Vol_XII-0822
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA
surrounding much of the Squirrel River system, ice begins to form on the sides
of the stream as early as mid-August and the surrounding mountains are covered
with snow far down their sides slopes. (For a more detailed description
of the climatology of this part of Alaska, see Kobuk River article.)
Vegetation & A fringe of dark green spruce, perhaps one hundred yards in
Game width, edges the larger streams in the Squirrel River system.
All timber in this area is more or less stunted, the spruce. averaging about
one foot in diameter and tapering rapidly at the top. There is a much
smaller growth of birch along the Squirrel than is found on the Kobuk, but
the willow and alder, which grow by the smaller streams, are useful for fuel.
Much of the Squirrel basin is treeless, the only vegetation being mosses and a kind of
heavy rank grass. and mosses Even during the summertime this grass is not an
ideal fodder for pack animals, since [ ?] it con–
tains a large percentage of water and relatively little nourishment. This
grass wilts at once and looses all its usefulness at the slightest touch of
frost.Smith, writing in 1909, remarks that there was very little game
in the vicinity of the diggings on Timber, Klery, Central, and Canyon Creeks.
He suspected, however, that bear and caribou might be found in the more remote
parts of the upper Squirrel system. On the other hand, ptarmigan and water
birds were abundant near the mines, although they proved so wary as to be
unreliable as an exclusive source of food. Salmon swarmed in the lower
channels and branches of the Squirrel and great numbers of grayling were
usually available in the smaller streams.Mining During the 1909 season, the U.S. Geological Survey visi [ ?] ed
the Squirrel River region. Although gold had by that time
been found on eight or ten tributaries to the main river, work was then in
progress only on Klery Creek. About fifty men had located in the area,
003 | Vol_XII-0823
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA
of which one-third or more were on one claim. In his 1909 report, Smith
warned that capital had not yet taken hold in the region, that there was
little opportunity to work for wages, and that most of the camps were run
on a partnership basis. Until such time as a well-financed company entered
the d istrict, making it possible to spend a few unproductive seasons in pre–
paring the ground, Smith did not feel that there was much hope for the Squirrel
River mining ventures.Klery Creek, Smith pointed out, exemplified the unjustness of
the existing staking regulations. Of the sixty-four claims above, and the twenty
below Discovery Claim on that stream, work had been done on only about ten
locations. As had already been demonstrated at Nome and repeatedly throughout
the Territory, this system of absentee claim staking with no requirements
concerning the working of the ground, could close an entire area to all new–
comers while the original claimants waited for one of their own group to risk
the time and money developing his section of the field.In his summary of the Squirrel River prospects, Smith points
out that the rigor of region and the climate and the shortness of the working season
militate against the development of a large camp anywhere along the river,
just as it discouraged the stampeding of a large group of incompetents to the
district. On the other hand, he indicated that the similarity of the already
existing placers to those in the more productive parts of Seward Peninsula,
pointed to a possibl e bright future for the Squirrel district. This hope
would have been considera b ly strengthened had any rich lode deposits been
found there, so that there might have been some hope of continuous mining
the year around.As late as 1944, the difficulty of transporting men and
equipment to the Squirrel region and getting to work within the short span
of one season was still hindering the development of the area. Recent reports,
004 | Vol_XII-0824
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA
however, speak of a well-equipped and well-informed group of young men
entering the region during the summer of 1947 and succeeding in beginning
to mine on Klery Creek within a few weeks of their arrival there. Much of
their supplies and machinery was brought in by air. This may be the first
turn in the tide of mining prospects for the entire district.Kiana, a short distance above the junction of the Squirrel
and the Kobuk, is the only settlement nearby. Kiana has two landing strips
and is the supply and transfer point for all the mining camps on the
Squirrel.
005 | Vol_XII-0825
SQUIRREL RIVER, ALASKA
References
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska. Washington, 1906. 2d ed.
Smith, P.S. Squirrel River Placers Squirrel River Placers . (Brooks, A.H., and others. Mineral
Resources of Alaska....1910. Mineral
Resources of Alaska....1910. Washington, 1911. pp.306-319)Stewart, R.L. Prospecting in Alaska. Prospecting in Alaska. Juneau, Alaska, 1944.
001 | Vol_XII-0826
Ruby Collins
August, 1948
300 wds
STUART ISLAND
15wds-Bibl
STUART ISLAND, Norton Sound, less than a mile off the
west coast of Alaska, is separated from the mainland by Stephens Pass.
The Island is about 10 miles from east to west, and about 5 miles from
north to south. On September 18, 1778, Captain James Cook returned to
this section of Ala the Alaskan coast in an attempt to follow it south–
ward from Norton Bay, but the shoals of Stephens Pass deterred him.
Later he learned that these shoals continued down the coast for
hundreds of miles, and he changed his course and sailed for Unalaska.
He writes in part: "The land in this place was moderately high, the
westernmost point (Stuart Island) making in a bluff. At one half
past ten, the Resolution hailed the Discovery to take the lead, and make
for an opening (Stephens Pass) between the mainland and the island which
was called Stewart's Island, and our boats were sent ahead to sound;
but some time after, they made the signal of 4 and 3 fathoms and a
half and consequently we hawled our wind to the westward."The shores of Stuart Island are irregular. The north
shore from North Point to Observation Point and down to Stephens Pass
is one continuous bluff about 170 feet high, but the southern and western
shores are considerably lower. Stuart Mountain in the northeastern part
of the island is 483 feet high and there is one other 265-foot hill in
the northwestern section. Most maps show the island cut in half from
north to south by a tidal slough. A line of detached rocks extends
from the western tip of the island and the shoals which discouraged
Captain Cook still extend about 3 miles off the southeastern point
toward Stephens Pass. Recent maps show no settlements of any kind on
the island.25 [ls?]
Sources:
USCP: VSGB: Cook, Capt. James. Authentic Narrative of a Voyage per- Authentic Narrative of a Voyage per-
formed by Capt. Cook and Capt. Clerke in His Majesty's Ships Resolution and formed by Capt. Cook and Capt. Clerke in His Majesty's Ships Resolution and
Discovery during the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 Discovery during the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, 1779, and 1780 . Lond. Robinson 1782. 2v. (V.2)
001 | Vol_XII-0827
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 TALIKOOT, ALASKA
25 wds
TALIKOOT (67° 06′ N. Lat., 163° 34′ W.Long.) is a small Eskimo
village a few miles south of Cape Krusenstern, the northern entrance point to
Kotzebue Sound, northwestern Alaska.
001 | Vol_XII-0828
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 CAPE THOMPSON, ALASKA
220 wds
THOMPSON, CAPE (68° 08′ N.Lat., 166° 02′ W.Long.), north–
western Alaska, projects into the Polar Sea a few miles southeast of Point
Hope (q.v.).Beechey, the famous British explorer, named this cape in
August of 1826 "after Mr. Deas Thomson, one of the Commissioners of the Navy."
Although the name appears as "Thomson" in the text, Beechey spelled it
"Thompson" on his map, and it has been recorded as such ever since.Cape Thompson, like its neighbor to the south, Cape Seppings,
is not distinct, making it difficult to decide to which exact point the name
should be applied. In the vicinity of the Cape for a distance of six of more
miles, the mountains drop abruptly into the water in a series of cliffs about
five hundred feet high. A rugged mountain face about midway of this series
of cliffs is probably Cape Thompson. From the small stream in the ravine
just south of this point fresh water may be obtained, and directly off this
watering place is an anchorage in thirty feet with sandy bottom. At almost
all other points along this line of cliffs, the bottom is rocky.The mountains forming Cape Thompson continue northward to
Cape Lisburne, while the coast itself curves westward and northwestward to
Point Hope.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0829
Ruby Collins
5 May 48 TIKCHIK LAKES, ALASKA
THE TIKCHIK LAKES, southeastern Alaska, form a chain of
12 small lakes, which extends north and south along or slightly to
the east of 159° W. Long. between 60° 30′ and 59° 18′ N. Lat. The
long a xis of these lakes runs east and west or, as in a few cases,
slightly southeast-northwest, and the lakes lie almost directly under
each other starting with the most northerly, Nishlik Lake, and con–
tinuing [ ?] southward to Lake Nunavaugaluk. The major tributaries
to these lakes, excluding the rivers which connect them with each
other, rise in the Kilbuck Mountains which extend north and south
just west of the lakes. These mountains form the western divide for
the Nushagak River system to which the Tikchik Lakes contribute by way
of the rivers which rise in them and flow eastward to the Nushagak
or its tributaries.Nishlik Lake, the most northerly and one of the smallest
of the Tikchik Lakes, is 6 or 7 miles long by 1 to 2 miles wide. It
is fed by streams from the Kilbuck Mountains and is the source of
the Tikchik River which drains from the southeastern end of the lake.Upunuk Lake, a few miles south of Nishlike Lake, is the
second most northerly of the Tikchik Lakes. It is about 9 miles in
its greatest length by 5 miles in its greatest width, and is also fed
by streams from the Kilbuck Mountains. A small unnamed stream
drains from the eastern end of this lake and joins the Tikchik River
about 7 miles east of Upunuk Lake.Chikuminuk Lake, next in line to the south, is irregular in
shape. It is about 15 miles long by 13 miles wide at the greatest
points. The longer of two northern arms of the lake reaches to
within 1 or 2 miles of the south shore of Upunuk Lake. Chikuminuk 25 [ls?]
003 | Vol_XII-0830
TIKCHIK LAKES
river and its tributaries connect Nishlik and Upunuk Lakes with
Tikchik Lake, which in turn is connected with Nuyakuk, Chauekuktuli,
and Chikuminuk Lakes. A few minor streams and creeks flow into
Tikchik River from the small lakes to the east and west of its
southerly, 40-mile course. About 15 miles from its head the Tikchik
passes through Tikchik Canyon, and the last few miles of its course
pass to the westward of a 2760-foot height called Tikchik Mountain.Tikchik Lake is about 9 miles long by 4 miles wide at the
greatest points. Its only settlement according to recent maps is
Kaskanak on the north shore of the head of the Nuyakuk River. Schanz
reported this lake under its present name in 1890. Baker noted, in
1906, that the older name was Nushagak Lake, although it has appeared
consistently as Tikchik Lake on recent maps. There would appear to
be a confusion, as well, as to the name of the river which drains from
the eastern end of the lake. Early sources call this the Tikchik
River, but it now generally referred to as the Nuyakuk.Lake Kulik, the eighth most southerly of the Tikchik Lakes,
is about 17 miles long by 2 miles wide at the greatest Ppoints
A short stretch of falls and rapids connects it with Grant Lake. [ ?]
small lake to the Northeast. Northeast of Grant Lake is Agenuk Moun–
tain, a prominent elevation in this part of the Nushagak Basin.Lake Kulik is fed by streams flowing from the Kilbuck Mountains and
from Eagle Mountain which separates it from Nuyakuk Lake. Rapids
connect Lake Kulik with tiny Mikshalk Lake, to the south, which is
itself connected with Lake Beverly by Peace River. Lake Kulik has
been variously reported. Tikhmenief called it Kullik, in 1861, and
Raymond, in 1869, recorded it as Lake Koulakh.27 ls
004 | Vol_XII-0831
TIKCHIK LAKES
Lake Beverly, the next most southerly of the Tikchik Lakes,
lies northwest-southeast across 158° 40′ W. Long. It is about 15
miles long and about 5 miles wide at the greatest points. The western
end is divided into Golden Horn and Silver Horn. These extensions
are about 6 and 3 miles long respectively. Golden Horn is fed by a
stream flowing from a small lake in Rainbow Basin southeast of Mt.
Waskey in the Kilbuck Mountains. Silver Horn receives several
small streams rising in Akulu k tok Mountain which separates this
part of Lake Beverly from Lake Nerka, the next Tikchik Lake to the
south. Lake Beverly is fed all along its northern shore by streams
rising in the highlands which separate it from Lake Kulik and by
streams and creeks draining from the system of small lakes which lies
east of these highlands. A short sketch of rapids called Agulukpak R iver drain s from the
southeastern end of Lake Beverly, connect ing it with Lake Nerka, which,
at this point, lies only about a mile s to the south.The two eastern extensions of Lake Nerka are separated by
a broad peninsula, 5 to 6 miles wide, on which stand the Prog
Moutains. Lynx Lake, sends which lies at the foot of these moun–
tains, sends a small tributary into the southern arm of Lake Nerka.
Anvil Bay reaches a few miles into the northern side of the penin–
sula. Elbow Point, at the tip of the peninsula, lies on the main
body of Lake Nerka Lake which is about 3 miles square. The northwestern
end of the lake again divides into two parts, one called Amukuk Arm,
the other and more southerly called Little Togiak Lake. Between
these lies Lake Elva which sends a tributary into the main body
of the lake. The general shape of Lake Nerka resembles a wishbone
with the prongs extending eastward. The lake is fed by streams
rising in the Kilbuck Mountains and in the highlands which separate 27 ls
005 | Vol_XII-0832
TIKCHIK LAKES
Nerka from the other Tikchik Lake. Lake Bumyok Ridge which
extends into the southeastern arm of Nerka is bounded on the south
by River Bay. From Jack Knife Mountain, which separates this part
of Lake Nerka from Lake Aleknagik, several streams flow into
Fenno Creek, a tributary to River Bay. The Agulowak River connects
this bay with Lake Aleknagik, about 3 miles to the south.Lake Aleknagik extends northwest-southeast for about
24 miles and is about 3 miles wide at the greatest point. It re–
ceives several streams from Sunshine Valley, to the northwest,
Youth and Ice Creeks from the south, and feeds Wood River (q.v.),
which drains from the extreme eastern end of the lake southeast ward
into Nushagak Bay (q.v.). Marsh Mountain and the Muklung Hills,
prominent features of this part of the Nushagak Basin, lie north–
east of the Lake Aleknagik. Many variants of the name Aleknagik
have been recorded since it first appeared in Sarichef's atlas of
1826. This would appear to be the same lake which Sheldon Jackson
called Abaknakik and described as dotted with pine-covered islands.
Aleknagik, at the head of Wood River, is a fast-growing settlement
with a reported population of 78, in 1939, during which same year
a new Territorial school was built. The village has a church,
general store, logging camp, and sawmill. Mail is delivered from
Dillingham all months of the year except October.Lake Nunavaugaluk, the most southerly of the twelve
Tikchik Lakes, is about 14 miles long on its northwest-southeast
axis and about 4 miles wide at the greatest point. Lake Nunavaugaluk
is fed by streams and creeks rising in the foothills of the Kil–
buck Mountains which surround it on all sides. A map, dated
January, 1947, indicates two cabins on the lake, one on each side
of the head of Snake River, which drains from its southeastern end. 28 ls
006 | Vol_XII-0833
TIKCHIK LAKES
Although marked by rapids at its head, the Snake River later takes
a tortuous, meandering course, repeatedly reversing direction, to
empty into Nushagak Bay. Near its head it receives Otter Creek, and
about 8 miles from its mouth it is joined by the Weary River which
is also marked with sloughs and meanders. The channel leading to
the mouth of the Wood River is only 8 feet deep at high water and is
therefore unnavigable to any except the smallest fishing boats.
Since it rises in a lake, however, the Snake is an acceptable spawning ground for the ned salmon and as such is important to the
red salmon canneries which operate in Nushagak and all other arms of
Bristol Bay from mid-June to late July. The Snake River catch
is taken to the canning centers of Nushagak, Dillingham, and Snag
Point near the head of Nushagak Bay.All the Tikchik Lakes contribute to the success of the
salmon industry in this part of Alaska, since the red salmon chooses
for a habitat only those river systems which contain lakes.The six most northerly Tikchik Lakes: Nishlik Upunuk, Chi k m uninuk,
Chauekuktuli, Nuyakuk, and Tikchik, for m a lake system which
feeds the Nuyakuk River, one of the chief tributaries to the
Nushagak, the largest river in the area. The next five Tikchik
Lakes: Grant, Kulik, Beverly, Nerka, and Aleknagik, fee d the
Wood River, third largest tributary to Nushagak Bay, and also very
important to the salmon industry. Nunavaugaluk, the last Tikchik
Lake, gives rise to the Snake River, which, although it is not navi–
gable to cannery vessels, plays its own part in the industry, as
we have already seen.24 ls
001 | Vol_XII-0834
Ruby Collins
May, 1949 TIKIZAT, ALASKA
80 wds
TIKIZAT, on the coast of the Polar Sea, northwestern Alaska,
is an Eskimo village a f ew miles north of Cape Krusenstern, the northern
entrance point to Kotzebue Sound.According to Pe t rof this settlement had a population of seventy–
five or more in 1880, but, since it does not appear on the [ ?] 1939 Census,
it would seem to have decreased in size since that time.The long winter trail which connects this part of Alaska with
Kotzebue and Seward Peninsula, to the south, and with other coastal settlements,
to the north, passes through Tikizat.
002 | Vol_XII-0835
TIKCHIK LAKES
is fed by streams flowing down from the Kilbuck Mountains and is
the source of the Allen River which joins the southeastenrn end of
this lake with Lake Chauekuktuli [ ?] immediately to the south. The
Allen River is 7 or 8 miles long and is interrupted by rapids all
along its course. The Kilbuck Mountains just westward of these two
lakes reach heights of 4800 feet., and Tthe territory between the lakes is
also mountainous. Ongutvak Mountain lies just northwest of the
point at which the Allen River enters Lake Chauekuktuli, the fourth
Tikchik Lake.Chauekuktuli is a long, narrow, bow-shaped lake about
20 miles long by 1 to 2 miles wide. It is fed from the north by
Allen River, and by streams flowing from the Kilbuck Mountains to the
west and from the highlands to the north and south. The extreme
western end of Lake Chauekuktuli is called Shadow Bay which fills a
narrow valley bounded on the south by Konarut Mountain. The Red
Hills separate th e i s end of the lake from Portage Arm, an extension of
Nuyakuk Lake, the next of the Tikchik Lakes. Mirrow Bay, a south–
western arm of Nuyakuk Lake is separated from Portage Arm by a
group of peaks from which several small streams flow into both branches
of Nuyakuk Lake. This, the fifth and perhaps the largest of the Tik–
chik Lakes, is about 21 miles long by 5 miles wide at the greatest
points. At its southeastern end a narrow channel connects Nuyakuk
with Tikchik Lake, headwaters for the Nuyakuk River (q.v.), one of the major
tributaries to the Nushagak (q.v.).Since it is east of Nuyakuk, Tikchik Lake does not cross
159° W. Long., but rather lies just south of 60° N. Lat. across 158° 20′
W. Lat. Tikchik Lake is fed from the north by Tikchik River. This
river should not be confused with the one formerly called the Tikchik,
but new known generally as the Nuyakuk which drains from the eastern25 ls
001 | Vol_XII-0836
Ruby Collins
February, 1949 TIN CITY, ALASKA
160 wds-Text
25 wds-BiblTIN CITY, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska (65° 34′ N. Lat.,
167° 54′ W. Long.), is a small mining community at the mouth of Cape Creek on
south side of Cape Prince of Wales.Like York (q.v.), Tin City has grown and shrunk with the uncertain
fortunes of the tin mine r s of the York region. (For a general description of
the Alaska tin industry see York Mountains article.) From time to time tin mills
of varying sizes have been set up in Tin City, but they were all idle at the
time of this writing, (1949).The post office established here in 1905 was later closed.
Teller is now the nearest post office, and, between November 1 and May 31 Tin
City receives mail once a month. During the season of navigation, June 1 to
October 31, mail is brought to the mail boat stops at Teller twice a month.Despite the great hopes for this mining settlement early in
the century , it dwindled so considerably in later years that it was not reported
separately in the 1939 U.S. Census.
002 | Vol_XII-0837
TIN CITY, ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brooks, A.H. Reconnaissance Map of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington Reconnaissance Map of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Washington .
1913. (U.S. Geological Survey. Water Supply Paper Water Supply Paper No.314)Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Post Route Map of Alaska. June 1, 1947.Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska and Alaska Business Index . Juneau, Alaska, 1947.
VS Guidebook for Alaska.
001 | Vol_XII-0838
Ruby Collins
26 May 48 TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA
800 wds
TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA, a northwestern arm of Bristol Bay, has
been called Tugiak or Togaik Bay, and was first named by Tebenkof in
1849. Togiak Bay indents a section of Alaska coast between Cape
Constantine, Nushagak Peninsula, and Cape Newenham, which has never
been surveyed, but shoal water is reported to exist throughout the bay.
Between the two entrance points, Right Hand Point on the east and Tongue
Point on the west, the bay is about 30 miles wide. It extends about
14 miles in a northeasterly direction to its head where the native
settlement of Togiak lies at the mouth of the Togiak River. This village
had a population of 70 in 1936 and an Eskimo school maintained by the Office
of Indian Affairs. In 1880 Petrof reported two villages in this
vicinity: Togiak on the eastern side of the bay, and Togiagamute,
Togiak People , at the head of the bay. Recent maps show only Togiak
on the eastern side of the mouth of the Togiak River, although the 1939
Census reported a population of only 10 for this settlement, and a
population of 46 for another called Togiak Bay. Togiak is on the long
winter trail which connects points on Lake Clark, Iliamna Lake, the Alaska
Peninsula, and Nushagak Bay with Goodnews and other settlements to the
west.In addition to its main tributary, Togiak River, the bay
receives several smaller streams rising in the lakes which dot the
tundra country east and west of the bay, and from in the mountains
which flank both sides of Togiak Basin.The eastern entrance to Togiak Bay is partially blocked
by the Walrus Islands which are comprised of three islands and three
rocks, all above water, and extending about 16 miles east and west
and 8 or 9 miles north and south. Round Island, the most easterly of
002 | Vol_XII-0839
TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA
this group, is a little under 2 miles long and 1 mile wide. Crooked
Island lies about 9 miles northwestward from Round Island and is about
6 miles long by 2 miles wide at the greatest points. High Island, a few
miles northwestward from Crooked Island, is only about 4 miles long and
2 miles wide. Two isolated rocks, The Twins, lie south of Crooked
Island, and Black Rock lies northeast of T he Twins. The Walrus
Islands rise to heights of 100 to 900 feet and are partially surrounded
by bluffs similar to those along the eastern side of Togiak Bay. Summit
Island lies only a few miles south of a small peninsula just below
Owens on the eastern side of Togiak Bay. Westward from the Walrus Islands
is mountainous Hagemeister Island which partially obstructs the western
entrance to the bay. Depths of these island run from 36 to 48 feet,
with ever-decreasing depths down to 6 feet and ever-increasing shoals
as one approaches the head of Togiak Bay.Hagemeister Island lies extends northeast-southwest a few miles south–
ward from Tongue Point. The Russians named this island after Capt.
Leontius Vasilevich Hagemeister who, between 1816 and 1830, made three
voyages to the Russian American Colonies and around the world in
the Neva , the Kutuzof , and the Krotkoi . The island is about 20 miles
long by 8 miles wide at [ ?] the greatest points and is separated from
the mainland by Hagemeister Strait. The southwestern and central sections
of the island are dotted with highlands from which flow several small
streams. Shoal water surrounds this island extending northeastward into
Togiak Bay and westward Shaiak Island, a tiny islet covering
less than one square mile s in the southern entrance to Hagemeister
Strait. In 1826 Sarichef called this Morzhevoi, walrus , Island
but it is now generally known as Shaiak.Hagemeister Strait varies from about 4 to 9 miles in width 26
003 | Vol_XII-0840
TOGIAK BAY, ALASKA [ ?]
and is constricted at its southern entrance by shoals and at its
northern entrace entrance by Tongue Point. The Albatross , a U.S. Bureau of Fisheries
steamer, found good anchorage under Tongue Point and depths up to 18
feet a few miles south of Hagemeister Island. Because of the narrow
entrance to both ends of the strait, tidal currents are very strong in
the channel. Several small streams flow into Hagemeister Strait from
the lake-and highland-dotted tundra of the mainland. peninsula which
separates this northwestern reach of Bristol Bay from Kuskokwin Bay (q.v.).
Cape Peirce, the southwestern entrance point to Hagemeister Strait,
lies a few miles south of the mouth of the Slug River which enters
Bristol Bay about 14 miles eastward from Cape Newenham.
Unpaginated | Vol_XII-0841
Ruby Collins
26 May 48 TOGIAK LAKE, ALASKA
300 wds
TOGIAK LAKE, southern Alaska, lies in a narrow valley in the
foothills of the Kilbuck Mountains about midway between 59° and 60°
N. Lat. and 159° and 160° W. Long. The mountains which surround the
lake rise to about 2,000 feet. Many small streams flow from these
mountains and the valleys between them into all sides of Togiak lake.
The main body of the lake is about 11 miles long by 2 to 3 miles wide,
but numerous small inlets reach away from the lake into other mountain
valleys.Togiak River drains from the southern end of Togiak Lake and
follows the ever-widening valley in a generally southwesterly direction
for about 45 miles to the head of Togiak Bay. A few miles below its head
the Togiak swings westward across the valley, but after about 10 miles,
veers southwestward again. Just above this turn lies Kashiagamut, a
native settlement with a population of 33 in 1939. About 10 miles
below the turn lies Gechiagam i ut and about 2 miles farther south is
Ekilik. These three Eskimo villages are all on the west side of the
river. Beginning with at a point between Gechiagam i ut and Ekilik
the Togiak follows two channels which are separated in one place by
about 4 miles of tundra, but , about 5 miles from the mouth , the two
courses veer toward each other so that they enter the head of Togiak
Bay at almost the same point. The Eskimo settlement, Togiak, lies
on the mouth of the more easterly branch of the river.The name Togiak as applied in this part of southern Alaska
first appeared in Sarichef's atlas of 1826. Tebenkof recorded this
name for the lake, the river, the town, and the bay in 1849 although
he used the spelling Tugiak. It is now standardized as Togiak.25
001 | Vol_XII-0842
Ruby Collins
August, 1948
1,752 wds
UNALAKLEET AREA
25 wds bibl
The Unalakleet Area, western Alaska, bordering the eastern
end of Norton Sound, will be considered to extend from Healy, the
small mainland village across St. Michael Bay from St. Michael,
northward to Cape Denbigh, the southern entrance point to Norton Bay.A marsh , which extends 5 to 10 miles inland , surrounds Healy.
On the southwestern fringes of this marsh Crater Mountain rises to
633 feet, and south from the southeast ern edge of the marsh about
8 miles inland from Healy, The Sisters, 1 , 327, 1 , 371, and 1 , 595 feet
high respectively, look down upon the marsh. The coastline continues
eastward for about 13 miles to Kiktaguk. The marsh also extends along
this section of the shoreline but is stopped south of Kiktaguk by a
320-foot hill and by Toik Hill, 520 feet high, southeast of the town.
Kiktaguk is on a small narrow spit which forms the western side of Kiktaguk
Bay, a small, shallow extension of Norton Sound with an entrance
opening northward. The 1,298-foot elevation southeast of the bay
extends northward into rolling hills which follow the coastline around
to the northeast and which then sink into marshes in the vicinity of Golsovia,
Black Point, and Tolstoi Point, about 11 and 15 miles (airline) northeast
of Kiktaguk. Moderate highlands sweep back to the shoreline again
above Tolstoi Point for the 8 miles to Cascade Creek, after which there is
comes another stretch of marshland. This marsh reaches to and beyond
Unalakleet, at the mouth of the river by the same name , about 8 miles
north of Cascade Creek.This entire stretch of coastline from Healy to Unalakleet
and beyond is bordered by 1 to 2 miles of extremely shoal water
nowhere exceeding 18 feet, and by a secondary shoal extending offshore. 25 ls
002 | Vol_XII-0843
UNALAKLEET AREA
sometimes 4 miles of 30 feet or less which sometimes extends as
far as 4 miles offshore. Depths decrease with remarkable regularity
throughout this vicinity so that dangers are never come upon suddenly
although the extreme shallowness of the coastwise waters makes it
impossible for ocean-going vessels to take shelter anywhere near
this shore. Although there are no outlying dangers, a reef extends
about 1/2 mile from the shore a few miles south of Black Point and
shoal waters extend 1 1/2 miles out from the mouth of the Unalakleet
River. Only light draft vessels can make their way through these
shoals.Unalakleet, the pivotal native settlement in this region,
is a fishing, trapping, and reindeer-herding settlement, village which had
a population of 329 in 1939. The estimated 1948 population of too jumped to 1200 during the summer's fishing season. That particular summer was also an especially fine one for growing vegetables, so that the many visitors and transients in the village enjoyed an abundance of fresh food. Unalakleet The town lies is the site of a Swedish
Luther an convent church and its affiliated Children's Home, which
was completed in December, 1947. The new orphanage was dedicated as
a "shelter for the homeless and sanctuary for those who may have no
father or mother." The 40x60-foot building has a concrete basement
equipped with a laundry and a steam furnace, an assembly room, class–
rooms, and staff quarters on the first floor, rooms for the children
on the second floor, and expansion room in the attic. Unalakleet
also has an Alaska Native Service School which had a 1947 enrollment
of 132 pupils and an attendant U.S. Government nurse. The town also
has two general stores, a license d fur-dealer, a roadhouse,
several r e indeer corrals, and commercial truck gardens. In 1942,
about ten white owners reported reindeer herds ranging in size from
250 to 15,000 head and totaling over 32,000 head. All these owners
lived in Unalakleet and grazed their herds in the neighboring vicinity.
There is a telephone connection with Nulato and radio-telegraph 27 ls
003 | Vol_XII-0844
UNALAKLEET AREA
connection with Nome. The landing field has runways 250x150 feet
and 200x1500 feet. Both wheel and float landings can be made at
Unalakleet in the summer. The village was established by the
Russians after an epidemic almost wiped out the old settlement of
Unalakleet which lay just across the river from the present site
of the town. Part of the old blockhouse which the Russians built
at that time is still standing.In mid-1947 it was reported that the people of Unalakleet,
all most of whom are Eskimos, had obtained a Government loan with which
they had established a cooperative store. They were hoping at that
time to build a cannery, sawmill, a housing development, and a
recreation center. They also hoped to start mining the coal which
is locally available. A cannery would make it possible for them to
preserve garden produce and fish by other methods than drying, and
the sawmill and coal mine would help to relieve the accute fuel
shortage which now inconveniences them. Recent maps show a coal mine
a few miles south of the town.The Unalakleet River, which is famous for its salmon and
trout, rises in the divide which separates the rivers of this part
of Alaska from the Yukon River system. It flows for about 50 miles
in a generally southwesterly direction directly into Norton Sound.
Small boats can navi [ ?] te a considerable distance up-river and there is
a winter trail which connects all points on the Unalakleet with
Kaltag on the Yukon. The head of boat navigation on the Unalakleet
is about 30 miles from Kaltag. Although there are no settlements
on the river other than its namesake at the mouth, there are several
shelter cabins along the stream with intriguing names. Traveling
down river these are: Twenty-Two Mile Shelter Cabin; Ten Mile Cabin; 26 ls
004 | Vol_XII-0845
UNALAKLEET AREA
Old Woman Cabin; and Whaleback Cabin.The long winter trail, which borders skirts Norton Sound from
Scammon Bay northward, continues on north of Unalakleet past
Iguik Roadhouse, Egavik, Foothills Roadhouse, and Shaktolik , at the
mouth of the Shaktolik River. Egavik and Shaktolik, with populations
of 23 and 128 respectively, are the only towns in this group to be
reported in the 1939 Census.The Shaktolik River rises northeast of Christmas Mountain,
swings westward, then southwestward, and finally almost directly
westward to flow into Norton Sound, about 36 miles north of the mouth
of the Unalakleet River. A low divide separates the headwaters of
the Shaktolik from those of the [ ?] Gisasa, a tributary to the
Koyukuk. In the early 1940's three white owners reported herds of
reindeer totalling over 26,000 head in the ranges surrounding the
headwaters of the Shaktolik. Two more herds totalling close to
16,000 head were reported during the same year near Egavik.Above Shaktolik the coastline curves northwestward and
then westward with many irregularities around to Cape Denbigh which
continues the curve and extends southwestward into Norton Sound.
This cape is a fairly high rounded hill which is joined to the
mainland by a low narrow neck of land. There is good anchorage
eastward of the cape. Captain James Cook was one of the first
white men to realize that this point of land was not an island.
He wrote: "At eight [on September 11, 1778] the south end of the land we anchored under
last night (which was generaly taken for an island, but which we
now found was joined to the main by a ne c k of low land) bore N.45 1/2
deg. W...Th [ ?] s, which made in a bluff cape, was called Cape Denbigh." 25 ls
005 | Vol_XII-0846
UNALAKLEET AREA
The next day Cook sailed southward from Cape Denbigh and anchored
off the mouth of the Shaktolik River. As we have seen, the hills
alternately approach and retreat from this stretch of the shores
of Norton Sound. Cook writes: "The land at the bottom of the bay was
in some parts composed of very low land, in others it was of a con–
siderable elevation; the whole has assumed a brown hue, occasioned by
the plants, &c. which, at this season of the year, were decaying very
fast. At two in the afternoon, boats well manned were sent on shore,
for the purpose of cutting wood, of which we saw great plenty upon the
beach. The sides of the hills, which were of a very gradual ascent,
were well clothed with birch and willows, but they were small in size;
among these were great numbers of red and black currant trees, with
plenty of fruit. The higher parts and summits of the hills were almost
entirely covered with crow and whortle-berries, which afforded a most
pleasing and salutary repast to everyone on board. Upon different parts
of the beach, under the hills, were several huts, but in a very ruinous
condition; from their appearace, we supposed them to be erected merely
for the temporary employment of fishing: they were built of drift-wood;
the roofs, which were almost flat, with a hole in the middle for the
evacuation of smoke, were supported by four stout posts ... The
entrances to them all were sheltered from the S.E. winds, and, upon that
part of the shore which was exposed to it, there were no huts, which
renders it probable that those winds prevail and blow violently during
some seasons of the year. The boats were soon loaded, but we found
great difficulty in getting them off, on account of the little depth
of water, which obliged us to heave a good deal of our cargoes overboard.
The head of the bay is entirely surrounded by a flat which runs some
distance from the shore, and even at three and four miles distance there
is only four and four fathoms and a half. It was near nine before the 27 ls
006 | Vol_XII-0847
UNALAKLEET AREA
boats got on board, and, during their absence, many of the
inhabitants had been alongside, of whom were purchased dried fish,
berries of several kinds, bows and arrows, and other articles in the
curiosity way. They appeared very plump and full of flesh, had orna–
ments in a hole on each side their under-lip, and had those bladder–
like jackets over their other apparel which consisted principally of
the skins of martins and the spotted field-mice; their hair was
short and black, and their canoes were like those of the natives of
Unalaschka."Cook and his crew saw all this on September 11, 1778.
Then, as now, the shallowness of the water bordering these shores
made for difficulty in launching even such small boats as his when
loaded. [ ?] These shoals, the surrounding
marshes, and the inland mountains have more or less cut this part of
Alaska off from the rest of the world ever since. It is to be hoped
that the coming of the airplane will do much to open communication
with the people of the Unalakleet area.15 ls
Sources:
USCP & SUPPL.: VSGB; Baker; Tewkesbury; Colby
Cook, Capt. James. Ellis, w. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt. Authentic narrative of a voyage performed by Capt.
Cook and Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778 Cook and Capt. Clerke ... during the years 1776, 1777, 1778 ,
1779, and 1780 in search of a North West Passage 1779, and 1780 in search of a North West Passage . London,
Robinson, 1782. Vol.II, pp. 9-13
001 | Vol_XII-0848
Ruby Collins
10 May 48 WOOD RIVER, ALASKA
400 wds
WOOD RIVER, Alaska, Bristol Bay region, drains from Lake
Aleknagik, one of the Tikchik Lakes (q.v.), and takes a generally
southwesterly course to join the Nushagak River (q.v.) at the head
of Nushagak Bay (q.v.). [ ?] Wood River is about 15 miles long and
varies in width from 50 yards at the head to 600 yards at the mouth.
The thriving community of Aleknagik at the western end of Lake
Aleknagik near the head of the river, and a cannery a few miles north
of Snag Point, Nushagak Bay, is situated on the same side of the
river near its mouth. The Alaska Salmon Co. sometimes operates
this cannery. The cannery maintains stores of gasoline, diesel, and
fuel oils for its own use and operates a radio station during the
canning seasion which runs from mid-June to late July. The tender–
way has a maximum draft of 8 to 9 feet at high tide and is capable
of hauling 75 gross tons. The mud flats in front of the cannery
wharf are bare at low tide. The cannery lies on the winter trail
which joins Lewis Point on the mouth of the Nushagak River with Dil–
lingham, Togiak, Goodnews (q.v.), and other settlements to the west.Wood River is one of the many Bristol Bay rivers reported
in 1938 by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to be incompletely
surveyed and dangerous to navigate. The tidal range in this area
runs from 15 to 24 feet. Because of the funnel-shaped configuration
of the mouths of these rivers and of the bays into which they empty,
tidal currents are extremely strong and can attain a velocity of 6
knots. The depths in these bays and rivers are never very great, even
at high water, so that vast areas of shoals and flats are uncovered
at low tide, leaving only the shallowest of channels between them.
Despite these difficulties small vessels with drafts up to 3 1/2 feet
002 | Vol_XII-0849
WOOD RIVER, ALASKA
can navigate 15 miles up the river at low tide. Not more than
2 1/2 feet can be carried from here to Aleknagik Lake at low tide,
but 4 feet can be carried to the lake at high tide.Wood River was first recorded under that name by the
VSGB; USCP & Suppl; Baker ° in Colby
U.S. Fish Commission in 1890. This was apparently the name by which
the river was locally known at that time. Early Russian explorers
had reported it as the Aliagnagik, under which name it appeared in
Sarichef's atlas of 1826. Tebenkof called it the Aleknagek, in
1849, but it is now generally known as Wood River.
001 | Vol_XII-0850
Ruby Collins
October, 1948
375 wds
WOOLLEY, CAPE, ALASKA
WOOLLEY, CAPE (Wolley, Wooly) (64° 48′ N.Lat., 166° 30′
W.Long.), southwestern Seward Peninsula, Alaska, is a low head of land
extending into Bering Sea and forming the southern entrance point to a
wide-mouthed shallow lagoon indenting the west side of the peninsula below
Port Clarence. The northern entrance point to this bay is Cape Douglas,
about fifteen airline miles northwest of Cape Woolley.The lowest, western foothills of the Kigluaik Mountains here
approach to within four or five miles of the shore, and from these
mountains several small streams flow down into the bay. Traveling north–
ward from Cape Woolley to Cape Douglas along the winter trail which runs
along the coast here , these streams are crossed in the following order:
Igloo, Fairview, Feather, Crete, Tisuk, Cora, Agre, Last Chance, and,
finally, a stream formed by the union of Peluk and Spruce Creek, which
rises in the highlands a few miles ea [ ?] t of Cape Douglas.Stuart Creek runs into Fairview; Livin g ston, Johnston,
Blume, Willis, and Thistle enter the Feather; and [ ?] McAdam, Granite,
Eldorado, Wesley, Seattle, and Dome join the Tisuk.From just north of Igloo Creek to the mouth of the
Peluk-Spruce stream a low, narrow sand spit cuts the mouths of all these
streams off from Bering sea.The shore is a low sand beach. The shoal, which extends
northward from Cape Rodney (q.v.), widens considerably above Cape Woolley
and continues to widen above Cape Douglas, until, in the vicinity of
Point Spencer (q.v.), it extends several miles out to sea. Because of
this shoal this coast can nowhere be approached close to by ocean-going
vessels, and it is suggested that they give the shore between Cape
Douglas and Point Spencer a berth of over five miles.
002 | Vol_XII-0851
WOOLLEY, CAPE, ALASKA
The only habitation in this area is Shea Roadhouse, at
the mouth of the Feather River.At Cape Douglas, the winter trail previously mentioned
turns east of north and runs first overland and then across the east side
of Port Clarence to Teller (q.v.). Another branch of this trail runs
up the Tisuk and so overland to Teller. There are a few gold mining
camps on this branch of the trail.Sources:
USCP; VSGB; Baker; U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin No.328. Washington,
1908.
001 | Vol_XII-0852
Ruby Collins
May, 1949
120 wds
WULIK RIVER, ALASKA
WULIK RIVER, northwestern Alaska, debouches into the Polar Sea
at a point about midway between Cape Krusenstern and Cape Hope (q.v.). Both
Stoney and the U.S. Coast Survey recorded this river as the Woleek , in the late
nineteenth century, but the present form of the name is now generally accepted.The Wulik rises on the south side of the De Long Mountains,
passes south of Mount J arvis, and then continues in a generally southwesterly
direction for a total of about forty miles.There are no settlements along this stream, the nearest town
being Kivalina (q.v.), across the entrance to Corwin Lagoon from the mouth
of the Wulik.
001 | Vol_XII-0853
Ruby Collins
February, 1949
240 wds-Text
YORK, ALASKA
50 wds-Bibl
YORK, ALASKA (65° 30′ N.Lat., 167° 37′ W.Long.) a few miles
west of Cape York, lies at the mouth of the Anikovik River (q.v.), western
Seward Peninsula. It is about 45 miles from Port Clarence, the nearest
harbor, and about 85 miles from Nome. Like that of Nome, the York roadstead
is completely unprotected from the southerly storms which sweep this coast
[ d ?] e very fall.In 1900, because of the recent discovery of tin in the nearby streams,
and mountains, York, as the distribution point for the entire York region,
was a busy and important settlement. By 1905, however, with the depletion of
some of the tin placers and the difficulties encountered in developing the
tin industry in this region, York had dwindled to the status of a village
of only a half-dozen inhabitants. Since that time, the town has grown and
shrunk with the uneven fortunes of the tin miners. (For a general discussion
of the Alaska tin industry see York Mountains article.) A 1922 report on
the town reads: "York, once a flourishing tent town, now consists of half
a dozen cabins, and the is permanently inhabited by one family of three
persons."The post office opened here in 1900 was discontinued in 1902.
Mail for York now goes to Teller (q.v.), on Grantley Harbor. A western branch
of the long winter trail which borders Norton Sound extends westward from
Teller through York and on to Tin City at the very tip of Seward Peninsula.
A fork of this trail turns northward at York and runs to the foothills
of Potato Mountain.
002 | Vol_XII-0854
YORK ALASKA
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, Marcus. Geographic Dictionary of Alaska Geographic Dictionary of Alaska . 2d ed. Washington, 1906.
Brooks, A.H. Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Cape Nome and Norton Bay Regions, Alaska, in 1900.
Washington, 1901.Harrison, E.S. Nome and Seward Peninsula Nome and Seward Peninsula . Seattle, Wash., 1905.
Steidtmann, Edward. Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska Geology of the York Tin Deposits, Alaska . Washington,
1922. (U.S. Geological Survey. Bulletin Bulletin 733)Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska Tewkesbury's Who's Who in Alaska ... 1947. Seattle, Wash., 1947.
VS Guidebook for Alaska VS Guidebook for Alaska
Aeronautical Chart No.76
001 | Vol_XII-0855
Ruby Collins
9 February 1949
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA
1400 wds
YORK, CAPE, western Seward Peninsula, Alaska, faces Bering Strait
about ten miles southeast of Cape Prince of Wales.Captain F. W. Beechey named this point on August of 1824, during
his extensive voyage in search of Sir John Franklin. He writes in part:
"To the southward of Cape Prince of Wales the coast trends nearly due east,
and assumes a totally different character to that which leads to Schismareff
Inlet, being bounded by steep rocky cliffs, and broken by deep valleys, while
the other is low and swampy ground. The river called by the natives
Youp-nut (the present Anikovik) must lie in one of these valleys; and in all
probability it is in that which opens out near a bold promontory, to which
I have given the name of York, in honor of his late Royal Highness. On
nearing that part of the coast we found the water more shallow than usual."Cape York is high, rocky, and nearly vertical, cut by several
ravines, and backed by the York Mountains, which rise to well over 2,000
feet only a few miles from the shore. The cliff is about te n miles long,
and there is no distinct promontory or point which can be defined as the
cape proper.Depths of not less than thirty-six feet will be found at a distance
of about two miles offshore, although the water shoals slightly westward and
southeastward of the Cape.A shallow bight extends from Cape York to a point south of Cape
Prince of Wales and Cape Mountain. A shelving, shingle beach, usually not
more than 100 or 200 yards wide, edges this bight, back of which rises the
escarpment of the York Plateau. This plateau averages about 600 feet above
sea level and extends northward across the Peninsula to its northern side.Brooks notes: "The southward drainage of the region is by a number
of streams which have trenched sharply into the plateau surface...The smaller 25
002 | Vol_XII-0856
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA
tributaries of the main drainage system flow in small but typical canyons.
The remarkable evenness and level character of the plateau is very striking;
by avoiding the large waterways and making detours around the smaller canyons,
a horse and wagon can be driven anywhere on the plateau surface as on a good
[ ?] roadway." From east to west, the individual streams making up this
southward drainage system are: Kanauguk, Anikovik (q.v.), Kigezruk, Baituk,
Ocean, Lagoon, and Cape Creeks. The longest of these is the Anikovik.York (q.v.), Pelazuk, and Tin City (q.v.) are the only settlements
along this stretch of coast. Pelazuk is a small native village between
Baitu and Ocean Creeks. York, at the mout h of the An i kovik, and Tin City,
at the mouth of Cape Creek, are more important towns and are written up
separately.Mining Since a year or two before the opening of the twentieth
century, there has been considerable mining in this area.
Brooks explains the progressive changes in the na i ming of what
is now known as the Port Clarence Mining District, which includes the area
described above: "This region is usually known to the prospector as the York
district. The part that was organized in 1899 was named the Kanaugok district.
In the winter of 1900, another portion of the Kanaugok was reorganized under
the name Arctic district. By decision of the judge of the United States
district court of Alaska, second division, both these districts are included
in the Port Clarence recording district."The bed-rock geology of this region is granite, limestone, slate,
and greenstone. Brooks, writing in 1900, had the following prognosis as
to the future of gold mining here: "The gold of the York region, as far as
could be determined, is derived from mineralized portions of the slates
which have already been described. The York district proper, in which gold
has been found, will probably not exceed 30 or 40 square miles. It is possible , 26
003 | Vol_XII-0857
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA
however, that gold exists in the northern portion of the region. In fact,
colors have been found on some of the rivers flowing into the Arctic."Brooks was the first to find evidences of stream tin on Buhner
Creek (See Anikovik River) and on the Anikovik itsel f . With his usual
caution, he adds: "The above occurrence is of considerable interest, but its
commercial value is dependent on finding the cassiterite in larger quan–
tities. In any event it is worth while to call the attention of the pros–
pectors and miners to the desirability of being on the lookout for stream
tin, and, if possible, of tracing it to its source in the bed rock. From
the description of the occurrence which has been given it is plain that its
source can not be far distant."He is not sanguine as to the future of gold mining in this area
because the miners of the region have told him that the gold, although it is
coarse, is spotted. From his own observation he knows that most of the
developments then existant have been made in the bed rock, that the creek
valleys are comparatively s hallow, that very little bed rock has yet been
eroded, particularly near the head of the streams where normally one would
expect the richest deposits. He continues, "The climatic conditions have
also affected the concentration of the gold to a limited degree. During
the early summer months the creeks of the York district are low and their
erosive power is correspondingly small. In late summer and early fall
violent rain storms are frequent, and as a result of the peculiar topograph–
ic conditions the water runs off almost as rapidly as it falls. The
streams consequently have swift currents and cut away their channels very
rapidly. The gravel and debris which have been deposited in the smaller
streams during the low stages of the water are borne away rapidly without
much sorting and the gold is carried into those larger drainage channels 26
004 | Vol_XII-0858
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA
the developments of which seem to be richer than the gulches lying near the
source of the gold. The stream-tin deposits on Buhner Creek do not seem
to have been affected as much by these floods as the alluvial gold. This
is probably because the grains of stream tin are larger and not so liable
to be removed by a rise of the water."Writing in 1908, Collier confirms Brooks' earlier conclusions:
"The Port Clarence limestone is not a gold-bearing formation and the areas
in which it forms the country rock should not attract the placer miner. Along
the margins of some of the granite masses cutting this limestone, mineral–
ization has taken place in the form of veins carrying cassiterite, galena,
etc...It was probably in 1898 that the first prospectors visited this region,
but they confined their attention to the Agiapuk basin, where they found no
workable placers. In the following year auriferous gravels were discovered
in Buhner Creek, a tributary of Anikovik River, in what was then organized
as the York recording district. A little gold has been taken out in the York
region, but it has now been practically abandoned as a gold placer district,
thought it is growing in importance as a tin producer. Practically all the
gold-producing creeks are confined to the Blue s tone and Agiapuk basins,
except a few tributary to Grantely Harbor. The district has not been a large
producer, the entire output up to 1903 being estimated at $200,000.
With the introduction of better mining methods, no doubt many mining enter–
prises now abandoned will be revived and can be made to yield an adequate [ ?]
return."In 1903 Collier, himself, and Hess found lode tin in the York
region, which verified the reports made by prospectors ever since 1900.
For the next few years there was much activity in the York tin district, 25
005 | Vol_XII-0859
YORK, CAPE, ALASKA
although most of it was of a prospecting nature.The future of Alaska tin mining could not have been foretold by any
of these early prospectors and geologists. Despite the disruption of the
world's tin supply by two world wars, and despite the fact that the United
States has always been the world's largest tin consumer, most of the tin
on Seward Peninsula is still in the ground. (For a general discussion
of this problem see Tin City York Mountains article.) 6
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
U.S. Coast Pilot
Brooks, Alfred H. [ ?] Reconnaisances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay
Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Reconnaisances in the Cape Nome and Norton Bay
Regions, Alaska, in 1900. Washington, 1901.Collier, Arthur J. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Gold Placers of Parts of Seward Peninsula, Alaska.
Washington, 1908.
001 | Vol_XII-0860
Ruby Collins
January, 1949
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
Rewritten & retyped Sept.1949
YORK MOUNTAINS, a steep and rugged range in western Seward Peninsula,
Alaska, rise sharply to over 2,000 feet above the narrow coastal plain fringing
Cape York.The mountains follow an east-northeast axis. On the south, in the region
of Cape York, they plunge into Bering Sea in cliffs 400 to 600 feet high. [ ?]
[ ?] Capping these cliffs is a terrace one to four miles wide. Eastward from
this point, in the vicinity of Don and Caiifornia Rivers, the mountains retreat
from the coast, leaving a plain in some places six miles wide, across which the
two rivers flow to the sea. Westward of Cape York the mountains give way to the
York Plateau, a rolling moss-covered plain ranging from 200 to 600 feet high,
which extends northward toward the Polar Sea. Potato Mountain, 1,400 feet, in its
northern extremity, is the only prominent peak on the plateau. At the extreme
western tip of Seward Peninsula, rising suddenly from the water's edge to 2,250 feet,
is the isolated mass known as Cape Mountain. From the tip of the Peninsula the
York Mountains stretch northeastward in line with, but from 2 to 10 miles distant
from the shore of the Polar Sea. Ear Mountain, an isolated peak south of Shish–
maref Inlet, is separated from the northern fringes of the York Mountains by
twenty or more miles of grass-covered plain.Brooks Mountain, 2,918 feet, about fourteen miles northeast of Cape York,
is the highest peak in the entire range.Because of the width of the coastal plain, the northern drainage system
is characterized by sluggish, meandering streams and numberless lakes. Only in
the vicinity of Don and California Rivers is there a correspondingly wide coastal
marsh to the south of the range. Elsewhere, because of the steepness of the slopes,
the frozen ground, and the total absence of vegetation, rainfall disappears almost
immediately as run-off. The Don and California marsh is bordered by a shallow
lagoon separated from Port Clarence by a twelve-mile barrier beach.
002 | Vol_XII-0861
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
Probably two-thirds of the York Mountain area is drain s ed northward into
Lopp Lagoon, just north of Cape Prince of Wales, and into the unnamed lagoon
immediately north of Lopp Lagoon. All the streams rising in Ear Mountain find
their way with into that unnamed lagoon or into Shishmareff Inlet, north of it.
Although this northern drainage system contains many streams, none of them is large. All
can be forded easily, even at the mouth, and the great majority of them are only
a few feet deep and wide. After entering the flat, marshy grasslands of the
coastal plain, these streams become sluggish and tortuous.Ice and drifted hard-packed snow accumulate in the gullies and ravines
of the upper courses during the winter. Most of this snow disappears from the
lowland and exposed ridges with the arrival of spring, supplying water for the
usual spring run-off, to which the placer miner looks forward so eagerly.
Sheltered ravines will retain isolated snow and ice masses, which provide a con–
stant supply of water to the streams throughout the dry season at the end of the
summer. This supply is not always sufficient for mining.The streams which enter Lopp Lagoon and which comprise the major portion
of the northern drainage of the York Mountains are Manna, Potato, and Lynx Creek s , and
Mint River. The longer Pinguik River rises east of Brooks Mountain, but its
main tributary, York Creek, flows almost directly northward from the northern
flanks of the peak.The main streams of the southern drainage system of this region are the
California and Don Rivers (q.v.), rising to the east of Brooks Mountain, and Lost
River, which rises about 5 miles south of that peak. The main tributaries to Lost
River are Cassiterite and Tin Creeks. Proceding westward along the coast, the
King and Kanauguk River enter Bering Strait just east and just west of Cape York,
respectively. A few miles beyond the Kanauguk is the Anikovik River (q.v.),
which rises with headwaters in the southern watershed of Potato Mountain and York Settlement at its mouth. Important tributaries
to the Anikovik are Buck, Sutter and Gold Creeks. York settlement lies at the
003 | Vol_XII-0862
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
mouth of the Anikovik. As one continues northwestward toward Tin City and
Cape Prince of Wales, this most w e sterly tip extension of Alaska narrows , so that the
rivers are considerably shorter. From east to west these are: Kigezruk, Baituk,
Ocean, and Cape Creeks. Tin City lies at the mouth of Cape Creek.The York Mountains are largely made up of Port Clarence limestones, 2000
or more feet thick. They have been f olded in a broad way only and are plainly
bedded. Basal beds are flaggy and somewhat schistose, but with higher altitudes
the strata become more massive. Invertebrate fossils and impressions of fucoid
stems have been found in this limestone.Climate As might be expected from its position [ ?] only about 50 miles south
of the Arctic Circle, the climate of the York Mountains region is
arctic, and, because of the proximity of the Bering Sea and the Polar Sea s , marine
in character. Strong winds from the north or the south usually prevail, with fre–
quent fogs and considerable rain in the spring and early summer. Total precipita–
tion is probably about 24 inches, with a season of about 100 days during which
it falls in the form of rain. Except for three or four weeks during July and
August, freezing temperatures will occur at some time during each twenty-four
h our period. Woolen clothing is required the year around. however. The winter
is long and the snowfall heavy. Temperatures as low as −40° and −50° F. have
been recorded, but these in no manner approach the extremely low readings
recorded for the interior of Alaska where the temperature is not regulated by
large , surrounding bodies of water. Permafrost exists throughout the York
Mountains region so that the unconsolidated gravels underlying the marshes and
grasslands of the coastal plains must be thawed before they can be mined.Vegetation Storms often leave driftwood on the beaches of this region.
and Timber Since the only trees are the tiny scrub willows along the
streams, this driftwood is the only source of construction timber. The scrub
willows can be used for fuel, but do not prove really desirable even for this
purpose.
004 | Vol_XII-0863
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
During July and August the coastal plains and are larger valleys are covered
with a heavy growth of grass which is suitable for grazing. The moss, which is
equally abundant, is eaten n by reindeer but not by other animals.The higher sections of Brooks, Ear, Cape, and Potato Mountains are almost
barren of vegetation. The main mass of the York Mountains north of Cape York
and the lower limestone hills eastward of Brooks Mountain are the most deficient
in willows and grass. Where slate appears there is a good supply of both.Animal Ptarmigan, snipe, plover, curlew, and rabbits [ ?] were once
Life numerous numerous by have been greatly reduced in recent years. The few
bear which that once roamed over these mountains supplying prospectors with a good
source of me [ ?] t have almost completely disappeared. Geese, ducks, sandhill
cranes, swans, and other seafowl are still plentiful. The streams flowing
through the heart of the York Mountains contain scarcely any vegetable life, and
are therefore poorly supplied with fish, but fairly large numbers of grayling and
trout will be found in the peripheral streams of the area.Communication A continuation of the long winter trail which follows the coast
of Norton Sound continues along the north shore of Grantley Harbor
and so northwestward past Cape York to Cape Prince of Wales, and the n northeastward
along the shores of the Polar Sea to Shishmaref Inlet. A branch of this trail
turns northward at the mouth of Lost River and continues in this direction for
several miles into the heart of the York Mountains. Another such branch turns
northward at York and runs almost to Potato Mountain. There is now a 1500–
foot landing strip at the mouth of Lost River.Population Although York and Tin City were once thriving communities, they are
and Industries now almost dederted. Their revival will depend on the renewal
of work on the surrounding tin placer and lode deposits. Teller, on the south
shore of Grantley Harbor, is the post office for this region.Some tin mining is still being don e , but the only other industry is
005 | Vol_XII-0864
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
summer fishing for salmon and the white whale, and, in the inland waters, for
herring. In the winter the natives hunt walrus, seal, and polar bear, and do some
trapping, but the returns from these activities are small when compared with
those catches in other parts of the Peninsula.History of Mining As early as the fall of 1899, prospectors, who
in the York Mountains had left the crowded Nome fields, found placer gold
in the Anikovik basin. In September of the next year, A.H. Brooks, while engaged
in a U.S. Geological Survey of the Cape Nome gold region, took ten days off to
visit the York Region. Here he found the miners complaining that some heavy
minerals were clogging their sluice boxes. Brooks discovered that a part of this
heavy concentrate from the Anikovik and one of its tributaries, Buhner Creek,
was stream tin. Upon his return, Brooks published a short article calling atten–
tion to this discovery, and he sent copies of the article to all miners in the
York district. The publicity given this find attracted a great many new prospec–
tors to the region, so that by the fall of 1901, stream tin had also been discover–
ed in Buck Creek, about twenty miles north of York. During the summer of 1901,
Collier completed his geologic mapping of the entire area. In 1903 Collier
returned to the region and, while trying to help three prospectors to identify
their samples, discovered lode tin in the vicinity of Lost River (q.v.).Later, Collier learned that development work was going forward on the lode
tin deposits which had subsequently been discovered near Cassiterite Creek, a
tributary to Lost River. Lode desposits similar to those of the Los t River
region had also been discovered on Brooks Mountain. Only traces of tin were found
on Ear Mountain, and, although the Cape Mountain deposits were located, they
were difficult to trace and to develop because of the heavy mantle of talus and
residual soil which overlay them.Stream tin mining was going went forward on Buck Creek and York River. It
was reported that about sixty tons of stream tin, averaging 40-50 40% to
006 | Vol_XII-0865
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
50% ore, had already been recovered from Buck Creek.After his 1905 visit to the Lost River area, Hess reported hopefully on the
future of the lode deposits there, although Hhe anticipated "frequent delays and [ ?]
inconveniences from storms, floods, lack of water, freezes, and other hindrances"
in the mining of stream tin and expected that these could be most easily avoided
by concentrating on the lode deposits. And yet, many of the tunnels run through
the Lost River [ ?] area filled with water so that all work was stopped until
the winter freeze-up.At about this same time large masses of pure cassiterite were found on the
north and northeast sides of Cape Mountain. Other fine pieces were found near
Cape Prince of Wales, the largest weighing between 20 and 30 pounds.By now Tthe Bartells Tin Mining Company building in Tin City contained an assay
office, storerooms, engine room and living rooms quarters, all under one roof. At the time of
Hess's 1905 visit, the company had strung a mile of bare copper wire over the
mountain to furnish power for the electric drills already in use in the tunnels
on Cape Mountain. The company was also building a stamp mill and digging a
well in order to obtain water for winter mining.The United States Alaska Tin Mining Company also had a cabin and a few
small warehouses as well as a 10-stamp mill one-quarter of a mile back from the
beach. This company had a claim 1750 feet up on the north side of Cape Mountain. at an altitude
of about 1750 feet. Despite this height, the fifteen-foot shaft sunk on this
claim had filled with water so that Hess could not examine it.Hess discovered that the older shafts in this area were covered with a
one-inch coating of bristling, feathery ice crystals. This frost was said
to form only during the summer when warm, moist air entering the tunnels met
the colder air [ ?] below the opening. Near the entrances, surface
water dripping from the tunnel roofs formed icy stalactites and stalagmites which,
unless pruned at regular intervals, g rew together to form gradually thickening
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
pillars of ice, effectively blocking all entrance to the tunnel.It was only the expectation of large profits that kept the Lost River
and Cape Mountain miners at work under such difficult and discouraging conditions.In this connection, Hess estimated that, considering that York region wages
averaged $5.00 a day plus board, and that the cost of materials and machinery
was high and their transportation to the sites expensive, tin from the mining of tin in the York
district probably cost over $6.60 per ton. with t in was then selling at about [ ?]
$0.23 per pound. and A llowing for such as sinking fund s, and prospecting, costs,
legitimate profit, etc., Hess estimated that Alaska tin miners could not work
claims supplying less than 2 1/2% ore, with any assurance of a reasonable profit. profit.Buck Creek placers, the only ones to produces in 1905, yielded 91 tons of
ore that averaged 65% metallic tin. Bad weather had slowed 1905 activities,
but hopes for the district were very high.Business firms and some individuals sent at least seven parties of
'experts' to examine the placer deposits on Buck Creek. These experts dug holes
where bed rock could not possibly be reached except with steam pumps or bed-rock
drains, neither of which they had. Signs of crosscuts were almost wholly
wanting in the section where these experts were working, and yet they made long
reports as to the depth and value of the gravels. All this useless work cost
the investors well over $50,000.Stream tin was reliably reported to exist in Grouse and Red Fox Creeks,
in the Buck Creek region, and in several streams flowing from the northeast and
east sides of Ear Mountain.In 1911, when the York Dredging Co. had a dredge on Buck Creek, Seward
Peninsula tin mining production began its climb to the peak which was reached
five or six years later, and which was not duplicated for many years to come.H.M. Eakin's reported in 1914 that the dredge on Buck Creek had seen three
years of successful operation. In 1914, two Anikovik River dredges were
008 | Vol_XII-0867
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
installed for the joint recovery of gold and tin, and lode tin mining continued.
The ground held by the Cape Mountain company had been patented, and the property
allowed to stand idle. Up to 1914, the Lost River mine was developed only in a
small way. After 1914, Lost River claims came under new management and were the
site of increased activity.Included in Eakin's report is the following chart showing the production
of tin in Alaska from 1902 to 1914:Year Tons of Metallic Tin Value 1902 15 $ 8,000 1903 25 14,000 1904 14 8,000 1905 6 4,000 1906 34 38,640 1907 22 16,752 1908 25 15,180 1909 11 7,638 1910 10 8,325 1911 61 52,798 1912 130 96,000 1913 69 44,103 1914 104 66,560
There were still no tin smelters in the United States and the size of the
Alaska shipments did not warr a nt their construction. As a result , all Alaska
tin was shipped abroad for reduction. Very early shipments went to Swansea,
Wales, but later the major part of the production was sent to Singapore. This
necessity put an extra financial burden on the young Alaska tin mining companies.Three dredges were in operation for all or part of the 1914 season;
a tract of tin placer ground was being prepared for the installation of an
additional dredge; and the Lost River lode mine and mill were being worked.
About 40 men were employed directly in mining operations throughout the area —
20 on Buck Creek, 5 on Lost River, and 15 on the Anikovik. The two Anikovik
dredges operated for both tin and gold throughout the season, and about 25 more men were temporarily employed in the construction of a new dredge. [ ?] During the
winter of that year, three men mined on Lost River.
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
Placer tin was being produced from Buck Creek and its tributary
Sutter Creek, and from the Anikovik, where the first important production of
both tin and placer gold was made in 1914. (These placers were valuable
chiefly for their gold content, but sufficient tin was present to make a
valuable by-product.) The Cassiterite Creek tin placers were already exhausted.A U.S. Geological Survey report on operations during 1916, written by
J.B. Mertie, Jr., says that an option was a ssumed on the Lost River tin mine by
W.W. Johnson and associates, who further prospected and developed the mine during
that summer. Development work was in progress on the O'Brien Lode farther down
Lost River. The Empire Tin Mining Co. was said to have 33 claims on Cape
Mountain, about two or three miles from Tin City. No recent development work
was reported for these claims and the stamping mill at Tin City was not in use.
The Percy lode, farther up Cape Mountain, owned by Ludlow Botts, had seen only
assessment work for several years. The United States Alaska Tin Mining Co mpany . also owned
property on Cape Mountain, but the company's 10-stamp mill in Tin City was not in
operation, and its tunnel was closed. Denny Brothers had done some development
work on its claims on Potato Mountain, and had recently opened a tunnel and a
shaft. As can be easily seen, however, the original impetus and enthusiasm for
tin mining in Seward Peninsula was losing much of its drive. As will be under–
stood from the explanation given below, the International Tin Committee was having
its effect on the new industry.With the entry of the United States into World War I, the government
once again became interested in tin, since the country was in critical need of
a source of this metal nearer than the Asiatic deposits. The U.S. Geological
Survey made a brief reconnaissance of portions of the York region in 1917
and reported that the Lost River lode mines appeared to offer the greatest hope
of an increased production of tin within the continental United States.The Survey added, however, that, although these claims were sufficiently developed
010 | Vol_XII-0869
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
to warrant the installation of a small mill, the results of a thorough
sampling of the ores and an examination of the costs of production in this
area, indicated that the [ ?] immediate output was not likely to
supply more than a small percentage of the country's needs. Du e to the
strangling effect of cartel agreements between the world's great tin producers,
the United States tin industry was still too little developed to assist [ ?]
in the national crisis.Harrington reported that the Ear Mountain deposits, 12 miles from the
shoal-locked shores of Shishmaref Inlet, were more difficult of access than
those at Lost River. Even light-draft steamers, he declared, had to be
unloaded at least one and one-half miles from the entrance to the lagoon. For
this reason, in order to make Ear Mountain tin mining profitable, a higher
grade of ore would have to be found there than had been found on the south
side of Seward Peninsula. Harrington intimated that Potato Mountain might offer
better prospects, but warned that much more development of the district would
have to be made before the possibilities there could be estimated. "Under
present conditions," he added, "it would take at least two or three years
before any production could be made."By this time, there were 1255 feet of tunnels and winzes on the Cape
Mountain property formerly owned by the Bartels Tin Mining Co. In 1917, this
property was reported to be owned by Fred Hinton, of Teller. It had, however,
been idle since 1914. After examining this district, Harrington felt that, although
the claims might contain some bodies of good tin, the development work had
been too slight to outline them and no exact statement as to the potentialities
of the property could be made.The United States Alaska Tin Mining Co mpany property on Cape Mountain had also
been idle for several years at the time of this survey, so that Harrington
was once again forced to conclude that no statement as to possibilities of
production could be made and that no appreciable amount of production could
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
be expected in the near future.Concerning placer tin mining in general, Harrington concludes: "Placer
mining in 1917 was limited to the vicinity of Buck Creek. About 300 tons a year
appears to be the limit of production for this area, and this production will
be limited to a period of not over five years; after that time there will be
production of only a few tons annually from sluicing operations. Placers may be
developed in the vicinity of Ear Mountain, but the production in this vicinity will
be small. On Lost River a few tons of residual placer tin may be recovered when
water is available for sluicing. Anikovik River has a greater area of stream
gravels which may be dredged than any of the other placers (but)...the possibilities
of the stream can not be stated."The official 1919 Alaska tin mining report was equivocal; no new deposits
of placer tin had been discovered in the York district in recent years, and this
form of tin mining might be discontinued, whereas the lode deposits, such as those
at Lost River, offered some hope for the sur revival of the industry. It was
felt that the wide distribution of known deposits was a good indication that
more would be found in the future. There was no indication that the tin output
would decrease in the near future, but a large increase in production would
depend on the development of, as yet unlocated, deposits . not yet located.By 1920, the Grouse Creek placers were reported to be worked out. The
American Tin Mining Co. operated only one dredge on Buck Creek, as compared with
two the previous year, and the total production for the York District dropped
from 112,000 pounds, valued at $73,400, in 1919, to 32,000 pounds, valued at
$16,112, in 1920.To offset the failure of the Grouse Creek property, tin-bearing gravels
had been prospected on Potato Creek, on Goodwin Creek, and on its tributary
Percy Creek, all of which flow northward into the [ ?]
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
Polar Sea, and similar gravels had been examined on Cape Creek, which flows
southward into Bering Sea. Brooks considered this to be a hopeful sign, particu–
larly since some of these new claims were reported to be on good dredging ground,
and the owners planned to install dredges on some of them.Seward Peninsula tin production rose from 1.9 and 1.4 tons of metal in
1922 and 1923, respectively, to 7 tons, in 1924. Although this was a very
small output, compared to the 139 tons produced in 1916, the Geological Survey
optimistically took it is a sign of possible recovery of Alaska tin mining.The following table gives a good idea of the rise and fall of the tin
production curve:Year Ore (Tons) Metal (Tons) Value 1915 167 102 $78,846 1916 232 139 121,000 1917 171 100 123,300 1918 104.5 68 118,000 1919 86 56 73,400 1920 26 16 16,112 1921 7 4 2,400 1922 2.3 1.4 912 1923 3 1.9 1,623 1924 11 7 7,028
In view of the fact that the 1924 production was less than half that for
1902, the first year in which tin was produced in Alaska, Brook's appraisal of
its significance might seem unfounded. Brooks probably felt a personal interest
in the welfare of this industry which he did so much to found. As it turned out,
the price of tin continued to improve, and 13.8 and 8 tons of the metal were
produced in 1925 and 1926 respectively. Production then jumped to 26.7 tons
in 1927. Although this was still far below the 1911-1919 figures, it served to
justify Brook's faith in the industry.By this time, the York district had a competitor in the tin business, as
Smith makes clear in his 1927 report. "Tin The tin produced in 1927...did not
come from lodes but from placer deposits, principally in the York district, of
Seward Peninsula, and the Hot [ ?] Springs district, of the Yukon Valley. In
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
the York district the placer tin, or cassiterite, is mined principally for
itself, though some placer gold is also found with it. In the Hot Springs dis–
trict the tin ore is a by-product obtained from deposits that are mined primarily
for their gold. In the York district the tin ore was mined by two small camps,
the larger of which is on Goodwin Gulch...The tin ore shipped from the York region
is said to have had a content of 72 per cent of metallic tin; that from the Hot
Springs district carried about 65 per cent."Alaska produced 37.5 tons of tin ore in 1927, which contained 26.7 tons
of metallic tin and were valued at $34,000. Practically all of this tin was
shipped to Singapore for reduction, and only a few hundred pounds remained unsold
at the end of the year.1928 again saw an increase in the tin produced. The output was 58.6
tons, which con t ained 41 tons of metallic tin. With the metal priced at 50.46
cent s a pound (down almost 14 cents from the previous year), the value was
$41,000. Although all this tin came from placer deposits, the new vitality
of the industry induced the National Tin Mining Co. to ship considerable equip–
ment into the district, and to plan the reopening of the old Crim-Randt-O' Brien
properties. The company planned to employ eight or ten miners throughout the
year and to speed the development of the most promising lodes. This was the
only lode mining for tin ore then being undertaken on the North American
continent.These bright prospects were short-lived. In 1929, not only did the pro–
duction of tin drop slightly (51.6 tons of ore containing 38.6 tons of metallic
tin), but the price of the tin also dropped so that the value of these
shipments was
only $35,000. However, as had been true during all previous years, all but a
few hundred pounds were sold by the end of the year.Developments for 1930 were even less happy. Alaska tin production fell
off both in quantity [ ?] and value and amounted to only about one-tenth of the annual
production for the period from 1912 to 1917, when the industry was at its height.
014 | Vol_XII-0873
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
The drop in price--from the 45 cents a pound of in 1929 to the 31.7 cents of in 1930 —
discouraged active development. The 1930 output was all derived from placers, and
the ore reported repres e nts concentrates of from 68 to 72 per cent of metallic
tin. The output of tin ore was about 21 tons, containing a metallic tin
content of 14.7 tons. Of these about 25 tons had been produced in previous years
whereas 17 of the tons produced during 1930 were not sold by the end of that year.
Little new prospecting was done for tin in Alaska during 1930, and the Geological
Survey anticipated no revival of interest in the metal until the price should
improve.As the following table shows, tin production dropped again in 1931, and
disappeared in 1932:Year Ore (Tons) Metal (Tons) Value 1925 22.2 13.8 $15,980 1926 12.85 8 10,400 1927 37.5 26.7 34,000 1928 58.6 41 41,000 1929 51.6 38.6 35,000 1930 21 14.7 9,300 1931 5.6 4.1 2,000 1932 -- -- -- 1933 -- 2.9 2,300 1934 -- 4.14 4,300 1935 -- 49.14 4,300 1936 -- 113 105,000
The incredible jump between 1934 and 1935 was the result of the activities
of a new company, the American Tin Fields, Inc., in the vicinity of Tin City.
This was the first attempt at full-scale mechanization of the Alaska tin
industry. American Tin Fields, Inc. built a good road to its placers which were
perhaps a mile inland from the coast. Power shovels, enormous grizzlys and
a well-planned series of sluice boxes were at work at the mines. Large trucks
then carried the concentrates to the mill, which had been built close to the
shore so as to have a constant and abundant supply of water.Much of the placer ground in this area ran from 20 to 30 pounds of
tin ore to the cubic yard of material. With tin selling for 50 cents a pound
015 | Vol_XII-0874
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
and the ore containing a bout 75% metallic tin, the prospects for profit with
these new methods were extremely bright. There were some disadvantages: the
region was practically treeless, so that all fuel had to be imported; the
weather was bad , and the working season short. On the other hand this part of
Seward Peninsu a l ar was accessible to vessels of medium draft; few of the tin–
b earing areas were far from the sea; and the limestone bed rock allowed the
inexpensive construction of very good r oads. In addition to all this, the flying
time out of Nome was only one hour. There was also the possibility that extensive
placer operations would disclose lode deposits in this same area, and, if this
happened, tin mining on a large and economical scale could progress the year
around.Tin production increased steadily through 1936 and 1937, but then dropped
off again, as the following table shows:Year Ore (Tons) Metal (Pounds) Value 1937 -- 372,000 $202,300 1938 -- 210,640 89,100 1939 -- 74,080 37,300 1940 -- 104,000 52,000
The main tin mining activity in all of Seward Peninsula was still on the
property of the American Tin Fields, Inc., near Tin City.The increasing importance of the United States as a consumer of tin,
and the notable success of this operator in producing by far the largest amount
of tin of any mines in North America, again aroused official interest in the
value of Alaska tin fields. In 1939, the Geological Survey se nt a party, headed
by J.B. Mertie, Jr., to begin an intensive field investigation of the tin
deposits of Seward Peninsula. In 1939, the work was closely restricted to the area around Cape and Potato Mountains. Samples were taken and maps made so
that the most specific information might be available as to the
occurrences of
tin there. In 1940, Mertie led another party to study the placer and lode
deposits in the vicinity of Lost River. Additional field work was planned,
016 | Vol_XII-0875
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
which would ultimately cover all Alaska tin fields. These official investiga–
tions were made in the hope that reliable and definite information on the tin
resources there might serve to interest both companies and individuals in the
possibilities of tin mining in Alaska.World War II, which almost immediately put the Japanese in possession of
Malaya and the Netherland East Indies, the world's chief sources of tin, again
threw the United States back upon tin supplies from Bolivia, the Belgian Congo,
and her own tin fields. Once again, the Geological Survey and the Territorial
Department of Mines renewed the investigation of Alaska's tin deposits.The U.S. Bureau of Mines made a careful estimate of overburden, concentra–
tion of ore, and production costs in the Potato Mountain and Buck Creek areas.
The expensive drilling required to estimate the value of lode deposits, which
drilling had previously been avoided, was now expedited. Old underground work–
ings were sampled and twenty-two new diamond-drill holes were put down in the
Lost River area alone. The region was found to be one where a tin-bearing
intrusive granite underlay a series of limestones or slate, and in places in the
granite itself. Lode tin, in relatively high concentration, was found at
150 to 200 feet bel l o w the surface. These were easy mining depths. An estimated
4,000,000 tons of low-grade ore were also found to be available at Lost River.
Bain concludes: "The combination of high-and low-grade ore would seem
distinctly to warrant an attempt at commercial production in the district."However, Alaska tin mining dropped from 46.8 l ong tons in 1921 to 2.8 and .1 long tons in 1942 and 1943. Once again [ ?] immediate
need for an enormous supply of tin, plus wartime labor shortages, combined with
the international situation to defy the development of the industry. With the
opening of the government-owned Longhorn Smelter in Texas City, Texas, in 1942,
017 | Vol_XII-0876
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
the United States turned from any attempt to mine tin to the smelting of
available supplies from Bolivia and the Congo.The struggle to develop tin mining in Alaska has met with unequal odds,
difficulties, and hindrances from the very beginning. We have discussed the
natural and geographic difficulties pertaining to the industry and seen how, in
the mid-1930's, they were substantially overcome. The greatest and finally
insurmountable obstacle, that pertaining to international trade and cartel
agreements, has not yet been discussed.As early as 1903, one year after tin was first produced in Alaska, the
United Kingdom opened its attack on the new industry by making it impractical for
the United States to smelt this ore within her own borders. At about this same
time, the United States Steel Corporation, then the largest producer of tin plate
in the United States, supported the construction of a tin smelter at Bayonne,
New Jersey. In 1903, the United Kingdom applied export duty--to the amount of
40% and valorem--on all British Malaya shipments of tin concentrates to ports
outside the British Empire. Not counting Bolivia, British Malaya then lead
the world in the production of tin concentrates. Bolivian concentrates could
not be treated economically without an admixture of purer concentrates from the
far East, but British Malaya production lacked this characteristic and had was to have been
treated in the Bayonne plant. Since exports from Alaska were not yet sufficient to
keep this smelter going, and the British Malaya mines could not afford the new 40%
duty on their exports, the first United States smelter failed even before it
had gone into production.From 1903 until 1914, as we have previously noted, the bulk of Alaska
tin concentrates were sent to Singapore smelters. The first World War, however,
interfered with the shipment, particularly of Bolivian ores, to United Kingdom
smelters. Th [ k ?] i s circumstance induced the second attempt to build up a smelting
industry in the United States. In partnership with an English concern, the
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
National Lead Company built a smelting plant at Jamaica Bay, Long Island.
The American Smelting and Refining Company built another smelter at Perth Amboy,
New Jersey. These two concerns continued in business until the end of the
war, but then British vested interests moved against them. British smelters
first reduced by more than 50% their charge for smelting Bolivian ores.
Then the preferential export duties already existing for ores from British
Malaya were extended to Nigeria ores. The British tin smelters were able to
do these things primarily because their coal and labor costs were much lower than
in the United States smelters. By 1923 or 1924, the United States was once
again driven out of the tin smelting industry.However Meanwhile , other changes were taking place in the world-wide picture
of the tin industry. From the beginning of the century to about 1917, world
tin production and consumption increased at a uniform rate. Tin prices also
rose gradually from about 26 to about 46 cents a pound. The average annual
price was about 35 cents a pound.The shipping shortage occasioned by the first World War, however, diverted
large amounts of Bolivian ores to the United States and cut off supplies of the
metal from southeastern Asia. Tin prices soared. The 1918 average was
86.8 cents per pound, with a peak of 110 cents.The shipping situation improved only slightly during 1919, whereas the
post-war boom increased the demand for large amounts of tin. Prices stayed up
through the early part of 1920. Meanwhile, enorm l o us stockpiles of tin accumu–
lated in the East. By the time the shipping facilities had increased suffici–
ently to carry them to consuming countries, those countries were experiencing
a business slump, which had set in about the middle of 1920. The combination
of enormously increased supplies and a suddenly decreased demand deflated the
tin market. Tin price s collapsed.
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
The causes for these developments were several: tin consumption had
been reduced both by the general depression and by the great coal strike in the
United Kingdom; European consumption did not begin to approach the pre-war
level; and large tin stocks which had accumulated during the shipping shortage
overhung the market. The several tin producers of the world met this problem
in different ways. Many small companies were forced to shut down; those with
large financial resources either stock-piled their production, rather than sell
it at the existing low prices, or cut labor costs to the bone and continued to
sell their tin. Knorr remarks that this drastic reduction of labor costs, which
in all cases repres n e nted [ ?] a large proportion of total costs, was very
important. "During 1921," he writes, "wages in British Malay a generally fell by
from 15 to 20 per cent. "During this same period, coolies, working in Chinese-owne d .
mines, received minute wages and sometimes worked for board and lodging.Faced with this competition, Alaska miners stopped work. Until modern,
large-scale, heavily-financed, and well-managed developments entered the
industry there was little hope of its survival.The governments of the large tin producers of the world now entered the tin
b u siness. The government of the Federated Malay States (FMS) purchased ore
concentrates and held them until the price reached $119 (Straits) per picul
(133 1/3 pounds). These government stocks were gradually m a rketed during the
second half of 1919 During 1920 and 192 0 1 similar techniques were used, but
it soon became evident th a t they were not sufficient to sustain the price of tin.
Under the terms of the Bandoeng Agreement, the British and Netherland governments
agreed to hold existing stocks of tin off the ma r ket until the price rose to
£240 per ton. By December, 1923, the price stood at £239. The Bandoeng
holdings were completely liquidated by the end of 1924 without interfering with [ ?]
that price. However, this gradual feeding of backstocks into the tin market in
the early 1920's conealed the fact that the production capacity of the existing
020 | Vol_XII-0879
YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
mines no longer equalled world demand. It was this fact, not the fact of the
Bandoeng Agreement, which caused the tin boom of the middle 1920's.In 1925 and 1926, world tin consumption exceeded world production and
stocks were considerably depleted. Some consumers faced a "tin famine," but by
1927 production had been increased, and it continued to improve. World produc–
tion had averaged 139,000 tons in 1923-26. From 1927 to 1929 it averaged 176,000 t
tons. After 1927, production exceeded average requirements, stockpiles
accumulated once more, and tin prices dropped.The Tin Producers Association (TPA), established in July, 1929, was res–
trictionist from the beginning. It curtailed hours of work, and, for varying
lengths of time, shut down production entirely. Cooperation with the TPA was
uneven and spotty. Some small producers, went out of business because of the fall
in the price of tin, but the large producers, although they may have shut down
their plants for a time, used that time for necessary repairs which would
inevitably increase production when they started up again. In 1930, world tin
production dropped 17,000 tons below the 1929 figure, and yet this was less than
half of the curtailment intended by the TPA and was far more than offset by a
further contraction of world tin consumption. Knorr concludes: "By the fall of
1930, therefore, there was a decidedly strong drift toward support of govern–
ment intervention for compulsory output curtailment."The results of certain secret megotiations between the governments of
British Malaya, Nigeria, the Netherland Indies, and Bolivia and the tin pro–
ducers were announced on February 28, 1931. The restriction agreement called the
International Tin Control Scheme (ITCS) became effective on March 1, 1931.The ITCS was, as Knorr puts it, "an international producers' scheme with
compulsory legislative backing." No consuming country had any part in it and all
member producers were forced to submit to whatever controls and pol c i cies were
dictated by the ITCS.
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
In 1931, Thailand entered the ITCS. The five member countries then con–
trolled 90.5% of the world output of tin. The International Tin Committee (ITC)
planned to hold up the price by maintaining tin stocks at a prearranged minimum.
The participating countries were given quotas and promised to distribute their
production evenly throughout the year.World consumption of tin fell again in 1931. This was, in great part, due
to the curtailment of the United States production of tin plate and automobiles,
which in turn was a direct result of the depression. The Alaska tin industry,
caught in this slump, started on the decline which reduced it to complete
idleness in 1932. On the international level, it was obvious that the restrict–
tions imposed by the ITC were not sufficiently severe to sustain the price of tin.
In August, 1931, the member governments of the ITC promised to continue restric–
tion for three more years, and the International Tin Pool was formed.The ITP met in Paris, on December 17, 1931 , and agreed to raise the minimum
selling price of tin to £165 per ton. A monthly release of 10% was to be
allowed only after the price reached £198 per ton. By going off the gold
[ ?] standard, the United Kingdom had inflated sterling prices. This was the
chief reason for the increase in the pivotal price of tin. The ITP had accumu–
lated about 21,000 tons of tin by the end of 1932, and, although total back
stocks amounted to 60,000 tons, the industry was restored to some confidence.In 1932, the United States used even less tin than tin than during the previous
year, but by restricting production to the lowest figure since 1907, the ITC was
able to force consumption to exceed production for the first time since 1926.
In 1933, consumption, particularly in the United States, rose sharply as also
did the price of tin.The activities of the ITP during this period have not yet been revealed,
but, by November, all but 8,000 tons of its holdings had been sold at prices
well above £200 per ton. These stocks had all been acquired when tin was selling
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
for considerably less the £140 per ton. This was definitely a large-producer's
market. Small or new operators, such as those in Alaska, could never hope to
face the combined and organized competition of the five largest tin-producing
countries of the world.In July, 1934, the governments of British Malaya, the Netherland Indies,
Nigeria, and Bolivia entered into an agreement to establish a buffer stock of
tin. This, unlike the ITP, was an official institution, and was described as
an adjunct of the ITCS. This put consumer interests even more at the mercy of the
ITC; trading interests opposed the plan because it would curtail speculation
on the tin market; and even some tin producers, particularly the FMS who
explicitly rejected it, disliked the proposal. Smaller producers quite
naturally disapproved of it, because it made permanent control of tin production
much more possible than had the temporary ITP. The most suspicious element in
the [ ?] plan was that it was proposed at a time when tin prices were already
very high, so that there was, as Knorr expresses it, "a strong suggestion...
that the controllers planned to stabilize prices at an extremely elevated level."Early in 1934 it became obvious that the ITC was attempting to peg the
price of tin at around £240 per ton. Production was severely curtailed, so that,
even at this price, tin was less profitable when produced at 50% capacity or
less, th [ ?] rate assigned by to many of the largest mines, than it had previously
been at a lower price with full production. By 1935 world consumption had over–
taken even the resources of the new pool, and tin was short on the market.
The ITC claimed to have acted in good faith, but it was severely criticized
by traders and consumers alike, as well as by certain producers who were unable
to revise their production schedules speedily enough to meet the demand. In
1936 production, under lightened restrictions, surpassed world consumption for
the first time since 1931, but, in the course of the year tin was again short
on the market due to the inability of certain countries, particularly Bolivia,
to meet their quotas.
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
England and Portugal did not join the third tin agreemtn w agreement
which was consumated in July, 1936. The quotas of British Malaya, the Nether–
land Indies, Nigeria, and Bolivia remained unchanged in the original agreement,
but were somewhat increased later. For the first time consumers were given rep–
resentation in the Committee meetings and the right to "tender advice to the
Committee regarding world stocks and consumption," but this right did not extend
to production and prices. However, with permission of all voting Committee
members, decisions might be arrived at by correspondence, in which case there
was no meeting at which non-voting members could express any opinion, no matter
how restricted.This new scheme was scheduled to run for five years, or, until December
31, 1941. Although the longer term put the tin indust l r y on a more stable basis,
and certain improvements had been made in the agreement, the control scheme
remained a producer's arrangement so that consumers could only expect the price
of tin to remain unreasonably high. Moreover, the new agreement actually
discriminated against low-cost producers, so that even the natural lowering
effects of efficient management were negated by its terms.A detailed discussion of the ineffectual efforts to control supply and
prices under the new agreement cannot be given here. The reader is referred to
Knorr's Tin Under Control, from which much of the above information above and below as well as that
which follows has been obtained.1940 found the world at war and the United States government buying enor–
mous quantities of tin direct from the ITC, at a minimum price of 50 cents per
pound. After further negotiation, the ITC agreed to raise export quotas from
80% to 130% for the second half of the year. Because of the air bomboa
bombardment threat to British smelters, and also because of the uncertainty
of p e ace in the Pacific, the Metals Reserve Company contracted to buy ore from
several Bolivian companies, and the United States government decided to
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
construct a tin smelter. Texas City, Texas, was chosen for the location of
this smelter because of its good port, terminal and warehouse facil l it ies, and
because of the availability of cheap gas for fuel. The plant was estimated to
cost $3,500,000 and to be able to handle 50,000 tons of tin concentrates and
to produce 18,000 tons of tin a year. The $150,000,000 allocated for the pur–
chase of a tin stockpile would, if completely spent, produce 150,000 tons of the
metal. The ITC was concerned as to the effect this consumer's pool might have
on the tin market and insisted on certain terms for its disposal, conditions of
national emergency aside. Despite these terms, as Knorr points out, "it
appeared at the time that the stock constituted some kind of potential consumers'
pool of truly impressive magnitude. It would put the United States in a
favorable position for bargaining with the ITC about its restriction policy
and for preventing the engineering of exhorbitantly high prices, at least for
a considerable period of time."During 1941, the capacity of the Texas City smelter, now known as the
Longhorn smelter, was increased to 52,000 tons of metal per year, and the United
States government entered into agreements with the Netherlands Indies and the
Chinese government for the acquisition of additional amounts of tin ore. With
the outbreak of war in the Pacific, Japan came quickly into ctonrol of the tin
resources of China, French Inco-China, Thailand, Burma, British Malaya, and the
Netherland Indies, but domestic stocks held in the United States totalled
116,000 tons, in addition to 25,000 tons of tin concentrates at Texas City.The ITCS was scheduled to expire on in December, 1941. Although
N n egotiations for its renewal continued throughout that year, although the need for a
restriction on the production of tin had long since passed. was non-existent. Quotas still stood
at 130% of standard tonnages, and countries were unable to meet them. Finally,
on September 9, 1942, an Agreement for the International Control of the
Production and Export of Tin was signed by the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
Bolivia, and Belgium. With the exception of Thailand and French Indo-China,
these were the parties of the old ITCS. The new agreement repeated the terms
of the ITCS and was put into force retroactively to January 1, 1942, and was to
remain in force until December 31, 1946. Although this body had only formal
existence, it [ ?] reinstituted the control machinery
of the old scheme without major change. Representatives of consuming countries
were increased from two to three, but once again they were given no voting rights.By 1945, the United States government's Longhorn plant was the largest
single operating smelter in the world , and T t he United States had definitely turned
from any attempt to encourage tin mining on the North American continent.
Nighman, of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, reported no production of tin in Alaska
during 1945. He emphasized the fact that effor s t s to extract
Alaska tin had
failed again and again, and pointed out that the total yield since 1903 was not
enough to supply the country's needs even for a single month "even at the
extremely low level of use set up in 1943."One of the many reasons for this change of attitude is was the fact that the
Atlantic Charter stipulated against international cartel agreements and that
"the British Government stated late in 1942 that the tin-restriction scheme,
like other commodity-regulation schemes, would be subject to postwar review."
Nighman continues: "The American policy, which has the support of the British
Government, has been set forth by the United States Department of State,
proposing the formation of an International Trade Organization...In place of
international commodity arrangements, intergovernmental commodity agreements
would be made under specified conditions. Membership would be open to any
country, but it was especially recommended that consuming countries lacking the
materials in question should have an equal voice with their administration...
The various provisions are not to apply however to effectuate 'an equitable
distribution of commodities in short supply.' The conference should create
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YORK MOUNTAINS, ALASKA
an Industrial and Mineral Unit that 'should promote by technical assistance,
and other appropriate means the expansion of production and trade...with regard
to minerals and other primary commodities' that are not under the jurisdiction
of the Food and Agriculture Organization. Insofar as tin is concerned, it is
likely to remain in the 'short supply' class for a brief period, in which
instance the Combined Tin Committee may continue to function. If that condition
were to persist, the Industrial and Mineral Unit might take a hand. In any
case the ITC would have a sharply constricted field in which to operate."It would appear from this announcement that, so far as tin is concerned,
the United States has decided to allign itself with the 'consumer' nations.
It is therefore unlikely that there will be any further official efforts to
develop the high-cost deposits in the York Mountains of Seward Peninsula.
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