Canadian Meteorology

Unpaginated      |      Vol_VII-0324                                                                                                                  
EA: Meteor.

[Department of Transport,

Air Services Meteorological Division,

Toronto, Canada]

CANADIAN METEOROLOGY

       

Table of Contents

	Page
History of the Canadian Weather Service	1
History of the Canadian Arctic and Sub-Arctic Weather Stations	14
Arctic Expeditions in Which the Canadian Meteorological Service Participated	43
Climate of Arctic and sub-Arctic Canada	52
Arctic Observing Techniques	88
Directors of the Meteorological Service of Canada	91
References	96

Three charts:	Mean Pressure
	Mean Temperature
	Climatic Regions of Arctic and Subarctic Canada

001      |      Vol_VII-0325                                                                                                                  

       

CANADIAN METEOROLOGY

        History of the Canadian Weather Service

        Among the earliest Canadian meteorological or climatic

observations are those made by the Jesuit Missionaries in the 17th century.

Their records, known as the Jesuit Relations, date back to 1610 and contain

many references to climatic phenomena which permit some comparison to be made

between the climate of that period and the present. That the climate then was

much the same as it is today may be seen from the following excerpts which are

quoted from the Jesuit Relations for the period 1610-1614.

        “The chief city of new France is called Kebec and is

situated on the St. Lawrence River. The whole country possesses a

healthful climate but is harassed by a long and cold winter. This is

caused partly by--the abundance of snow with which the land in its

most northern regions, which lie upon the same parallel, as old France,

is continually desolated for three or four months.” ---- “I noticed

once that two February days ---- were as beautiful, mild and springlike

as are those in France about that time, nevertheless, the third day

after, it snowed a little and the cold returned. Sometimes in summer,

the heat is as intolerable, or more so, than it is in France.”

        Instrumental observations were made at some posts of the

Hudson’s Bay Company in the 18th century, for example, at York Factory in

1772 and 1773. However, it was not until 1839, when Lieutenant Charles

James Buchanan Riddell of the Royal Artillery arrived in Montreal to establish

a magnetic observatory, that an organized weather service was founded in

Canada.

002      |      Vol_VII-0326                                                                                                                  

        The study of terrestrial magnetism was receiving world–

wide attention in the early part of the 19th century, and in 1838 the

British Association for the Advancement of Science brought to the attention

of the Government the desirability of obtaining a series of simultaneous

magnetic observations at various points in the British colonies. The

recommendations of Baron von Humboldt of Germany, Major Edward Sabine, the

President of the Royal Society, and the Committee of the British Association

were adopted by the Government and four expeditions were sent out in 1839.

        The localities chosen by Sabine for the proposed stations

were Canada, van Diemen Island, St. Helena and the Cape of Good Hope. The

expedition to van Diemen Island was conducted by the British Admiralty and

the other three were under the Ordnance Department, the duties to be performed

by officers and soldiers of the Royal Artillery. It was suggested that the

observations at these stations should include meteorological as well as

magnetic phenomena.

        Riddell felt that the presence of magnetic rock in the

vicinity of Montreal made it an undesirable location for a magnetic observatory.

He obtained permission to choose a suitable site at Toronto instead, and

observations were begun in an unused barracks of Old Fort York on Christmas

Day, 1839. A grant of land was obtained from King’s College (now the University

of Toronto) in 1840 in order that the Observatory might be established in

appropriate scientific surroundings and the Meteorological Service has been

closely affiliated with this University ever since. A complete set of

meteorological instruments was installed, including a barometer which remained

003      |      Vol_VII-0327                                                                                                                  
in active service as the standard barometer for Canada until 1939.

        Riddell returned to England in 1841 because of ill health.

His successor, Lieutenant (General Sir) John Henry Lefroy was posted to Toronto

from the Observatory at St. Helena. Lefroy was a true scientist with a genuine

enthusiasm for his work, and under his able administration, the Observatory was

guided through its critical formative period.

        Lefroy arrived in Canada in 1842 and immediately set out on

a magnetic survey of the far North-West. His survey covered a route extending

to Hudson’s Bay and along the Mackenzie River as far north as Fort Good Hope

by means of canoe transport provided by the Hudson’s Bay Company. At each

stopping point, Lefroy an s d his assistant took magnetic and meteorological

observations.

        Lefroy foresaw the merits of obtaining weather information

from as broad an area as possible and obtained permission to place an observing

book in each of the military guard-rooms across the land. By this means, he

was able to collect data from Queenston, Montreal, Kingston, Toronto, London,

Fredericton, Halifax and Newfoundland. He also endeavoured to bring about a

plan whereby the various high schools across Canada would take regular weather

observations. Unfortunately, the necessary legislation was not passed until

1854 after Lefroy had returned to England. Observations were begun at twelve

high schools in 1858 and these were continued until 1876 when the government

grant for this purpose was discontinued.

        The original programme called for the establishment of the

Observatory for a three-year period, and when this expired, the Ordnance

004      |      Vol_VII-0328                                                                                                                  
Department maintained it on a year-to-year basis only. In 1850 the military

authorities decided to withdraw altogether and for a time it seemed likely that

the work at the Observatory would be discontinued. However, the Canadian

(now Royal Canadian) Institute along with kindred societies prevailed upon the

Legislative Council of the Province of Canada to ensure the continuance of the

Observatory. In 1853 a transfer was completed whereby the Observatory was

turned over to Professor J.B. Cherriman of the University of Toronto on behalf

of the Government of Canada. The non-commissioned officers of the Royal

Artillery, who had been taking the observations at Toronto, were given a

discharge from the Army and continued to work at the Observatory. One of them,

Thomas Menzies, was with Riddell when the Observatory was first established,

and he continued as an active observer until his death in 1887.

        In 1855, Professor Cherriman’s brother-in-law, Professor

G.T. Kingston, the Head of the Naval College in Quebec, was appointed Professor

of Natural Philosophy at the University of Toronto. Before Professor

Kingston arrived to take up his new position, Professor Cherriman managed to

negotiate a switch whereby he was made Professor of Natural Philosophy and

Professor Kingston was appointed Professor of Meteorology and Director of the

Observatory.

        The practical value of meteorology was little appreciated

by the Government, but through Professor Kingston’s strenuous efforts, a

sufficient grant was voted to enable the Observatory to carry on. The faith

that Professor Kingston had that the work of the Observatory would ultimately

be of great benefit to Canada is illustrated in his first annual report to the

005      |      Vol_VII-0329                                                                                                                  
Auditor-General in 1855 from which the following excerpt is quoted.

        “The object of the observatory is that of furnishing

to the scientific world the materials necessary for evolving the laws

that regulate the magnetic and meteorological phenomena of the earth.

        Other enquiries of a practical as well as of a

speculative character might obtain their solution by a course of

diligent observation extended through a long period of years. The

possible realization of these objects should be borne in mind in

estimating the utility of an observatory which it would be unfair to

measure wholly by its more obvious and immediate results.”

        Professor Kingston recognized the fact that if simultaneous

weather reports from several points could be received at a central office, the

motion of weather systems could be followed to a certain extent and thus

weather forecasts could be prepared. The newly invented telegraph provided

the required rapid means of communication and in 1857, Professor Kingston

read a paper before the Canadian Institute on the possible use of telegraphic

reports in weather forecasting. His hearers were favourably impressed and a

committee was appointed to report on the matter. The committee recommended

that Government support as well as private aid be granted for the purpose of

establishing certain stations from which these reports might be received.

The Canadian Government provided a grant of $5000. in 1871 to carry out this

work and the Meteorological Service of Canada was organized under the

Department of Marine and Fisheries.

006      |      Vol_VII-0330                                                                                                                  

        In order to broaden the field from which observational

data was were received, arrangements were made whereby the transmission of daily

reports from Port Stanley, Port Dover, Saugeen, Toronto, Kingston and Quebec

to Washington was begun in 1872 and in return, reports from 15 United States

stations were sent to Toronto. This exchange of reports made it possible to

prepare daily synoptic weather charts and paved the way for eventually

placing weather forecasting on a sound scientific basis.

        The first official storm warning in Canada was issued from

the Meteorological Office at Toronto in 1876 by Mr. R.F. (later Sir Frederic)

Stupart, and the first public weather forecast by Mr. B.C. Webber in 1877.

The drawing of weather charts was an entirely new field and very little was

known about their interpretation. The meteorologist was further handicapped

by the small amount of data with which he had to work. In view of these

limitations, the courage of those pioneer meteorologists is to be admired for

continuing to issue daily weather forecasts in the face of public scepticism

and ridicule.

        The westward expansion of the Canadian Pacific Railway

in the 1880’s and the concurrent extension of the telegraph made it possible

to establish reporting stations from coast to coast. These stations were, of

course, all located along the extreme southern fringe of Canada. The vast

north country was still a blank area on weather maps. Nevertheless, steady

progress was made in the interpretation of the available information and the

Service gradually gained public confidence.

007      |      Vol_VII-0331                                                                                                                  

        The status of weather forecasting in Canada in the

early part of the 20th century is well expressed in an article written in

1912 by R.F. Stupart, the Director of the Meteorological Service: “The maps,

however, valuable as they are, are deficient in many respects, the telegraph

does not yet reach much beyond the southern margin of Canada, and the weather

map shows a vast blank to the northward, and cloud observations showing the

motion of the upper air are fragmentary and unreliable. Forecasts based on

such imperfect information must necessarily be liable to occasional error.”

        The need for more northern stations was very acute,

especially for the study of the great cold waves which are characteristic of

Canadian winters. This need was felt by the United States Weather Office as

well as by Canada. On September 4, 1882, Major-General Haz e n, the Chief

Signal Officer in Washington wrote to Charles Carpmael, who had succeeded

Professor Kingston as Director in 1880, offering United States assistance in

paying the salaries of observers at Fort Chipewyan and Prince Albert. The

financial assistance of the United States was not required in this instance,

(the observer’s allowance at Fort Chipewyan was a modest $60. per annum) but

it is interesting to note that sixty years later during World War II, a

large number of weather stations were established in northern Canada with

United States aid.

        In the years 1900-1910, observing stations were established

along the MacKenzie Valley as far as Herschel Island on the Arctic Ocean.

These stations were valuable inasmuch as they provided climatic data, but the

008      |      Vol_VII-0332                                                                                                                  
lack of sufficiently rapid communications made it impossible to utilize their

reports in daily forecasting. As further advances were made in the technique

of radio transmission from 1926 on, these stations were equipped with radio,

and for the first time meteorologists were able to draw the daily weather

pattern for northern continental North America on their charts with some

degree of confidence.

        Until 1910, weather observations consisted almost entirely

of surface observations and the only information available to meteorologists

on the structure and motion of air above the surface was that given by cloud

observations. It was realized that before any major advances could be made in

meteorological knowledge it would be necessary to learn more about physical

processes in the upper atmosphere. A kits station was set up at Agincourt,

near Toronto, to take soundings of the atmosphere by means of recording

instruments carried aloft on kites. This represented a step in the right

direction but there were too many limitations to this method to make it a

practical forecasting aid. If the winds were too light, the kites would not

rise, and if they were too strong, the kites could not stand up against them.

It is interesting to note that the first upper air observations in Canada were

made in the Arctic by Sir Edward Parry, who sent self-registering thermometers

aloft on kites in January 1822 near latitude 66° 11′N, longitude 83° 10′W.

        The next step was to explore the atmosphere to much greater

heights by means of free balloons carrying self-recording meteorological

instruments. This method, too, was useful for research purposes only, for it

009      |      Vol_VII-0333                                                                                                                  
was an obvious requirement that before the record could be used, it had to be

found and shipped to the office of origin. In a country as sparsely populated

as Canada, this usually took several weeks, and often months or even years,

which made their use at isolated stations out of the question. This was

demonstrated during the Second Polar Year Expedition to Fort Rae, N.W.T. in

1932-33, for 27 meteorographs were released but only two were recovered.

        Some use was made of aeroplanes to assist in obtaining

upper air data, and flights were begun for this purpose by the Toronto Flying

Club in 1934. Through the cooperation of the R.C.A.F., daily ascents were made

at Fort Smith, N.W.T. during the winter of 1936-37. Ascents were also made at

Edmonton by the Edmonton Flying Club and in Newfoundland by Imperial Airways.

        When short-wave radio was perfected, it was possible to

combine the meteorograph with a miniature radio transmitter in such a way that

the radio signals from the instrument could be received at a ground station

and interpreted in terms of pressure, temperature and humidity. This new type

of instrument, called a radiosonde, supplied meteorology with a new tool for

sounding the atmosphere at any suitably equipped station in any kind of weather.

The radiosonde soon replaced all the former methods for obtaining upper air

soundings, and by 1950 there were 28 stations in Canada equipped to take

radiosonde flights, of which 8 are in the Arctic and 14 in the sub-Arctic. The

amount of upper air data which is being obtained from the Canadian Arctic and

sub-Arctic is proving extremely useful in current weather forecasting and will

undoubtedly provide a valuable aid to meteorological research.

010      |      Vol_VII-0334                                                                                                                  

        A further aid in the study of upper air motions was developed

immediately after the First World War. The speed and direction of winds

aloft were determined by releasing a small balloon, called a pilot balloon,

which was inflated with hydrogen to rise at a known rate and followed visually

with a theodolite. The first pilot balloon station in Canada was established

at Toronto in 1920. By 1950, 69 of the weather stations in Canada were

equipped to take pilot balloon observations.

        The expansion of the Canadian Meteorological Service was

steady but gradual until the mid-1930’s. At that time it was announced that

a national air service, the Trans-Canada Air Lines, was to be inaugurated

in the very near future. The successful operation of a scheduled air service

depends to a great extent on an accurate knowledge of present weather and weather

trends at a large number of points and the Meteorological Service was not

equipped to provide such a detailed service. It was necessary to expand from

a daytime organization issuing public weather forecasts only, to one operating

on a 24-hour basis with a forecast staff at all the major air terminals. New

observing stations had to be established and the frequency of observations

at many stations had to be increased to hourly intervals. Training courses

were begun immediately and when Trans-Canada Air Lines were ready to undertake

their maiden flight in April 1937, the Meteorological Service was ready to

fill their weather requirements.

        Two years later, the beginning of the Second World War

necessitated another rapid expansion of the Meteorological Service. The main

requirement at first was for additional staff to act as instructors and

011      |      Vol_VII-0335                                                                                                                  
forecasters at Air Force operational and training centres. After the United

States entered the war, weather reports were needed from several routes which

were used for the large-scale ferrying of aircraft to various theatres of

operation. The main routes were from Edmonton to Fairbanks, Winnipeg to

Greenland and from Newfoundland to England.

        The Meteorological Service of Canada could not undertake to

establish a large number of stations in the sub-Arctic and Arctic owing to a

critical shortage of staff and equipment and an agreement was made with the

United States that the new stations which were required would be operated either

entirely by the United States or with United States assistance. The basic

agreement was that Canada would be responsible for operating all installations

which were considered to be an essential part of the general meteorological

system of Canada and that the United States would be permitted to instal and

operate supplementary meteorological facilities for the duration of the war. At

the end of the war most of the stations established by the United States were

closed and the remainder were taken over by Canada as rapidly as staff became

available.

        The main expansion of the Meteorological Service during the

postwar period has been in the Arctic. The increasing interest in Arctic weather

phenomena which was intensified during the war years was crystallized into a

definite blueprint for the establishment of a network of weather stations in the

Canadian Arctic Islands. Canada and the United States made an agreement to

jointly establish and operate a series of Arctic weather stations to be located

012      |      Vol_VII-0336                                                                                                                  
approximately 500 miles apart in the Canadian Arctic. The first of these

stations was established on Slidre Fiord on Ellesmere Island in April 1947 and

the second on Cornwallis Island in September of the same year. Two more

stations were established in April 1948, one on Prince Patrick Island, and

the other on Ellef Ringnes Island. A fifth station is being established this

year (1950) near the northermost tip of Ellesmere Island.

        The completion of this Arctic program will provide an adequate

network of Arctic stations for present meteorological needs. On January 1, 1950, the

Canadian Meteorological Service was receiving weather reports from 1088 stations,

of which 128 are located in the sub-Arctic and Arctic regions. The point has

been reached where an additional increase in the number of reporting stations

in Canada would probably produce no noticeable improvement in weather forecasting.

The main problem facing the Meteorological Service at the present time is to

utilize the data which is are available and attempt to improve the technique and

methods of forecasting, for it is unfortunately true, as in Stupart’s day, that

forecasts are still “liable to occasional error.”

        The growth of the Meteorological Service from 1839 to 1950 is

illustrated in the following table. The number of observing stations in

operation at the end of each Director’s term of office is given. In the case

of the present Controller, the number of stations shown is the number in

operation on January 1, 1950.

013      |      Vol_VII-0337                                                                                                                  

Director	Term of office	No. of stations
Lt. C.J.B. Riddell, R.A.	1839-1841	1
Capt. J.H. Lefroy, R.A.	1841-1853	1
Prof. J.B. Cherriman, M.A.	1853-1855	1
Prof. G.T. Kingston, M.A.	1855-1880	123
C. Carpmael, M.A.	1880-1894	285
Sir Frederic Stupart, K.B.	1894-1929	835
Dr. J. Patterson, O.B.E., M.A., L.L.D.	1929-1946	984
A. Thomson, O.B.E., M.A.	1946-	1088

014      |      Vol_VII-0338                                                                                                                  

        HISTORY OF THE CANADIAN ARCTIC AND SUB-ARCTIC WEATHER STATIONS

        The need for weather reporting stations in Canada’s Arctic

and sub-Arctic regions was recognized in the earliest days of the Canadian

Meteorological Service, especially when the construction of synoptic weather

charts for forecast purposes was begun in 1872. However, the establishment

of northern stations was a slow process owing to lack of funds, lack of

communications and the relative inaccessibility of these regions.

        For the purposes of this article, considerations of density

of population, communications, transportation, climate and mature of terrain

have made it desirable to define the southern boundary of sub-Arctic Canada

as follows:

        The 55th parallel across British Columbia, Alberta and

Saskatchewan to the Manitoba border, then a line through Flin Flon and the

Pas across Manitoba to where the 51st parallel crosses the Manitoba-Ontario

border; thence eastward along the 51st parallel to the Quebec border and from

there to Dolbeau, just north of Lake St. John; from Dolbeau to Caribou Point

and from there along the north shore of the St. Lawrence River through the

Straits of Belle Isle.

        Much of our early knowledge of weather conditions in the

Canadian Arctic has been abstracted from the logs of Arctic expeditions. An

important publication which lists the meteorological observations of 36

expeditions during the period 1819-1858 is “Contributions to Our Knowledge of

the Meteorology of the Arctic Regions, Vol. I, H.M. Stationery Office, 1885”.

The length of the individual records varies but usually covers a period of

from one to two years.

015      |      Vol_VII-0339                                                                                                                  

        After 1871, the Meteorological Service of Canada began a

systematic program of establishing northern stations by enlisting the aid of

the Hudson’s Bay Company, missionaries and the North-West (later Royal

Canadian) Mounted Police. In July 1873, six cases of instruments were sent

to the Right Reverend Lord Bishop of Rupert’s Land, St. John’s College,

Winnipeg, for distribution to mission stations under his jurisdiction. In

1882, Carpmael made arrangements through the Minister of the Interior for

observations to be taken at all North-West Mounted Police stations.

        As the sub-Arctic became more settled during the early

part of the 20th century, the number of observing stations gradually

increased, with the observations being taken by private individuals and

employees of commercial and mining companies. This expansion was very

noticeable in the Peace River district where a large number of observing

stations were opened up during the period 1910-1935. At many of these

stations instruments were supplied by the Meteorological Service and the

observations were taken without pay. At other stations, a small allowance

was given to the observer, but this was usually less than $100 per annum.

        The bulk of the information which we possess concerning

the climate of Labrador prior to 1900 has been obtained from the records kept

at the mission stations which were established along the Labrador coast by the

Moravian Brethren. In 1765, Jens Haven, who had worked among the Greenland

Eskimoes, arrived in Labrador with three Moravian Brethren to do missionary

work. Permission for the project was granted by Commodore Sir High Palliser,

the governor of Newfoundland. In the years which followed, missions were

016      |      Vol_VII-0340                                                                                                                  
established by the Moravian Brethren at Nain in 1770, Okkak in 1775, Hopedale

in 1781, Hebron in 1829, Zoar in 1865, Ramah in 1871, Makkovik in 1900 and

Killinek in 1904. Zoar, Ramah and Killinek have since been abandoned.

        The observations which were taken at these stations were

forwarded to Hamburg. Germany, and have been published in the volumes of

“Deutsche Uberseeische Meteoroloigsche Beobachtungen, herausgegeben von der

Deutschen Seewarte”. In 1926, the Meteorological Service of Canada authorized

an allowance to be paid to the Moravian Mission at Nain, and since then the

records from this station have been forwarded directly to the Meteorological

Service.

        In the latter 1920’s government radio stations were opened

at various points in the North-West Territories such as Aklavik, Coppermine,

Fort Norman, Fort Simpson and Fort Smith, for example, for the purpose of

gathering and transmitting meteorological data as well and handling commercial

messages. The outbreak of war in 1939 and the corresponding increase in

military flying over Arctic regions necessitated the establishment of additional

northern stations in Canada. This was especially true after the United States

entered the war in 1941. Aircraft were ferried to Alaska, the Aleutians and

the U.S.S.R. by way of northwestern Canada, and to the United Kingdom, Iceland

and Greenland by way of northeastern Canada. Many of these wartime stations

were established and operated either wholly by the United States or with their

assistance.

017      |      Vol_VII-0341                                                                                                                  

        Meteorological observations have been taken in the

Canadian Arctic during the numerous voyages of the Canadian Government ice–

breakers C.G.S. Arctic and N.B. McLean, the Hudson’s Bay Company vessel S.S.

Nascopie which foundered off the north coast of Baffin Land in 1947 and the

R.C.M.P. vessel St. Roch. Climatic data and meteorological observations were

also recorded on most of the Canadian Geological Survey expeditions to various

parts of northern Canada. These records are to be found in the Annual Reports

of the Geological Survey of Canada.

        The Canadian Arctic and sub-Arctic stations at which

meteorological observations are known to have been taken are given in the

following list.

        Classification:

        Class I - A station where standard equipment consists of a mercurial

barometer, wet . , dry, maximum and minimum thermometers, anemometer, barograph

and rain gauge. At most of these stations complete observations are taken

four times daily at fixed synoptic hours, viz. 0130, 0730, 1330 and 1930 EST.

At the stations designated by “T”, the synoptic reports are immediately

communicated by means of radio and telegraph to the teletype network linking

all forecast offices in Canada.

        Class II - A station where the equipment consists of a maximum and

minimum thermometer and a rain gauge ordinarily, although at a few the

equipment is more extensive.

018      |      Vol_VII-0342                                                                                                                  

        Class III - The meteorological equipment consists of a rain gauge only.

        Class IIIm - A rainfall reporting station in operation during the

summer months only.

        F - indicates that weather forecasts are issued.

        A - indicates that the observations are taken at an airport.

        P - indicates that the station was in operation on January 1, 1950.

        a - indicates that position is approximate.

        b - indicates broken record.

019      |      Vol_VII-0343                                                                                                                  

Station	Class	Lat. °N	Long. °W	Height in ft. above sea level	Years of operation	First Observer	Remarks
				British Columbia
Aiyansh	IIIP	55°16′	129°9′	500	1924-	M.M. Priestley
Anyox	II	55°27′	129°48′	370	1916-1935	F.E. Patton
Atlin	I	59°35′	133°38′	2240	1899-1946	R. Patrick
Babine Lake	IIP	55°8′	126°18′	2230	1910- (b)	F. Durham	Observations 1910- 1936 at Babine Lake Hatchery.
Beatton River(A)	IIP	57°23′	121°25′	2755	1944-	Dept. of Transport
Camp Blueberry	I	56°44′	121°47′	3094	1943-1645	U.S.A.A.F.
Coal River	I	59°40′	127°15′	1660	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Dawson Creek	I	55°45′	120°15′	2203	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Dease Lake	ITP	58°25′	130°0′	2678	1943- (b)	U.S.A.A.F.	Station operated by Dept. of Transport since Oct. 1946.
Echo Lake	II	56°56′	130°16′	3714	1924-1926	A. McKay
Engineer	II	59°30′	134°15′	2160	1925-1929	C.E. Gilerich
Finlay Forks	ITP	56°0′	123°49′	1900	1943-	U.S.A.A.F.	Taken over by Domin– ion Gov’t. Telegraph in 1945.
Fort Nelson(A)	ITP	58°50′	122°35′	1230	1937-	United Air Lines	Operated by Dept. of Transport since 1942. Radiosonde station.

020      |      Vol_VII-0344                                                                                                                  

Station	Class	Lat. °N	Long.°W	Height in ft. above sea level	Years of operation	First Observer	Remarks
				British Columbia Cont’d
Fort St. John (Baldonnel)	IIP	56°12′	120°49′	2500	1910-	c. c. Campbell	Observations also taken a few miles away by Dr. H.A.W. Brown from 1933-1945.
Fort St. John (A)	ITP	56°14′	120°44′	2275	1942-	Dept. of Transport
Hudson Hope	I	56°5′	121°55′	1606	1916-1944	F. Monteith
Ingenika Mine	II	56°45′	125°0′	2500	1932-1939	E. Buchann
Log Cabin	I	59°46′	134°59′	2900	1943-1947	U.S.A.A.F.	Operated by Canada after Feb. 1946.
Lower Post	I	59°57′	128°39′	1830	1937-1938	United Air Lines	Observing station transferred to Watson Lake in 1938.
McDames Creek	II	59°12′	119°12′	----	1937-1941	B.C. Provincial Police
Mill Bay	IIP	55°0′	129°45′	10	1915-	W.D. Noble
Morley River	I	59°53′	131°46′	----	1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Muncho Lake	I	58°55′	125°46′	2724	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
New Hazelton	IIP	55°15′	127°35′	1150	1914-	W.J. Larkworthy
Pouce Coupe	II	55°43′	120°8′	2000	1926-1939	A. Chalmers
Premier	IIP	56°3′	130°1′	1371	1926-	W.H. Pettman
Progress	II	55°50′	120°10′	2800	1942-1948	H. Bentley

021      |      Vol_VII-0345                                                                                                                  

Rolla	II	55°41′	120°21′	2400	1920-1924	E.S. Jephson
Silver Creek (Oninica)	II	55°30′	126°0′	----	1943-1945	Takla Mercury Mines
Slate Creek	II	55°45′	124°45′	3200	1936-1938	W. Ogilvie
Smith River (A)	ITP	59°52′	126°30′	2208	1944-	Dept. of Transport
Stewart	IIP	56°1′	130°1′	4	1910	W. H. Manton
Summit Lake	I	58°39′	124°38′	4146	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Sweetwater	III	55°52′	120°30′	2600	1933-1946	W.S. Simpson
Takla Landing	I	55°29′	125°58′	2273	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Telegraph Creek	I	57°54′	131°9′	550	1942-1948	Dept. of Transport	Some Observations taken 1924-1928 by F.N. Jackson.
Trout Liard	I	59°31′	126°2′	1388	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Trutch	IIP	57°48′	122°54′	2813	1943- (b)	U.S.A.A.F.	U.S.A.A.F. withdrew 1945. Re-opened by Canada Sept. 1948.
				YUKON
Aishihik(A)	ITP	61°37′	137°31′	3170	1943-	Dept. of Transport
Brooks Brook	I	60°30′	133°23′	2365	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Canyon Creek	I	60°52′	137°8′	2130	1943-1946	U.S.A.A.F.
Carcross	IIP	60°11′	134°34′	2171	1907-	P Reid.	Station closed 1948-1949.
Dawson	ITP	64°4′	139°29′	1062	1897-	W. Ogilvie, Commissioner of the Territory	Radio station established in 1925 and observations taken over by Royal Can. Crops of Signals

022      |      Vol_VII-0346                                                                                                                  

Davils Pass	I	60°31′	134°10′	2220	1943-1944	U.S.A.A.F.
Elsa	IIP	64°	135°30′(a)	----	1948-	Keno Hill Mining Co..
Fish Lake	I	60°10′	132°3′	2845	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Flight Strip#6(A)	I	60°40′	113°28′	2770	1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Flight Strip#8(A)	I	61°25′	139°7′	2575	1944-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Fort Constantine	II	64°0′	140°0′	----	1895-1897	N.W.M.P.
Forty Mile	II	64°30′	140°30′	1000	1937-1928	J.E. Ellis
Frances Lake	IIP	61°17′	129°24′	2425	1941-	Hudson’s Bay Co.	Pressure observations available for part of period.
Kluane Lake	II	60°56′	138°20′	----	1946	H.J. Brooks
Mayo	ITP	63°35′	135°51′	1625	1925-	Royal Can. Corps of Signals
Orchie Lake	I	62°10′	131°45′	----	1944-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Pine Creek	IIP	60°50′	137°33′	2030	1944-	Dom. Experimental Sub-Station
Rampart House	II	67°30′	134°30′	----	1874-1879	J. McDougal, H.B.Co.	Observations discon– tinued when McDougall Moved to Dunvegan.
Rancheria	I	60°5′	130°10′	2770	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Ross River	I	62°2′	132°25′	2316	1943-1944	U.S.A.A.F.
Selkirk	IIP	62°46′	137°25′	----	1941-	Dom. Govt. Telegraph	Some observations by N.W.M. Police 1898- 1899.

023      |      Vol_VII-0347                                                                                                                  

Sang(A)	ITP	62°22′	140°24′	1925	1943-	Dept. of Transport	Lowest temperature in North America, −81.4°F, recorded here on Feb. 3, 1947.
Stewart River	IIP	63°20′	139°25′	----	1941-	Dom. Govt. Telegraph	Visual airways observations only.
Swede Creek	II	64°6′	139°45′	1050	1919-1929	J.R. Farr
Swift River	I	60°0′	131°5′	3415	1943-1946	U.S.A.A.F.
Tagish Lake	II	60°17′	134°15′	----	1898-1900	N.W.M. Police
Teslin(A)	ITP	60°10′	132°44′	2300	1943-	Dept. of Transport
Victoria Gulch	III	62°0′	137°10′(a)	----	1905-1906	P. Holloway
Watson Lake(A)	ITP	60°7′	128°48′	2248	1939-	Dept. of Transport
Whitehorse	II	60°45′	135°0′	2075	1900-1911(b)	E.D. Bolton
Whitehorse(A)	ITFP	60°43′	135°5′	2289	1940-	Dept. of Transport	Radiosonde station.
				NORTH WEST TERRITORIES
Aklavik	ITP	68°14′	134°50′	25	1926-	R.C.C.S.	Radiosonde station.
Arctic Bay	ITP	73°0′	85°18′	36	1937-	H.B. Co.	Radiosonde station. Operated by Dept. of Transport after 1945. Observation taken 1910-11 when Capt. Bernier’s expedition wintered there.
Ashe Inlet	I	62°33′	70°35′	100	1844-1886	W.A. Ashe	Observing station during Dom. Govt. expedition to Hudson Bay & Strait, 1884-1886.

024      |      Vol_VII-0348                                                                                                                  

Bache Peninsula	I	79°10′	76°45′	10	1930-1933	R.C.M. Police
Baker Lake	ITP	64°18′	96°5′	30	1946-	R.C.C.S.	Radiosonde station.
Cambridge Bay	ITP	69°7′	105°1′	45	1935-	Rev. R. Thomas	Observations taken in 1852-1853 by expedition commanded by Capt. Richard Collinson in the “Enterprise ” ” and in 1927-1928 by officers of C.G.S. “Baymaud”.
Camsell River	II	63°30′	112°0′	--	1933-1934	W.G. Stuart
Cape Dorset	II	64°15′	76°25′	40	1915-1927(b)	S.J. Stewart
Chesterfield Inlet	ITP	63°20′	90°43′	13	1921-	Rev. Father R.T.A. Turquetel, R.C. Mission.	Marine radio station established in Sept. 1930. One of Canadian bases during Second International Polar Year, 1932-1933
Clyde River	ITP	70°25′	68°17′	26	1943-	U.S.A.A.F.	Observations by J.G. Cormack of H.B. Co. 1933-1935. Radiosonde station. Operating taken over by Canada in 1948.
Coppermine	ITP	67°47′	115°15′	13	1930-	R.C.C.S.	Radiosonde station. One of Canadian bases during Second Inter– national Polar Year, 1932-1933.
Coral Harbour(A)	ITP	64°11′	83°17′	193	1943-	U.S.A.A.F.	Taken over by Canada in 1945. Radiosonde station. Observa– tions taken 1933- 1935 by H.P. Dionne H.B. [ ?]

025      |      Vol_VII-0349                                                                                                                  

Craig Harbour	I	76°12′	79°35′	12	1922-1939 (b)	R.C.M. Police	Post abandoned in 1939.
Dundas Harbour	IP	74°34′	82°10′	18	1945-	R.C.M. Police	Observations by R.C.M.P. 1930-1933.
Ennadal Lake	ITP	61°8′	100°55′	875	1949-	R.C.C.S.
Eskimo Point	I	61°7′	94°3′	25	1943-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Eureka	ITP	80°13′	86°11′	8	1947-	Dept. of Transport and U.S. Weather Bureau	Radiosonde station. Operated jointly by U.S. and Canada.
Fort Franklin	III	65°20′	123°0′	500	1930 only	-------	Winter quarters of Sir John Franklin’s land expedition 1825-1826.
Fort Good Hope	IIP	66°15′	128°38′	214	1896- (b)	Rev. P. Seguin, R.C. Mission de Norte Dame de Bonne Esperance.	Instruments moved to Fort Norman in 1904, returned in 1908.
Fort Good Hope	ITP	66°15′	128°38′	251	1944-	R.C.C.S.
Fort Liard	II	66°30′	124°0'(a)	500	1892-1893	Rev. T.J. Marsh, Anglican Mission	Rev. Marsh moved to Hay River in 1893 and took instruments with him.
Fort McPherson	IIP	67°26′	134°53′	150	1892-	Rev. J.O. Stringer and Count V.E. de Sainville.	Rev. Stringer trans– ferred to Herschel Island in 1897.
Fort Norman	ITP	64°54′	125°30′	300	1904-	Rev. G. Houssais, R.C. Mission	Instruments brought from Fort Good Hope in 1904. Radio station established in 1930 and observa– tions taken over by R.C.C.S.

026      |      Vol_VII-0350                                                                                                                  

Fort Rae	I	62°40′	115°45′	540	1875-1886 (b)	A. Flett, H.B. Co.	Instruments taken up by Bishop of McKenzie River in 1875. Joint British– Canadian station during first Interna– tional Polar Year 1882-1883, and base for British axpedi– tion during Second International Polar Year 1932-1933. Some observations taken 1934-1936 by R.A. Ingrey.
Fort Reliance	ITP	62°43′	109°6′	515	1948-	R.C.C.S.
Fort Resolution(A)	ITP	61°10′	113°41′	519	1875- (b)	R. Swanston	Records incomplete from 1875-1912. Observations taken at R.C. Mission until 1930. Radio station established in 1930 and observations taken over by R.C.C.S. Airport opened March 1943.
Fort Ross	I	71°55′	94°15′	50	1937-1948 (b)	H.B. Co.	Personnel evacuated in Nov. 1943, when supply ship unable to reach Fort Ross during 1942 and 1943. Station re-opened Oct. 1944 and closed in March 1948.
Fort Simpson	ITP	61°52′	121°21′	415	1875- (b)	Rev. A.C. Carrioch, St. David’s Mission	Records incomplete from 1875-1894. Barometer and other

027      |      Vol_VII-0351                                                                                                                  

							instruments left here by V. Stefansson in 1908. Radio station established in 1924 and observations begun by RCCS. Obser– vations at mission discontinued in 1927.
Fort Simpson(A)	I	61°52′	121°13′	572	1943-1946	USAAF and Dept. of Transport	USAAF withdrew in 1945.
Fort Smith	I	60°0′	111°52′	680	1911-1946	A.J. Bell	Observations taken at RCCS radio station after 1928
Fort Smith(A)	ITP	60°1′	111°58′	665	1943-	USAAF and Dept. of Transport	Radiosonde station. USAAF withdrew in 1945.
Hay River	I	60°50′	115°32′	529	1893-1943	Rev. T.J. Marsh, Anglican Mission	Mission station discontinued when observations begun at Hay River airport in 1943.
Hay River(A)	ITP	60°53′	115°46′	529	1943-	U.S.A.A.F.	Station taken over by RCCS in 1945.
Herschel Island	II	69°30′	139°15′	15	1896-1928 (b)	Capt. G. Leavitt	Observations taken over by Anglican Mission 1897-1906 when mission was closed and instru– ments were left in charge of N.W.M. Police. No records received from 1906- 1916. Broken series of observations taken by Cecillia Harding from 1916- 1928.

028      |      Vol_VII-0352                                                                                                                  

Holman Island	ITP	70°30′	117°38′	30	1939-	W.L.T. Smith of H.B. Co.	Station transferred here from Walker Bay.
Indin Lake	ITP	64°16′	115°14′	900	1948-	Trans-American Mining Corporation
Isachsen	ITP	78°47′	103°32′	83	1948-	Dept. of Transport and U.S. Weather Bureau	Station operated jointly by U.S. and Canada. Established by airlift from Resolute in April, 1948. Radiosonde station.
Kazan River	I	61°34′	100°40′	800	1945-1946	R.C.A.F.
Kittigazuit	ITP	69°17′	133°56′	92	1948-	R.C.A.F
Lake Harbour	I	62°50′	69°55′	54	1909-1948	Archbishop L. Fleming, Anglican Mission.
Mills Lake	I	61°16′	118°45′	484	1943-1944	U.S.A.A.F.
Mould Bay	ITP	76°14′	119°50′	50	1948-	Dept. of Transport and U.S.A.A.F.	Operated jointly by Canada and U.S. Established by air– life from Resolute in April, 1948. Radiosonde station.
Norman Wells	I	65°18′	126°51′	270	1946-1949	Dept. of Transport
Norman Wells(A)	ITP	65°17′	126°49′	270	1949-	Dept. of Transport	Observing station maintained here by USAAF from 1943-1946.
Nottingham Island	ITP	63°7′	77°56′	54	1927-	Dept. of Transport, Marine Radio station

029      |      Vol_VII-0353                                                                                                                  

Nueltin Lake	I	60°30′	99°0′	---	1939-1941	J.A. Crafford	Some observations in 1945 by RCAF survey party.
Padloping Island	IP	67°6′	62°21′	130	1941- (b)	U.S.A.A.E.	Continuation of this station recommended by I.C.A.O.
Pangnirtung	IP	66°9′	65°30′	43	1923-	R.C.M. Police
Pond Inlet	IP	72°43′	78°30′	13	1923- (b)	R.C.M. Police
Port de Boucherville	I	63°12′	77°28′	--	1884-1886	C. de Boucherville	Observing station maintained during Hudson Straits expedition, 1884- 1886.
Port Laperriere	I	62°35′	78°1′	--	1884-1886	A.M. Laperriere	Observing station on Digges Island during Hudson Straits expedition 1884-1886.
Port Radium	ITP	66°5′	11°82′	600	1937- (b)	R.C.C.S.	Station closed 1940-1942.
Providence(A)	ITP	61°20′	117°40′	529	1943-	U.S.A.A.F.	Station taken over by R.C.C.S. in 1945.
Resolute	ITP	74°41′	94°55′	56	1947-	Dept. of Transport and U.S. Weather Bureau	Station operated jointly by Canada and U.S. Radiosonde station.
Resolution Island	ITP	61°18′	64°53′	127	1929-	Dept. of Transport Marine Radio station	Station moved here from Port Burwell.
Sawmill E(A)	I	65°44′	118°55′	---	1948-1949	R.C.A.F.

030      |      Vol_VII-0354                                                                                                                  

Snare River	II	63°30′	116°0′	600	1947-1948	R. Coutts and B.F. Russell
Trout Lake	I	60°45′	121°30′	1650	1944-1945	U.S.A.A.F.
Tuktoyaktuk	IIP	69°30′	133°0′ (a)	---	1948-	Anglican Mission
Upper Frobisher(A)	ITP	63°44′	68°33′	68	1942-	U.S.A.A.F.	Radiosonde station. Operation to be taken over by Canada in 1950.
Walker Bay	I	71°30′	117°50′	27	1938-1939	H.B. Co.	Station transferred to Holman Island in 1939.
Wrigley(A)	ITP	63°13′	123°28′	511	1947-	R.C.C.S.	Observing station operated by USAAF 1943-1946.
Yellowknife	II	62°28′	114°20′	515	1941-1942	A.L. Arsenault	Observations taken at Con Mine.
Yellowknife	IIP	63°14′	114°25′	---	1943-	Yellowknife Hydro
Yellowknife(A)	ITP	62°28′	114°27′	656	1942	R.C.C.S. and Dept. of Transport
				ALBERTA
Beaverlodge	ITP	55°10′	119°19′	2500	1926-	Experimental Farm
Berwyn (Bear Lake)	IIP	56°10′	117°47′	2000	1934- (b)	H. L. Dundas	Station closed 1940- 1949.
Buffalo Head Prairie	IIP	58°10′	116°20′	950	1932-	T.R. Smith
Daysland	II	55°52′	112°17′	2260	1908-19 2 2	D. Davidson

031      |      Vol_VII-0355                                                                                                                  

(Fort ) Dunvegan	II	55°56′	118°35′	1305	1880-1943(b)	J. McDougall, H.B. Co.	Station closed in 1888 and instruments for– warded to Fort Vermil– lion. Reopened in 1904
Edson	II	55°33′	116°25′	2985	1916-1940(b)	D.H. Felker
Elmworth	II	55°4′	119°40′	2450	1926-	G.S. Moyer
Embarrass(A)	ITP	58°12′	111°23′	775	1943-	U.S.A.A.F.	Taken over by Canada in 1945.
Fairview	ITP	56°4′	118°23′	2160	1931-	J.G. Bryden
Fort Chipewyan	I	58°43′	111°9′	714	1874-1940	A. MacFarlane H.B. Co.	Observations irregular 1874-1886. In 1885, instruments received from Fort Rae which had been left by First Intern. Polar Year Expedition and observa– tions begun by Archdaecon W.D. Reeve of Anglican Mission.
Fort McMurray	I	56°44′	111°23′	829	1908-1944	W. Gordon	Radio station esta– blished in 1934 and observations taken over by RCCS.
Fort Vermilion	IIP	58°23′	116°3′	950	1905-	Rev. A.S. White , Anglican Mission	Instruments received from Dunvegan in 1889, but the prospective observer declined to serve without pay and station not opened until 1905. Observa– tions taken at Experimental Farm since 1908 and mission station discontinued in 1919.

032      |      Vol_VII-0356                                                                                                                  

Goodfare	II	55°16′	119°42′	2700	1929-1933	V.J. Young
Goodwin (De Bolt)	II	55°11′	118°12′	1600	1931-1937 (b)	J. P. Grant
Grande Prairie (A)	ITP	55°10′	118°53′	2190	1922- (b)	W. H. Pearson	Station closed in 1937 and reopened by Dept. of Transport in 1942.
Grimshaw	II	56°12′	112°36′	2001	1945-1949	C.W. Purcell
Gronard	II	55°35′	116°9′	1900	1884-1945 (b)	W.E. Traill, H.B. Co.	Incomplete records 1884-1896 and no records 1896-1909.
High Prairie	IIP	55°28′	116°30′	1968	1926-	S. Harris
Keg River	ITP	57°47′	117°50′	1402	1935-	Dom. Govt. Telegraph
Kinuso	II	55°20′	115°26′	1928	1927-1948	Mrs. W.L. McKillop
McMurray(A)	ITP	56°39′	111°13′	1216	1943-	USAAF	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in Dec. 1944.
Peace River(A)	ITP	56°14′	117°26′	1820	1949-	C.P. Airlines	Observations taken 1944- 1945 by USAAF.
Peace River Crossing	II	56°15′	117°15′	1225	1907-1936	H.A. George	Irregular observations taken for few years after 1882 by Rev. J.G. Brink of Christ Church Mission.
Puskwaskau	IIImP	55°28′	118°3′	2000	1944-	Alberta Forest Service
Rycroft (Silverwood)	II	55°46′	118°45′	1983	1931-1937	F.V. Platzer

033      |      Vol_VII-0357                                                                                                                  

Sasakatoon Mountain	IIImP	55°15′	119°21′	----	1942-	Alberta Forest Service
Shaftesbury	II	56°6′	117°45′	----	1907-1908	Miss L. Millen
Slave Lake (Sawridge)	IIP	55°20′	114°49′	1905	1926-	Alberta Forest Service
South Beaver Lodge	II	55°20′	119°24′	1400	1927-1930	V.C. Flint
Spirit River	II	55°40′	118°47′	----	1910-1911	A.M. Josse
Valleyview	I	55°5′	117°15′	2419	1944-1945	USAAF
Wabasca	II	56°2′	113°0′	1720	1934-1947	St. John’s Indian Res. School
Wagner(A)	ITP	55°21′	114°59′	1915	1943-	USAAF	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in Jan. 1946.
Wembley	II	55°9′	119°8′	2400	1926-1932	B.J. Smith
				SASKATCHEWAN
Beaver River (Ile a la Crosse)	II	55°26′	107°44′	----	1929-1941	J.C. Taylor
Fond du Lac	II	59°20′	107°10′	700	1905-1938	Rev. A. Beihler	Instruments received from Fort Chipewyan in 1905.
Island Falls	ITP	55°32′	102°21′	982	1929-	Churchill River Power Co.	Observations taken by USAAF 1943-1945 and by Island Falls Community Club after 1945.
Island Falls(2)	IIP	55°35′	102°26′	----	1938-	Churchill River Power Co.	Station located on Churchill River, 13 miles from town of Island Falls.

034      |      Vol_VII-0358                                                                                                                  

Island Falls(3)	II	55°34′	102°47′	----	1938-1944	Churchill River Power Co.	Station located on Churchill River 38 miles from town of Island Falls.
Lac la Ronge	II	55°8′	105°23′	1250	1921-1942(b)	A. McKay
Pelican Narrows	II	55°8′	102°54′	----	1929-1930	District Forest Inspector
Stanley Mission	II	56°0′	105°0′	----	1910-1940(b)	Rev. J. Brown	Met. Service shipped instruments here in 1877 but no records received until 1910.
Whitesand (Rocky Falls)	IIP	56°20′	103°15′	----	1938-	Churchill River Power Co.
				MANITOBA
Berens River	IIP	5 2 °18′	97°2′	720	1890-	H.E. Plunkett, H.B. Co.	F.A. Disbrowe, H.B. Co. post manager took the observations from 1908 until his death in 1943.
Brochet	ITP	57°53′	101°40′	1180	1948-	RCCS
(Fort) Churchill	ITP	58°47'	94°11′	44	1884-	J.R. Spencer, H.B. Co.	Marine Radio station opened 1928 and took over observations. Danish expedition commanded by Jens Munck wintered here 1619-1620 . Harbour rediscovered by Capt. Luke Fox e in 1631. H.B. Co., built trading post in 1715.

035      |      Vol_VII-0359                                                                                                                  

Churchill(A)	ITP	58°45′	94°5′	115	1943-	USAAF	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1945. Radiosonde station.
Duck Lake	I	59°30′	97°30′	890	1943-1946	USAAF
Flin Flon	ITP	54°45′	101°49′	1025	1927-	Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co.
Gillam	ITP	56°21′	94°46′	454	1943-	USAAF	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in July 1945.
God’s Lake	I	54°50′	94°50′	610	1933-1944	Canadian Airways
Herb Lake	II	54°45′	99°30′	800	1924-1927	F.W. Robinson
Hillview	II	59°55′	100°33′	1400	1912-1921	H. Stevenson
Little Grand Rapids	I	51°35′	95°15′	998	1939-1944	R. Finch
Nelson House	II	55°49′	98°57′	----	1937-1939	H. Thiboutot
Norway House	I	53°59′	97°50′	720	1884-1945(b)	J.G. Christie, H.B. Co.
Oxford House	II	54°55′	96°28′	350	-----	-----	Abstract of early H.B. Co. temperature records given in Influence of Climate by J. Disturnell, 1866.
Pakitawagan	II	55°50′	101°40′	----	1924-1926	Rev, J.T.A. Renaud
Poplar River Post	II	52°58′	97°20′ (a)	----	1888-1889	H.B. Co.
Port Nelson	I	57°0′	92°51′	49	1915-1929	A Sutherland H.B. Co.	Observing station trans– ferred here from York Factory in 1915.

036      |      Vol_VII-0360                                                                                                                  

Split Lake	II	56°11′	96°11′	----	1911-1913	C.A. Fox
The Pas	ITP	53°49′	101°15′	890	1910-	G. Halcrow
The Pas(A)	ITP	53°58′	101°6′	894	1943-	USSAF	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in Sept. 1945. Radiosonde station.
Wabowden	ITP	54°54′	98°28′	764	1943-	USAAF	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in Oct. 1945.
Wanless	IIP	54°11′	101°22′	855	1935-	R. W. Allen
York Factory	I	57°0′	92°26′	85	1772-1915(b)	T. Hutchins H.B. Co.	Observations taken by T. Hutchins of H.B. Co. 1772-1773. Observa– tions taken by H.B. Co. 1842-1854, 1864-1868 and 1876-1883 are summarized in Report of the Hudson’s Bay Expedi– tion 1884-1886 by A.R. Gordon. Observing station transferred to Port Nelson in 1915.
					ONTARIO
Fort Albany	II	52°12′	82°5′	-----	1878-1881	H.B. Co.	Returns received via Moose Factory.
Fort Hope	II	51°33′	87°49′	1100	1891-1924(b)	D. Baxter, H.B. Co.	All instruments burned in 1893 and station closed until 1900.
Lansdowne House	ITP	52°14′	88°0′	840	19 4 1-	H.B. Co.	Observations taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1945.

037      |      Vol_VII-0361                                                                                                                  

Marten’s Falls	II	51°30′	86°30′	----	1894-1900	J.G. Christie, H.B. Co.	Christie moved to Fort Hope in 1900 and took instruments there. Some observations taken in 1878-1880 by J. Clark, of H.B. Co.
Moose Factory	I	51°14′	80°30′	29	1877-1938(b)	J.R. Nason, H.B. Co.	Station closed in 1938 since observations were being taken in town of Moosonee.
Moosonee	ITP	51°16′	80°39′	34	1932-	Proprietor of James Bay Inn.	Radiosonde station.
Pickle Lake	ITP	51°28′	90°15′	1245	1938-	C.P. Airlines	Observations taken for two months in 1930 by F. Stapleton.
Rat Rapids	IIP	51°8′	90°1′	1180	1934-	Hydro-Electric Power Commission.
Red Lake	ITP	51°2′	93°50′	1250	1938-	C.P. Airlines	Some observations taken in 1930 by A.E. Crump.
Swains Lake	II	51°17′	93°20′	1298	1933-34	R.E. Wright
Trout Lake	ITP	53°50′	89°52′	720	1915- (b)	John Gregg, H.B. Co.	Station closed 1930- 1939. H.B. Co. re– summed observations in 1939 and Dept. of Transport took them over in 1945.
Woman Lake	II	51°11′	92°51′	1282	1934-1937	L.E. Nelson	Instruments transferred from Swains Lake in 1934.

038      |      Vol_VII-0362                                                                                                                  

			QUEBEC
Clarke City	I	50°12′	66°38′	186	1902-1947	F.N. Ritchie
Dolbeau	I	48°48′	72°20′	413	1930-1938	J.E. Morin
Fort Chimo(A)	ITP	58°5′	68°25′	112	1882- (b)	L.M. Turner, Smithsonian Inst.	Observations taken irregularly by H.B. Co., employees 1885-1941. USAAF operated observ– ing station from 1942 on. To be taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1950. Radiosonde station.
Fort George	IIP	53°50′	79°5′	320	1915- (b)	O. Griffith	Station closed 1944-48.
Fort McKenzie	ITP	56°63′	69°3′	250	1938-	J.A. Heslop, H.B. Co.	Station taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1942.
Great Whale River	ITP	55°17′	77°46′	50	1925- (b)	L.G. Maver, H.B. Co.	Some observations taken in 1881 by H.B. Co. received via Moose Factory. Observations 1888-1889 by G.A. Young on Yacht Alle. Station closed 1945- 1946.
Greenly Island	II	51°22′	57°12′	---	1882-1889	------	Sundial taken in by Stupart in 1883.
Harrington Harbour	ITP	50°32′	59°30′	25	1911-	Miss Maud Cox	Observations at Gren– fell Mission 1936- 1944. Taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1944.

039      |      Vol_VII-0363                                                                                                                  

(Cape) Hope’s Advance	ITP	61°5′	69°33′	240	1928- (b)	Dept. of Transport, Marine Radio	Station operated summers only from 1934-1940; closed 1940-1942. One of Canadian bases during Second International Polar Year. Wind of 132 mph recorded in Dec. 1931.
Indian House Lake	ITP	56°2′	64°44′	1044	1944- I ( b)	U.S.A.A.F.	Taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1948. Continuation of this station recommended by ICAO. Station closed 1946-7.
Knob Lake	ITP	54°49′	66°41′	1550	1948-	Hollinger Mining Co.
Lake Dore (Chibougamau)	ITP	49°54′	74°18′	1234	1936-	Obalski Mining Corp.
Lake Manuan	ITP	50°38′	70°32′	1625	1942-	Aluminum Co. of Canada
Lake Norman	I	52°0′	63°20′	1520	1942-1945	Quebec Airways
Lake Onistagan	II	50°45′	71°25′	----	1944-1945	A. Robert
Mecatina (Morhiban)	ITP	51°50′	62°53′	1720	1943- (b)	USAAF	USAAF evacuated in 1946. Reopened by Dept. of Transport in 1948.
Mingan(A)	ITP	50°17′	64°9′	76	1943-	USAAF	To be taken over by Dept. of Transport in 1950. Radiosonde equipment from Mingan to be transferred to Seven Islands in 1950.

040      |      Vol_VII-0364                                                                                                                  

Mistassini Post	IIP	50°30′	73°55′	1255	1879- (b)	H.B. Co.	Observations irregular from 1879-1915.
Natashquan	ITP	50°12′	61°49′	18	1914-	Rev. Father L. Garnier	A storm signal station was established here in 1907.
Nitchequon	ITP	53°12′	70°35′	1690	1942-	Dept. of Transport	Radiosonde station.
Passe N D angereuse	IIP	49°53′	71°16′	----	1942-	Aluminum Co. of Canada
Pentecote	II	49°47′	67°9′	----	1936-1938	B. Fleming
Piaster Bay	II	50°17′	62°49′	----	1892	E. Werner
Port Burwell	I	60°25′	64°51′	----	1884-1934(b)	H.M. Burwell	Observing station during Hudson Bay Expedition 1884-1886. Observations begun by RCM Police in 1929. Eskimo settlement called Killinek nearby. Settlement unoccupied since 1940.
Port Harrison	ITP	58°27′	78°8′	66	1921	L.A. Learmonth	Some observations during 1901 by G.A. Young on Yacht Alle. Radiosonde station.
Seven Islands(A)	ITP	50°13′	66°16′	190	1944-	Dept. of Transport
Stupart’s Bay	I	61°35′	71°32′	----	1884-1886	R.F. Stupart	Observing station during Hudson Bay expedition 1884-1886.

041      |      Vol_VII-0365                                                                                                                  

Tabouret	II	50°18′	68°34′	2000	1937	L. Vaillencourt
Wakeham Bay	I	61°42′	71°58′	----	1927-1928	Dept. of Trans– port Marine Radio	Station moved to Hope’s aAdvance in 1928.
				LABRADOR
Amour Point (Forteau)	I	51°28′	56°51′	40	1876-1936	P. Godier	Lighthouse station.
Ashuanipi	ITP	52°32′	66°14′	1790	1948-	Hollinger Mining Co.
Battle Harbour	IIP	52°17′	55°25′	30	1893- (b)	Dr. Babardt	Station closed in 1900 and instruments sent to North-West River. Reopened 1947.
Bello Isle	ITP	51°53′	55°22′	426	1871-	M. Colton	Lighthouse station.
Cape Harrison	ITP	54°44′	58°19′	65	1943-	USAAF
Cartwright	ITP	53°42′	57°0′	34	1934-	Can. Marconi Co.
Davis Inlet	II	55°52′	60°50′	--	1902	S. Cotter, H.B. Co.
Goose (Bay) (A)	ITFP	53°20′	60°25′	144	1941-	Dept. of Transport	Radiosonde station. Constructed to aid wartime North Atlantic flying. Since a similar air base in Newfoundland was named Gander, this station was named Goose.

042      |      Vol_VII-0366                                                                                                                  

Hebron	IIP	58°12′	63°37′	50	1883- (b)	Moravian Mission	Observing station operated by USAAF 1942-1946.
Hopedale	ITP	55°27′	60°14′	35	1867- (b)	Moravian Mission	Observations by Canadian Marconi Co. since 1942.
Nain	IIP	56°33′	61°41′	14	1883- (b)	Moravian Mission	For a long time Nain was the seat of the Moravian Bishop of Labrador and the German Consul.
North West River	I	53°3′	60°10′	12	1900-1942(b)	S. Cotter, H.B. Co.
Nutak	IIP	57°28′	60°50′	5	1947-	Dept. of Natural Resources, Nfld.
Okkak	II	57°34′	62°3′	20	1776-1889(b)	Moravian Mission	Settlement ravaged by influenza in 1918 and survivors formed a new community called Nutak a few miles to the south on the same island.
Ramah	II	58°53′	62°21′	10	1872-1889(b)	Moravian Mission
Rigolet	II	54°8′	57°12′	40	1857-1863(b)	H.B. Co.
Sandgirt Lake	I	53°50′	65°30′	1485	1937-1948(b)	Labrador Mining & Exploration Co.	Operated by Dept. of Transport after 1942.
Skynner Cove	I	59°10′	63°20′	----	1884-1886	W. Skynner	Observations during Hudson Bay Expedition 1884-1885.
Zoar	II	56°7′	61°22′	40	1883-1902	Moravian Mission

043      |      Vol_VII-0367                                                                                                                  

        Arctic Expeditions in Which the Canadian Meteorological Service Participated

        1. Lieut. J.H. Lefroy’s Journey to the North-West, 1843-4 . - After the

Magnetic Observatory had been established in Canada in 1839, Colonel Sabine

and Sir John Herschel, Bart, persuaded the Royal Society to sanction a

magnetic survey of British possessions in North America. This survey was

undertaken by Lieut. J.H. Lefroy who had been placed in charge of the obser–

vatory at Toronto in 1841. The survey covered a route which extended from

Montreal to Hudson Bay and as far north as Fort Good Hope. The survey party

travelled by means of canoe transport provided by the Hudson’s Bay Company.

        Lieut. Lefroy and his assistant took magnetic and meteo–

rological observations at each stopping place. Frequently, during periods

of magnetic disturbance, observations were taken at two-minute intervals

for hours at a time.

        The most important halting points on Lefroy’s journey are

given below.

April 30, 1843	Departure from Lachine
May 20	Sault de Ste. Marie
June 19	Rat Portage
June 28	Fort Garry (Winnipeg)
July 12	Norway House
July 23	York Factory
Aug. 20	The Pas
Sept. 9-11	Isle a la Crosse
Sept. 23, 1843 to March 5, 1844	Fort Chipewyan

044      |      Vol_VII-0368                                                                                                                  

        A temporary observatory was built at Fort Chipewyan.

March 26 - May 25, 1844	Fort Simpson
May 29	Fort Good Hope

        Lefroy had supposed Fort Good Hope to be just within the

Arctic Circle and was keenly disappointed when he later learned that its

latitude was only 66° 16′ N. Lefroy started south from Fort Good Hope on

May 31, 1844, and arrived back at Montreal on November 25 after retracing

much of his former route.

        The original account of Lefroy’s journey may be found in Sir

Henry Lefroy’s Autobiography published in 1895. A part of this autobiography

was reprinted in Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada, 1938, edited by W.S. Wallace.

        2. The First International Polar Year, 1882-83 . - In 1875, Lieut. Karl

Weyprecht of Austria brought forward the suggestion that the value of

scientific observations in polar regions could be increased considerably

if such observations were taken simultaneously at many stations. Lieut.

Weyprecht died shortly thereafter but his ideas stimulated international

scientific thought and an International Polar Commission was formed to

study the question further.

        The Commission recommended that an International Polar Year

be held from August 1882 to August 1883, and twelve countries agreed to take

part by establishing an observing station in the Arctic of Antarctic for this

period. The countries represented were, in alphabetical order, Austria,

Denmark, England and Canada, Finland, France, Germany, Holland, Norway,

Russia, Sweden and the United States.

045      |      Vol_VII-0369                                                                                                                  

        In 1880, Charles Carpmael, the Director of the Meteorological

Service, was approached by Dr. F. Wild of St. Petersburg, Russia, the

president of the International Polar Commission, to obtain the co-operation

of Canada during the International Polar Year. In view of the benefits which

Canada would derive from such a scheme, the proposal was heartily endorsed

by the Meteorological Service. The Department of Marine and Fisheries was

unable to recommend the expenditure for the establishment of an Arctic

station by Canada, but an agreement was made with Great Britain whereby

Great Britain supplied the staff and equipment to operate a station at

Fort Rae, N.W.T., (lat. 62° 40′ N, long. 115° 45′ W) and the costs of trans–

portation were shared by Canada. A sum of $5000 was voted by the Canadian

Government for this purpose.

        The expedition to Fort Rae was under the command of Captain

Dawson, R.A. Meteorological and magnetic observations were taken every hour

night and day. On the first and fifteenth of each month, observations were

taken every five minutes, and for one full hour on each of these days,

every 20 seconds, to determine minor variations in the magnetic elements.

        Other stations which were maintained in the Canadian Arctic

during the First Polar Year were located at Fort Conger on North Ellesmere

Island (lat. 81° 44′ long. 64° 45′ W) and at Kingua Fjord, Cumberland

Sound, Baffin Island (lat. 66° 36′ N, long. 67° 20′ W). The station at Fort

Conger was established by the United States and that at Kingua Fjord by

Germany. The results of these expeditions were published in the following

works.

046      |      Vol_VII-0370                                                                                                                  

        Great Britain - Observations of the International Polar Year Expeditions,

1882-83, Fort Rae.

        United States - International Polar Expedition, Report of the Proceedings of

the United States Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell

Land, Vols. 1 and 2, by Lieut. A.W. Greely. Washington, 1888.

        Germany - Die Internationale Polarforschung 1882-1883, Die Beobachtungs

Ergebnisse der Deutschen Stationen, Band 1, Kingua-Fjord. Berlin, 1886.

        3. Hudson Bay Expeditions, 1884-5-6 . - An expedition was organized by the

Department of Marine and Fisheries in 1884 to determine for what period of the

year navigation is possible in Hudson Strait. The expedition was under the

command of Lieut. A.R. Gordon, R.N., who was the assistant-director of the

Meteorological Service. Observing stations were established on both shores of

Hudson Strait and meteorological observations as well as observations of ice

conditions were taken for a two-year period.

        The expedition left Halifax on July 22, 1884, in the S.S. Neptune,

a former sealing vessel which had been chartered by the Department of Marine

and Fisheries. The first station was established on August 5 on the north–

western shore of Cape Chidley (lat. 60° 25′ N, long. 64° 51′ W) and named

Port Burwell after the observer, H.M. Burwell, who was appointed to that

station.

        A site for the second station was chosen at Ashe Inlet on the

north shore of Hudson Strait (lat. 62° 33′ N, long. 70° 35′ W), named after

the observer, W.A. Ashe.

047      |      Vol_VII-0371                                                                                                                  

        The third station was located on the south shore of the Strait

at a spot named Stupart’s Bay after the observer R.F. Stupart (lat. 61° 35′ N,

long. 71° 32′ W). It had been considered advisable that in addition to the

meteorological observations taken at the various stations, a series of magnetic

readings should be taken at one of them. Since Mr. Stupart had had several

years’ experience in magnetic work, he was selected to take charge of one of

the stations and carry out this work. The magnetic instruments were the same

ones that had been used by Captain Dawson at Fort Rae and were loaned to the

expedition by Mr. G.M. Whipple, Director of the Kew Observatory, London, England.

        The fourth station was established at Port de Boucherville on

Nottingham Island (lat. 63° 12′ N. long. 77° 28′ W) with C.V. de Boucherville

in charge. From Nottingham Island the vessel proceeded to Churchill where

arrangements were made with J.R. Spencer of the Hudson’s Bay Company to take

meteorological observations.

        On the return journey from Churchill, a fifth station was put in

at Port Laperriere on Digges Island, (lat. 62° 35′ N, long. 78° 1′W), with

A.N. Laperriere in charge. It had been planned to locate the sixth and last

station on Resolution Island but a suitable anchorage could not be found and

this plan was abandoned. The station was established at Skynner Cove in

Nachvak Bay instead, (lat. 59° 10′N, long. 63° 20′W), with W. Skynner in

charge. All the stations were maintained for the second year, 1885-6, with

the exception of Skynner Cove.

        The expeditions in 1885 and 1886 were made in the S.S. Alert

which had been specially rebuilt for the Arctic expedition of 1876 under the

command of Sir George Nares. Her Majesty’s Government refitted the Alert to

048      |      Vol_VII-0372                                                                                                                  
assist in the rescue of the expedition commanded by Lieut. Greenly during the

First Polar Year. When Greely’s expedition has been rescued, the Alert was

handed over to the Canadian Government. The station which was established

on North Ellesmere Island in the spring of 1950 was named after this ship.

        An account of these expeditions is given in Report of the Hudson’s

Bay Expedition under the Command of Lieut. A.R. Cordon, R.N., 1884-5-6,

Canadian Government Reports.

        4. Second International Polar Year, 1932-33 . - The International Polar Year

1932-33, was organized by the International Meteorological Conference of

Directors at Copenhagen in 1929 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the

Polar Year 1882-83. The object was to establish as many stations as possible

in the polar regions where meteorological, magnetic and auroral observations

could be made. A period of operation extending from August 1, 1932 to

August 31, 1933 was agreed upon.

        It was hoped that as many as possible of the stations which

were in operation during the First Polar Year could be re-activated. Great

Britain requested, and was granted, permission to re-occupy the station at

Fort Rae. Canada undertook to maintain three special stations at Chesterfield

Inlet, Cape Hope’s Advance and Coppermine, and to provide additional equipment

to the permanent magnetic station at Meanook, Alberta.

        The station at Chesterfield Inlet, (lat. 63° 20′N, long. 90° 42′W),

was the principal Canadian station. It was fully equipped for taking continuous

049      |      Vol_VII-0373                                                                                                                  
records of terrestrial magnetism, meteorological elements, earth potentials,

atmospheric potential gradient, earth temperatures and photographic and visual

auroral observations. A secondary magnetic and auroral observing station was

maintained 20 miles south of the main base.

        The station was in charge of F.T. Davies, B.Sc., M.Sc., of the

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institute in Washington.

He had personal charge of the magnetic programme, and through his past

experience as a member of the Byrd Antarctic Expedition 1928-30, he was able

to obtain very complete records of the magnetic elements in a region where

they are greatly disturbed most of the time.

        The station at Coppermine (lat. 67° 49′N, long. 115° 5′W) was

in charge of R.C. Jacobsen, M.A., of Toronto. It was the most northerly of the

Canadian stations and the chief meteorological station. A full programme of

meteorological observations was carried out which consisted of the regular

surface observations, continuous records of temperature at the top of a 100-feet

mast and on the ground, as well as kite and balloon observations.

        The upper air work included experiments with newly-developed

Moltchanoff radiosonde instruments which were provided by the International

Commission for the Polar Year as a gift from the Rockefeller Foundation. This

was the first time that such an instrument was used in North America.

        The station at Cape Hope’s Advance (lat. 61° 5′N, long. 69° 33′W)

was in charge of J.E. Lilly, B.Sc., M.A. The work at this station consisted of

surface weather and pilot balloon observations as well as visual and photographic

auroral observations.

050      |      Vol_VII-0374                                                                                                                  

        Canadian Government radio stations were in operation at the

above-named three stations prior to the Polar Year, and valuable assistance

in carrying out the observational programme was given by the radio operators.

The results of the British and Canadian expeditions are published in the

following reports.

        Great Britain - British Polar Year Expedition, Fort Rae, 1932-33, The Royal

Society, London. 1937.

        Canada - Polar Year Expeditions, 1932-33. Dom. Govt. Printing Office,

Ottawa. 1939.

        5. Establishment of Arctic Stations Jointly by Canada and the United States ,

1947-50 . - The establishment of a network of weather stations on the

Canadian Arctic islands is of great benefit not only to the Canadian Meteoro–

logical Service but to the United States Weather Bureau as well. In view of

their community of interest in such a project, Canada and the United States

entered upon an agreement in 1946 whereby they would jointly staff and operate

a series of weather stations in the Canadian Arctic.

        The first of these joint Arctic stations was established in

April, 1947, at Slidre Fjord on Ellesmere Island (lat. 80° 13′N, long. 86° 11′W).

The station was named Eureka. The transport of men and supplies to the station

at Eureka was accomplished entirely by air. This marked the first time that

such an operation was attempted in Canada, and since it proved successful,

the same method was used later in the establishment of other Arctic stations.

051      |      Vol_VII-0375                                                                                                                  

        The airlift was carried out from Thule, Greenland, where a

weather station and airstrip had been constructed jointly by Denmark and the

United States in 1946. The preliminary landings at Eureka were made on the sea

ice by ski-equipped aircraft carrying small bulldozers. The bulldozers were

used to level the snowdrifts over the landing area and the remainder of the

airlift was completed by four-motored transport aircraft with wheel landing gear.

        The second station was established at Resolute Bay on Cornwallis

Island (lat. 74° 41′N, long. 94° 55′W) in September, 1947, by sea transport.

Original plans had called for this station to be located at Winter Harbour on

Melville Island but this proved to be impractical owing to unusually severe

ice conditions in Melville Sound.

        Resolute Bay was considered to be the best alternate site for the

following reasons: (a) it offered excellent possibilities for airstrip construc–

tion; (b) it is situated near the centre of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago;

(c) it is accessible by cargo ship during the summer. The airstrip site was an

important factor since it was intended that this station serve as an operating

base for the support of further Arctic activities.

        Two additional stations were established by airlift from Resolute

in April, 1948. The first, named Isachsen, is located on Ellef Ringnes Island,

(lat. 78° 47′N, long. 103° 32′W), and the second, named Mould Bay, is located

on Price Patrick Island (lat. 76° 14′N, long. 119° 50′W).

        A fifth joint Arctic weather station, named Alert, was established

on the north shore of Ellesmere Island by airlift from Thule, Greenland, in

April, 1950.

052      |      Vol_VII-0376                                                                                                                  

        Climate of Arctic and sub-Arctic Canada

        The Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of Canada include a

vast area which extends over 35 degrees of latitude and 85 degrees of

longitude, an area which is comparable to that of the continent of Europe.

In order to discuss the climate of a region of this size, it is advantageous

to divide it into a number of sections such that places in the same sub–

division will have somewhat similar climates.

        It should be kept in mind that observational data is very

meagre for most parts of the Arctic, and consequently, the climatic means

for many of the stations will require some revision as further data become

available. Moreover, the stations from which observations have been received

are nearly all coastal stations, and their climatic conditions are not

necessarily representative of the climate of the interiors of the islands,

especially the larger ones. The records from the various stations are,

strictly-speaking, not directly comparable since they do not extend over the

same periods of time. The years of record for each station are given in the

climatic tables.

        The climate of any locality is influenced by many factors.

The chief climatic controls are latitude, nature of terrain and relative

distribution of land and water. For the regions under consideration, the

most important of these controls is the relative distribution of land and

water or ice as the case may be.

        In order to understand the reasons for some of the climatic

differences between the eastern and western sections of the Arctic, it is

053      |      Vol_VII-0377                                                                                                                  
necessary to consider the broad pattern of the general circulation of the

atmosphere. An examination of mean winter pressure charts for the Northern

Hemisphere will reveal that there is a vast high pressure area over most of

the Canadian Arctic flanked by low pressure areas over the Aleutian Islands

to the west and over Davis Strait to the east. The high pressure area does

not remain limited within fixed boundaries, but throughout the winter, surges

of polar air occur at intervals which travel southward along the Mackenzie

Valley and project Arctic conditions as far as the Prairie Provinces and the

mid-western States. On the other hand, cyclonic storms which form over

eastern Canada and the United States tend to move northeastward towards the

semi-permanent trough of low pressure over Davis Strait.

        This movement of high and low pressure areas is indicated

in the general statement that during the winter, the western parts of the

Arctic are colder and less stormy than the eastern parts. The mean pressure

distribution also causes the average winter surface air flow in the Arctic

Islands to be from north-northwest to south-southeast.

        During the summer months, the well-marked pressure

distribution of the winter becomes less pronounced and pressure gradients

are comparatively weak. In this period, the weather in the Arctic is

in fluenced by weak disturbances which develop along the Polar Front, the

boundary line between air masses of tropical origin and those of polar origin.

The mean summer position of this front lies across Alaska and northern Canada

near the Arctic Circle.

054      |      Vol_VII-0378                                                                                                                  

        As a first approximation, sub-Arctic and Arctic Canada

may be divided into eight climatic regions. These regions, whose boundaries

are shown on the accompanying chart, have been arbitrarily named as follows:

(1) Northern Islands, (2) Southwestern Islands, (3) Eastern Arctic,

(4) Hudson Bay and Strait, (5) Labrador Coast, (6) Mackenzie Valley,

(7) Barren Lands, (8) Laurentian Plateau. It may be noted that the southern

boundary of sub-Arctic Canada lies near the isotherm which passes through

points with a mean annual temperature of 32°F. The southern limit of

permafrost, i.e., permanently frozen sub-soil, as given by J.L. Jenness, is

also shown on the chart.

        Northern Islands . - The most well-known feature of the climate of Arctic

regions is the fact that temperatures are consistently low and the winters

exceptionally severe. The hardships and suffering from cold and scurvy of

the earliest Arctic expeditions gave the Arctic a reputation, which is not

entirely deserved, of possessing an unendurable winter climate. These

hardships were overcome by later expeditions with the use of better heating

equipment, insulated quarters and proper diet. For example, in 1819-20,

Parry’s men were in perfect health after spending the winter at Melville

Island.

        The climate of this region is essentially a modified

maritime type. Although it is true that the polar seas are frozen over for

nearly three-quarters of the year, there is sufficient radiation through the

ice from the comparatively warm water below to exert a moderating influence.

055      |      Vol_VII-0379                                                                                                                  
Thus the extreme low temperature for any point in this region is rarely

lower than −60°F whereas temperatures 20 degrees colder than this have been

experienced in the Mackenzie Valley.

        Average winter temperatures are consistently low, the

lowest that are to be found anywhere in the Canadian Arctic. For seven

months of the year, from October to April, mean monthly temperatures are

below zero over the entire region. As a matter of fact, from November 11,

1948, to April 27, 1949, the temperature at Eureka rose above zero on only

three occasions.

        During the brief summer period, the ice-filled polar waters

with a surface temperature near 30°F prevent the air in contact with them

from warming up to any great extent. Moreover, an incursion of warm air from

the south is cooled rapidly in its lower layers by contact with the cold

water. As a result, summer temperatures are low and maximum temperatures as

high as 60°F have not been recorded at many stations. Mean summer temperatures

throughout the region show little variation from year to year and the average

temperature of the warmest month, July, is generally near 40°F.

        The sun is above the horizon continuously in mid-summer

and below the horizon for a corresponding period in mid-winter. Consequently,

it is only during the spring and fall months that a diurnal range of

temperature from a minimum near sunrise to a maximum in the afternoon is

appreciable. During the summer and winter, changes in temperature arise

mainly from changes of air mass, the occurrence or dissipation of fog or cloud,

the local effect of falling precipitation or changes in wind speed or direction.

056      |      Vol_VII-0380                                                                                                                  

        A consideration of temperatures alone would indicate

that there are only two seasons in the Northern Islands, ten cold months

and two cool ones. Frost may occur in any month but temperatures do not

remain consistently below freezing until September. Mean temperatures in

September are well below freezing, with 16°F at Isachsen, 21°F at Eureka

and 23°F at Resolute. Average temperatures continue to drop rapidly from

October on, reaching −30°F to −40°F by January. The mean temperature levels

off in February although the extreme low temperatures are usually experienced

in late February or early March.

        The lowest average temperatures for February are found

on northern Ellesmere Island with Eureka reporting −41°F and Fort Conger

−40°F. Although both of these means have been derived from a series of

observations extending over less than three years, it is probable that they

are representative of conditions in this area and that the “cold pole” for

North America is to be found in this vicinity.

        In March, temperatures begin to rise gradually as the

sun’s elevation increase, but above-freezing temperatures are not common

until the beginning of June. An indication of the temperature regime over

the Northern Islands may be obtained from the following table.

057      |      Vol_VII-0381                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Eureka	Fort Conger	Isachsen	Mould Bay	Resolute	Winter Harbour
Lat. (°N)	80°13′	81°44′	78°47′	76°14′	74°41′	74°47′
Long. (°W)	86°11′	64°45′	103°32′	119°50′	94°55′	110°48′
Years of Record	1947-1949	1881-1883	1948-1949	1948-1949	1947-1949	1819-20, 1908-09
Jan.	−37	−38	−37	−32	−28	−30
Feb.	−41	−40	−29	−31	−35	−31
Mar.	−31	−28	−27	−20	−26	−16
Apr.	−20	−14	−20	−11	−11	−12
May	13	14	12	11	12	17
June	38	33	31	29	33	33
July	43	37	38	38	41	42
Aug.	38	34	34	34	38	33
Sept.	21	16	16	18	23	19
Oct.	−3	−9	−3	0	7	0
Nov.	−20	−24	−16	−17	−6	−19
Dec.	−41	−28	−37	−28	−21	−29
Year	−3	−4	−3	−1	2	1
Range	84	77	75	70	76	73
Highest	66	53	64	57	59	60
Lowest	−63	−63	−55	−63	−55	−56

058      |      Vol_VII-0382                                                                                                                  

        Annual precipitation over this region is low,

generally less than five inches per year, which is less than that over the

driest parts of the Prairie Provinces. In order to arrive at the figures

for total annual precipitation, the amount of snowfall has been converted

to equivalent rain on the assumption that ten inches of snow are equivalent

in water content to one inch of rain. It should be noted that this method

of conversion, which is the standard procedure in the Meteorological

Service, is a close approximation in temperate climates where the snow is

soft and fluffy. On the other hand, in the Arctic the snow crystals are

similar to grains of sand and a conversion factor of [ ?] four or five inches

of snow to one inch of rain would be closer to the truth.

        Contrary to popular opinion, snowfall in the Arctic is

relatively light during the winter since air temperatures are so low that

the amount of precipitable water vapour in the air is extremely small. In

open country, the snow on the ground is rarely over 12 inches deep and the

ground is bare in many spots. However, deep compact drifts are formed around

obstacles and in valleys. These drifts are so hard-packed that tractors can

be driven over them.

        Common phenomena during the winter are the storms of

blowing snow which occur on the average about once every two weeks. The

snow crystals are quite small and when the wind increases to more than

15 m.p.h., the snow particles begin to be carried aloft. If the wind is

higher than 40 m.p.h., the visibility is reduced to near zero in blowing

snow.

059      |      Vol_VII-0383                                                                                                                  

        The heaviest snowfalls occur in May and September,

and about one-half of the total annual snowfall may be expected in these

two months. The snow becomes soft towards the end of May although the

amount of melting is slight until the beginning of June. Once the

melting process has started, the snow disappears very rapidly and the

islands are snow-free by the end of June except in isolated areas such as

ravines or high terrain.

        Snow may fall even in the warmest months but it does

not remain on the ground until September. The precipitation during July

and August is chiefly in the form of light rain or drizzle. The station

which reports the lowest annual precipitation is Eureka, with a mean

total of 1.62 inches according to a limited series of observations. In

temperate zones, an annual total of this magnitude is found only in desert

regions.

        The mean monthly amounts of rain and snow and the

total annual precipitation at various stations in this region are given

in the following table.

060      |      Vol_VII-0384                                                                                                                  

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Eureka		Fort Conger		Isachsen		Mould Bay		Resolute		Winter Harbour
Lat. (°N)	80°13′		81°44′		78°47′		76°14′		74°41′		74°47′
Long. (°W)	86°11′		64°45′		103°32′		119°50′		94°55′		110°48′
Years of Record	1947-1949		1881-1883		1948-1949		1948-1949		1947-1949		1908-09
	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	0	1.1	0.42		0	1.4	0	0.4	0	0.4	0.89
Feb.	0	0.6	0.13		0	0.2	0	0.5	0	1.2	0.79
Mar.	0	1.4	0.44		0	0.7	0	1.2	0	1.6	0.93
Apr.	0	0.1	0.17		0	0.5	0	0.4	0	1.0	0.43
May	0	2.0	0.40		0	4.6	0	1.0	0	8.0	1.08
June	0.01	0.1	0.18		trace	2.0	0.06	2.5	0.56	2.0	0.04
July	0.27	0	0.66		0.49	0.7	1.04	0.2	1.10	0.7	--
Aug.	0.23	0.6	0.38		0.47	0.3	0.25	1.6	0.62	1.7	--
Sept.	0	2.8	0.35		0	7.7	trace	4.7	0.32	7.4	0.94
Oct.	0	1.0	0.24		0	2.7	0	1.2	0.01	5.2	0.38
Nov.	0	1.0	0.20		0	4.1	0	0.6	0	2.4	0.32
Dec.	0	0.4	0.30		0	0.1	0	0.1	0	0.5	0.14
Year	1.62		3.88		3.46		2.79		5.82		Incomplete

061      |      Vol_VII-0385                                                                                                                  

        Winter is normally the period of clear weather over

the Arctic Archipelago. Any clouds which occur are mainly of the ice

crystal type for frontal systems are usually far to the south. This clear

weather lasts until April when the cloudiness begins to increase, reaching

a maximum in May or June. The mean cloud amount decreases in July but

increases again to a secondary maximum in August or September. The

cloudiness of winter. It may be noted that Arctic cloud conditions, which

are characterized by a summer maximum and a winter minimum, are just the

reverse of those which occur in temperate latitude s .

        The summer cloud cover consists almost entirely of a

shallow deck of low stratus whose base is often lower than 500 feet. As

the air blows over the icy waters, its lower layers are near saturation.

When this air is forced to rise over any obstacle such as the shore of an

island, the slight amount of additional cooling is sufficient to lower the

temperature of the air below its de w point, which results in the formation

of fog and low cloud. The amount of summer cloudiness may be judged from

the fact that in August 1948, there were only 48 hours of sunshine at

Resolute out of a possible 662 hours. This is undoubtedly an extreme case

but it serves as an illustration.

        Fog in the Archipelago occurs most frequently during

the period of open water in the same manner as the low cloud. Since this

type of fog is essentially a coastal phenomenon, it is possible that the

interiors of the larger islands may be comparatively fog-free with the

062      |      Vol_VII-0386                                                                                                                  
exception of some radiation fog.

        Ice crystal fog is common during the winter in periods

of light winds. However, this type of fog is rarely very thick, and during

a two-year period at Resolute, the visibility in ice crystal fog was seldom

reduced to less than one mile. Another type of winter fog known as “Arctic

sea smoke” occurs over leads of open water and is usually limited in extent

to the immediate vicinity of the open water.

        Broadly speaking, the number of foggy days per year in

the coastal areas of the Archipelago is about 15-25, of which approximately

75% occur during the three months June, July and August. Short term records

from the stations at Isachsen and Mould Bay would seem to indicate that the

frequency of fog is somewhat greater in the islands bordering on the Arctic

Ocean, possibly as high as 40 days per year.

        Sea ice begins to form in sheltered bays in mid–

September and the open sea is frozen over in October except for occasional

leads which may occur throughout the winter. The new ice increases at a

relatively constant rate of about one foot per month from November to March.

The rate of ice growth falls off as the sun’s elevation increases, and a

maximum thickness of about seven feet on the average is reached in early

June. Much greater thickness of sea ice may occur where the edges of leads

are forced together by winds or currents to form towering pressure ridges.

Southwestern Islands . - This region includes the islands of Banks, Victoria

and King William which are located near the continental shoreline. The

temperature regime is similar to that over the Northern Islands. However,

063      |      Vol_VII-0387                                                                                                                  
some latitudinal control is evident in the fact that mean winter

temperatures are of the order of 10°F higher than those in the Northern

Islands although extreme low temperatures are much the same.

        Extreme maximum summer temperatures are considerably

higher than any recorded in the Northern Islands; for example, 78°F at

Holman Island and 76°F at Cambridge Bay. Even higher temperatures have no

doubt been experienced in the interior of Banks and Victoria Islands.

These comparatively high temperatures result from the fact that the islands

can be reached by incursions of warm air from the south with very little

modification. However, it is interesting to note the effect of a body of

water as narrow as Coronation Gulf, for an extreme high temperature of 87°F

has been recorded at Coppermine, 11°F higher than that at Cambridge Bay on

the opposite shore of the gulf.

        Monthly and annual mean temperatures are given in the

following table for the only two stations in this region from which records

are available.

064      |      Vol_VII-0388                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Cambridge Bay	Holman Island
Lat. (°N)	69° 7′	70° 30′
Long. (°W)	105° 1′	117° 38′
Years of Record	1928-29, 1935-38 1940-50	1940-50
Jan.	−25	−17
Feb.	−28	−20
Mar.	−19	−13
Apr.	−7	1
May	15	22
June	35	38
July	47	46
Aug.	45	43
Sept.	31	32
Oct.	12	18
Nov.	−9	−1
Dec.	−26	−12
Year	6	11
Range	75	66
Highest	76	78
Lowest	−63	−48

065      |      Vol_VII-0389                                                                                                                  

        The mean annual precipitation is between five and

eight inches, about double the average over the Northern Islands. This

is mainly because of a greater amount of snowfall which is distributed

throughout the year with a minimum during the months of July and August

and a maximum in October or November. An indication of the annual

precipitation regime may be obtained from the following values for Cambridge

Bay and Holman Island.

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual, Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Cambridge Bay		Holman Island
Lat. (°N)	69° 7′		70° 30′
Long. (°W)	105° 1′		117° 38′
Years of Record	1928-29, 1935-38, 1940-50		1940-50
	R	S		R	S
Jan.	0	3.1	0	2.1
Feb.	0	1.8	0	3.8
Mar.	0	2.2	0	4.2
Apr.	0	1.8	0	3.3
May	0.01	2.9	0.02	4.1
June	0.18	2.9	0.22	1.0
July	0.81	0.1	0.75	0
Aug.	0.86	trace	1.46	1.5
Sept.	0.35	2.9	0.57	2.8
Oct.	0.02	6.9	0.05	7.2
Nov.	0	5.4	0	3.5
Dec.	0	2.5	0	2.2
	2.23		3.07
Year	5.48		6.64
	41%		46

066      |      Vol_VII-0390                                                                                                                  

        The snow conditions over this region are similar

to those over the Northern Islands and storms of blowing snow occur with

about the same frequency. The average depth of the winter snow cover

is small and the ground is bare in many spots. The straits and channels

freeze over somewhat later than those in the Northern Islands; for example,

Coronation Gulf does not freeze over until about the first of November.

        Cloud and fog conditions along the coasts are much

the same as those over the rest of the Archipelago. However, conditions

in the interior of Banks and Victoria Islands are probably quite different

from these. For example, Stefansson states: “Through later experience

in hunting and through discussions with Victoria Island Eskimos who were

visiting Banks Island that summer, we conclude that fogs of this type

seldom go more than 15 miles inland and probably never more than 20. So

there is in the interior of an Arctic island as large as Banks, at least

if the island is low, a considerable area nearly free of this type of fog,

which is the most common of the Arctic fogs”.

        Eastern Arctic . - It is generally recognized that there is always some

open water in Baffin Bay adjacent to Smith, Jones and Lancaster Sounds.

Moreover, Lancaster Sound itself rarely freezes over completely. From

Bylot Island to Cape Dyer, Baffin Bay freezes over to the Greenland coast,

but south of Cape Dyer, tides and currents limit the seaward growth of

the ice shelf. The presence of this open water and the circulation around

the semi-permanent low over Davis Strait which brings in air from the

Atlantic combine to give this region higher mean winter temperatures, a

067      |      Vol_VII-0391                                                                                                                  
greater annual precipitation and a higher frequency of storms than the

islands to the north and west.

        Summer temperatures are similar to those over the

remainder of the Archipelago with the mean temperature of the warmest month,

July, in the range 40-45°F. On rare occasions a temperature over 70°F

may be experienced; for example, a high of 75°F has occurred at Arctic

Bay, 71°F at Clyde River and 77°F at Pond Inlet.

        The mean annual precipitation is near ten inches

for most stations. Pond Inlet and Clyde River both report between five

and six inches but it is believed that their sheltered location causes

them to have less precipitation than the regional average. The increase

in annual precipitation over that of the islands to the north and west is

due partly to a larger amount of summer rainfall and partly to a much

greater snowfall in the latter part of the year. There is a marked

maximum snowfall in October corresponding to the period when cyclonic

storms are frequent in the Davis Strait area. Temperature and precipita–

tion values for typical stations in this region are given in the

following tables.

068      |      Vol_VII-0392                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Arctic Bay	Clyde River	Craig Harbour	Dundas Harbour	Fort Ross	Pond Inlet
Lat.(°N)	73° 0′	70° 25′	76° 12′	74° 34′	71° 55′	72° 43′
Long.(°W)	85° 18′	68° 17′	79° 35′	82° 10′	94° 15′	78° 30′
Years of Record	1937-49	1942-48	1933-39	1930-49 (broken)	1937-48	1931-49
Jan.	−20	−14	−21	−16	−20	−25
Feb.	−26	−17	−23	−18	−25	−29
Mar.	−17	−14	−14	−10	−16	−20
Apr.	−4	−2	−2	−1	−7	−2
May	19	19	17	22	16	20
June	36	33	34	36	32	35
July	44	40	41	42	40	42
Aug.	41	39	38	40	36	40
Sept.	30	32	28	30	25	31
Oct.	14	21	12	16	10	15
Nov.	−4	3	−5	2	−7	−5
Dec.	−16	−9	−18	−12	−15	−20
Year	8	11	7	11	6	7
Range	70	57	64	60	65	71
Highest	75	71	67	64	64	77
Lowest	−57	−47	−49	−44	−57	−60

069      |      Vol_VII-0393                                                                                                                  

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Arctic Bay		Clyde River		Craig Harbour		Dundas Harbour		Fort Ross		Pond Inlet
Lat.(°N)	73° 0′		70° 25′		76° 12′		74° 34′		71° 55′		72° 43′
Long.(°W)	85° 18′		68° 17′		79° 35′		82° 10′		94° 15′		78° 30′
Years of Record	1937-49		1942-48		1933-39		1930-49 (broken)		1937-48		1931-49
	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	0	3.4	0	2.4	0	3.8	0	2.2	0	6.7	0	2.2
Feb.	0	1.9	0	2.3	0	2.4	0	3.0	0	3.0	0	1.2
Mar.	0	3.1	0	0.8	0	5.4	0	3.1	0	3.9	0	1.9
Apr.	0	2.7	0	0.4	0	5.7	0	2.6	0	3.3	0	3.6
May	0.03	2.9	0	3.8	0	4.5	0	6.6	0.01	4.4	0	1.2
June	0.23	2.5	0.07	1.5	0.21	4.2	0.45	4.7	0.55	5.2	0.41	1.3
July	0.72	0.1	0.80	1.0	0.93	0	1.23	0.1	2.56	0.3	1.12	trace
Aug.	1.24	0.5	1.20	trace	1.73	0.6	1.56	0.9	1.38	0.5	1.26	0.1
Sept.	0.23	6.6	0.34	1.0	0.13	5.4	0.73	7.3	0.20	11.5	0.32	2.8
Oct.	0	6.9	0	11.0	0	18.6	0	14.1	0	12.3	0	7.1
Nov.	0	3.8	0	8.0	0	7.7	0	5.6	0	9.0	0	3.9
Dec.	0	3.0	0	1.1	0	2.2	0	2.9	0	3.2	0	2.9
	2.45		2.41		3.00		3.97		4.70		3.11
Year	6.19		5.74		9.05		9.28		11.03		5.93
	40%		42		33%		43%		43%		52%

070      |      Vol_VII-0394                                                                                                                  

        Cloud conditions are similar to those over the entire

Arctic Archipelago with maximum cloudiness during the summer and a minimum

in the winter. However, the presence of open water and the passage of

cyclonic storms to the south cause the winter minimum to be much less

pronounced than that over the Northern Islands.

        Hudson Bay and Strait . - The climate of this area is a more truly maritime

one than that of the foregoing regions. This is due to the proximity of

such vast bodies of water as Davis Strait, Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait and

the fact that a considerable part of these waters remains open all winter.

There is no evidence to indicate that Hudson Strait has ever been frozen

over completely along its entire length. However, contrary to popular

opinion, Hudson Bay does freeze over, usually about the first week in

January. This has been proved by a series of reconnaissance flights carried

out by the Royal Canadian Air Force during the years 1948-50.

        In addition to the moderating effect of the open

water, another factor which helps to raise the mean winter temperatures is

the proximity of this region to the average path of winter storms. The

cyclonic circulation around these storms pumps warm air from the Atlantic

over the eastern Arctic causing mild spells which are unknown in the

western sections. These mild spells may sometimes extend as far westward

as Cornwallis Island and as far north a s Ellesmere Island.

071      |      Vol_VII-0395                                                                                                                  

        The mean annual range of temperature is generally

between 55 and 65 degrees. A notable exception is Resolution Island with

a range of only 39 degrees. This is not surprising since Resolution

Island has a very small area and is constantly surrounded by ic y waters.

        Extreme low temperatures are of the order of −40°F

to −50°F and extreme high temperatures 70°F to 80°F. Of course it should

be kept in mind that temperatures near the extreme values may not be

experienced oftener than once in three or four years. For example, although

an extreme high temperature of 79°F has been recorded at Coral Harbour, in

1947 the highest summer temperature was only 62°F.

        The mean summer temperatures illustrate the chilling

effect of the ice-filled waters for the mean July temperatures are not

appreciably higher than those over the Northern Islands in spite of a

difference in latitude of 15-25 degrees. Temperature values for typical

stations in this region are given in the following table.

072      |      Vol_VII-0396                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Cape Hope’s Advance	Coral Harbour	Lake Harbour	Nottingham Island	Pangnirtung	Port Harrison	Resolution Island
Lat.(°N)	61° 5′	64° 11′	62° 50′	63° 7′	66° 9′	58° 27′	61° 18′
Long.(°W)	69° 33′	86° 17′	69° 55′	77° 56′	65° 30′	78° 8′	64° 53′
Years of Record	1928-49 (broken)	1943-48	1884-46 (broken)	1928-49	1925-42	1921-50	1929-48
Jan.	−8	−22	−12	−13	−16	−14	0
Feb.	−10	−20	−11	−14	−17	−16	−1
Mar.	0	−14	−2	−4	−6	−6	6
Apr.	11	1	11	9	9	12	15
May	25	19	27	24	25	28	27
June	35	35	38	35	37	39	34
July	42	46	46	42	46	47	38
Aug.	42	45	44	42	44	47	38
Sept.	36	31	36	35	37	41	35
Oct.	28	18	25	26	24	31	29
Nov.	19	6	12	12	12	17	21
Dec.	4	−11	−3	−4	−7	−2	8
Year	18	11	18	16	16	19	21
Range	52	68	58	56	63	63	39
Highest	81	79	80	73	70	80	61
Lowest	−37	−57	−49	−42	−52	−57	−36

073      |      Vol_VII-0397                                                                                                                  

        The nearness of this region to typical storm tracks

across eastern Canada is reflected in the greater annual precipitation as

compared with that over the regions to the north and west. The mean

annual total is near 15 inches of which about 50% is in the form of snow.

The greatest amount of snowfall may be expected in November and nearly

half of the annual snowfall occurs in the months October, November and

December.

        Precipitation values for typical stations in this

region are given in the following table.

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual Total Precipitation converted to Inches of Rain

	Cape Hope’s Advance		Coral Harbour		Lake Harbour		Nottingham Island		Pangnirtung		Port Harrison		Resolution Island
Lat.(°N)	61° 5′		64° 11′		62° 50′		63° 7′		66° 9′		58° 27′		61° 18′
Long.(°W)	69° 33′		86° 17′		69° 55′		77° 56′		65° 30′		78° 8′		64° 53′
Years of Record	1928-49 (broken)		1943-48		1884-46 (broken)		1928-49		1925-42		1921-50		1929-48
	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	0	6.2	0	3.1	0.02	8.9	0	5.1	0	7.5	0	6.6	0	10.6
Feb.	0	2.3	0	4.0	0	10.3	0	5.1	0	4.7	trace	3.1	0.01	10.6
Mar.	0	5.1	0	3.2	0.03	7.1	trace	6.0	0	7.5	0	8.2	0.01	9.7
Apr.	0	7.6	0.18	5.0	0.08	10.3	0	8.9	0.05	9.3	0.02	7.1	0.04	8.3
May	0.32	6.0	trace	6.3	0.27	8.8	0.10	6.7	0.23	4.3	0.29	5.3	0.36	8.2
June	1.07	2.0	0.51	1.1	0.96	0.9	0.51	3.0	0.74	2.0	0.77	1.5	0.99	3.3
July	2.31	trace	1.46	0	2.44	0	1.30	0.8	1.50	trace	1.55	trace	1.91	0
Aug.	1.73	trace	1.20	0	1.63	0.1	1.62	0.4	2.30	trace	1.78	trace	1.60	0.2
Sept.	1.90	1.8	0.72	2.8	1.43	1.9	1.07	3.1	1.01	2.3	2.06	3.1	1.84	2.4
Oct.	0.64	9.2	0.04	7.6	0.25	9.2	0.20	9.2	0.41	12.5	1.03	10.8	0.49	8.4
Nov.	0.03	5.8	0.03	8.0	0.02	16.0	0.01	14.4	0.01	11.4	0.12	20.1	0.04	12.3
Dec.	trace	4.7	0	2.8	0.02	12.7	Trace	7.6	0	8.4	0	9.5	0	15.0
Year	13.07		8.53		15.78		11.84		13.24		15.15		16.19
			4.14		7.15		4.81		6.25				7.29
			48%		45%		41%		47%				48%

074      |      Vol_VII-0398                                                                                                                  

        The winter minimum of cloudiness which is experienced

in Arctic regions is present to a certain extent over this area but to a

much lesser degree. As may be expected, the cloudiest regions are along

the coasts and over the ice-filled Strait. This is borne out by the

records from Resolution Island which snow a mean annual cloudiness of 77%

as compared with a general average of 50-60% over most of the Archipelago.

        Summer fog conditions are similar to those over the

Arctic islands, but during the winter, fog as well as cloudiness is more

common than over the islands. The number of foggy days per year in the

coastal areas is of the order of 30-40 days. Resolution Island, in view

of its location, has the greatest number of foggy days with nearly 55

days per year.

        Labrador Coast . - On the whole, the pattern of the climate of this region

is similar to that of the Hudson Bay and Strait region for the cold waters

of the Labrador Current cause the area to be bleak and barren. However,

some latitudinal effect is evident in the fact that mean winter temperatures

are of the order of 15-20 degrees higher than those in the Hudson Strait

region. The mean temperature of the warmest month is close to 50°F which

is near the limiting temperature for appreciable tree growth.

        The mean annual range of temperature is generally

less than 55 degrees. Winters are not exceptionally severe and the only

station reporting an extreme low of less than −40°F is Hebron with −42°F.

Summers are uniformly cool but abnormally high temperatures may be

experienced occasionally. For example, the extreme high temperature which

075      |      Vol_VII-0399                                                                                                                  
has been recorded at Cartwright is 96°F and 90°F at Nain. These

unusually high temperatures may occur if a warm air mass approaches the

coast from the continental area to the southwest. Temperature values for

typical coastal stations are given in the following table.

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Belle Isle	Cartwright	Hebron	Nain
Lat. (°N)	51° 53′	53° 42′	58° 12′	56° 33′
Long. (°W)	55° 53′	57° 0′	62° 37′	61° 41′
Years of Record	1883-1949	1934-1948	1883-1902	1883-1947 (broken)
Jan.	11	6	–6	–5
Feb.	12	9	–2	–3
Mar.	18	16	6	8
Apr.	27	27	20	21
May	34	37	31	33
June	41	47	40	42
July	48	56	47	49
Aug.	50	54	47	50
Sept.	45	48	40	43
Oct.	37	38	31	33
Nov.	28	28	19	20
Dec.	18	16	3	5
Year	31	32	23	25
Range	39	50	53	55
Highest	72	96	87	90
Lowest	–31	–36	–42	–37

076      |      Vol_VII-0400                                                                                                                  

        Precipitation occurs rather evenly distributed

throughout the year with a mean annual total approximately 30-40 inches

for stations in the southern districts decreasing to about 20 inches in

the northern section. A large part of the precipitation is of cyclonic

origin for the mean path of continental storm centres passes through the

southern part of this region both in winter and summer. The worst storms

usually occur during the fall and winter when the temperature contrasts

between the air masses involved are the greatest.

        In view of the predominantly cyclonic origin of the

precipitation, the amount in any month may vary considerably from year to

year. For example, in January 1891, Hebron had a total of 0.13 inches

whereas in January 1888, the total was 2.83 inches. Precipitation values

for typical coastal stations are given in the following table.

        The climate of the Labrador Coast is noted for the

frequency of occurrence of fog, especially during the summer months. Warm,

moist air which approaches the coast from the Atlantic is cooled rapidly

to its dew point over the cold waters of the Labrador Current and an

extensive fog bank is formed. An on-shore wind will cause this fog to

move to the coast but it rarely extends very far inland.

077      |      Vol_VII-0401                                                                                                                  

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Belle Isle		Cartwright		Hebron		Nain
Lat.(°N)	51° 53′		53° 42′		58° 12′		56° 33′
Long.(°W)	55° 22′		57° 0′		62° 37′		61° 41′
Years of Record	1883-1949		1934-1948		1883-1902		1883-1947 (broken)
	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	0.23	11.3	0.18	33.0	0.95		0.09	27.2
Feb.	0.37	16.0	0.27	39.4	0.67		0.18	22.9
Mar.	0.53	16.0	0.06	37.2	0.86		0.25	20.2
Apr.	0.88	11.9	0.48	27.3	1.10		0.40	9.5
May	2.50	2.7	1.58	10.1	1.56		1.49	6.7
June	3.44	0.6	3.21	2.7	2.15		2.79	0.2
July	2.88	0	3.20	0	2.70		3.69	0
Aug.	3.13	0.2	3.22	0	2.71		2.84	0
Sept.	3.25	0.3	3.53	trace	3.34		3.40	1.1
Oct.	3.20	3.0	2.72	4.4	1.56		2.28	6.1
Nov.	2.00	7.5	1.63	13.5	1.10		0.75	10.6
Dec.	0.78	19.5	0.26	36.6	0.60		0.42	20.2
Year	32.09		40.78		19.30		31.05

078      |      Vol_VII-0402                                                                                                                  

        Mackenzie Valley . - The climate of the Mackenzie Valley is a pronouned

continental type with its characteristically large temperature ranges.

The mean mid-winter temperatures are not greatly different from those in

the Northern Islands, but the extreme low temperatures which have been

recorded are much lower. As a matter of fact, the coldest temperature ever

recorded officially in North America is −81.4°F which occurred at Snag

Airport in the Yukon on Feb. 3, 1947.

        During the summer months, the many hours of sunshine

cause the ground to warm rapidly, which in turn heats the lower layers of

the atmosphere. The mean July temperatures are near 60°F and the extreme

high temperatures which have been recorded at various stations are generally

between 90° and 100°F. This summer warmth makes it possible to grow rapidly

maturing vegetables and grain as far north as the Arctic Ocean. The warm,

humid summers and the presence of vast areas of swamp and muskeg are also

ideal breeding conditions for insect life, and the mosquitoes of this region

are noted for their size and ferocity. In spite of the high summer

temperatures, nights with frost may occur locally even in July in some years,

but on the average, the period from mid-June to mid-August is frost-free.

        The mean annual temperature ranges for stations in

this region are comparatively high, generally between 75 and 85 degrees. The

extreme annual ranges are the highest in Canada; for example, 168 degrees at

Dawson and 174 degrees at Fort Good Hope and Fort Smith. Temperature

values for typical stations in this region are given in the following table.

079      |      Vol_VII-0403                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Aklavik	Dawson	Fort Good Hope	Fort Smith	Norway House
Lat.(°N)	68° 14′	64° 4′	66° 15′	60° 0′	53° 59′
Long.(°W)	134° 50′	139° 29′	128° 38′	111° 52′	97° 50′
Years of Record	1926-1950	1898-1950	1897-1942	1913-1949	1897-1945
Jan.	−18	−19	−24	−14	−10
Feb.	−17	−12	−19	−9	−5
Mar.	−9	5	−10	4	9
Apr.	8	29	14	27	30
May	31	46	38	45	45
June	49	57	54	55	56
July	56	60	59	61	64
Aug.	50	54	56	57	60
Sept.	38	43	40	45	48
Oct.	20	26	21	32	36
Nov.	−3	2	−6	10	16
Dec.	−17	−13	−20	−8	−2
Year	16	23	17	25	29
Range	75	79	83	75	74
Highest	93	95	95	103	94
Lowest	−62	−73	−79	−71	−63

080      |      Vol_VII-0404                                                                                                                  

        The mean annual precipitation is in the range 10-15 inches.

This is more than double the amount which falls over most of the Archipelago,

mainly because of a greater summer rainfall. Thunderstorms, which are almost

unknown over the Northern Islands and relatively infrequent over the remainder

of the Archipelago, may be expected to occur about 4-8 times at any station

during the summer. Precipitation values for typical stations in this region

are given in the following table.

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Aklavik		Dawson		Fort Good Hope		Fort Smith		Norway House
Lat.(°N)	63° 14′		64° 4′		66° 15′		60° 0′		53° 59′
Long.(°W)	134° 50′		139° 29′		128° 38′		111° 52′		97° 50′
Years of Record	1926-1950		1901-1950		1897-1942		1913-1949		1897-1945
	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	0	5.5	0	8.6	0	5.3	0.01	6.0	trace	6.7
Feb.	0	4.9	trace	6.7	0.01	4.9	trace	5.8	trace	7.6
Mar.	trace	3.8	0.01	5.5	0	4.9	trace	5.8	0.11	10.3
Apr.	0	5.1	0.15	3.1	0.01	4.8	0.12	3.7	0.34	3.8
May	0.28	2.6	0.90	0.6	0.31	3.8	0.83	1.2	0.95	2.5
June	0.65	1.8	1.24	0.1	0.94	0.4	1.50	0.1	1.94	trace
July	1.42	0	1.63	0	1.55	0	2.03	0	2.24	0
Aug.	1.38	1.0	1.73	trace	1.69	0.2	1.64	trace	2.30	0
Sept.	0.63	3.3	1.26	1.5	0.91	2.8	1.47	1.0	1.72	1.4
Oct.	0.06	8.1	0.36	8.0	0.20	8.9	0.45	5.6	0.67	3.0
Nov.	0	7.8	trace	11.1	0	8.2	0.02	8.5	0.09	10.4
Dec.	0	4.5	0.01	10.0	0.01	5.8	trace	8.1	0.02	7.7
Year	9.26		12.81		10.63		12.65		15.72

081      |      Vol_VII-0405                                                                                                                  

        The smaller lakes in the region begin to freeze near the

end of September and the larger ones about mid-October. The dates of

freeze-up vary considerably from year to year. During the period 1941-49,

Lake Athabaska froze over as early as October 2 and as late as October 25.

The corresponding dates for Great Slave Lake are October 3 and October 31.

Kindle states that a boat was frozen in on Great Bear Lake on October 4,

1919, whereas a freeze-up as late as November 3 has been noted.

        The break-up of the ice in the spring occurs on the average

about mid-May for the more southerly lakes but not until about the third

week in June for Great Slave Lake. Break-up on Great Bear Lake is delayed

until well into July and frequently some ice remains in the lake all summer.

As a matter of fact, on June 23, 1900, the ice was sufficiently solid that

a crossing was made with sledges.

082      |      Vol_VII-0406                                                                                                                  

        Barren Lands . - This region forms a broad-based peninsula separating Hudson

Bay from the Arctic seas. Its climate is intermediate in type between that

of the Archipelago and that of the adjacent Mackenzie Valley. The

temperature and general climatic regime is in most respects similar to

that of the Mackenzie Valley except that the annual range of temperature

is slightly smaller for coastal stations. The maritime influence is

evident in the summer months for temperatures are of the order of 10 degrees

lower than over the Mackenzie Valley.

        The mean temperature of the warmest month is near the

limit at which tree growth is possible. Thus although most of the area is

as barren as the Arctic Islands, there are small isolated clumps of trees

scattered throughout the region.

        Insofar as precipitation is concerned, the amount,

type and annual distribution are almost identical with those of the

Mackenzie Valley. However, since this area is beyond the line of tree

growth, winter snow conditions are similar to those over the Arctic

Archipelago and storms of blowing snow occur with about the same

frequency.

        Temperature and precipitation values for three

stations in this region are given in the following tables.

083      |      Vol_VII-0407                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Baker Lake	Chesterfield	Coppermine
Lat.(°N)	64° 18′	63° 20′	67° 47′
Long.(°W)	96° 5′	90° 43′	115° 15′
Years of Record	1946-49	1921-49	1930-49
Jan.	−26	−25	−19
Feb.	−34	−26	−20
Mar.	−14	−15	−14
Apr.	−1	1	1
May	18	21	22
June	34	37	38
July	48	48	49
Aug.	50	47	47
Sept.	37	37	36
Oct.	21	22	19
Nov.	−1	−1	−4
Dec.	−16	−17	−16
Year	10	11	12
Range	84	74	69
Highest	82	86	87
Lowest	−52	−60	−58

084      |      Vol_VII-0408                                                                                                                  

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean Annual Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Baker Lake		Chesterfield		Coppermine
Lat.(°N)	64° 18′		63° 20′		67° 47′
Long.(°W)	96° 5′		90° 43′		115° 15′
Years of Record	1949		1931-49		1930-49
	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	No observations		trace	3.7	0	6.2
Feb.	No observations		0	4.3	0	4.2
Mar.	No observations		trace	5.3	0	7.2
Apr.	0	1.3	0.01	8.0	0.20	4.7
May	trace	0.1	0.10	5.3	0.08	4.9
June	0.22	1.0	0.97	0.8	0.80	1.4
July	0.08	0	1.88	0	1.45	0.1
Aug.	0.08	0.1	1.71	trace	1.75	0.1
Sept.	0.09	0.7	1.38	1.7	0.88	3.7
Oct.	0.01	4.4	0.43	8.7	0.22	10.4
Nov.	0	3.2	0.02	11.9	0	8.2
Dec.	0	1.9	0	7.2	trace	5.4
Year	Incomplete		12.19		11.03

085      |      Vol_VII-0409                                                                                                                  

        Laurentian Plateau . - The climate of the borders of this region is

moderated by the proximity of Hudson Bay, James Bay, the Gulf of St.

Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean. However, the climate of the vast interior

is predominantly continental in character and resembles that of the

Mackenzie Valley, at least insofar as temperatures are concerned.

        Broadly speaking, the climate of this region is

characterized by a long winter, a short stormy spring, a pleasantly warm

summer with adequate rain and a stormy fall. Since this region is

frequently traversed by cyclonic storms, temperature, precipitation and other

weather conditions can be extremely variable from one day to the next. Thaws

often occur in mid-winter over the eastern sections but seldom in the

districts west of James Bay. Frost may occur in any month in the northern

sections but is not common from mid-June to mid-August.

        The total annual precipitation averages 20-30 inches

over the western section, 25-35 inches over most of the Quebec section and

near 50 inches along the north shore of the St. Lawrence. The precipitation,

which is chiefly of cyclonic origin, is intensified on the St. Lawrence

shoreline owing to an orographic lift of the air along the steep coast.

        The Laurentian Plateau lies immediately north of the

most densely populated region of Canada. However, the influx of settlers

into this area has been a mere trickle, for the rocky nature of the terrain

and the short frost-free period make the country unsuitable for agriculture.

Temperature and precipitation values for typical stations in this region are

given in following tables.

086      |      Vol_VII-0410                                                                                                                  

       

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures and Temperature Extremes (°F)

	Goose	Harrington Harbour	Mistassini Post	Moose Factory	Nitchequon
Lat.(°N)	53° 20′	50° 32′	50° 30′	51° 14′	53° 12′
Long.(°W)	60° 25′	59° 30′	73° 55′	80° 30′	70° 35′
Years of Record	1941-1949	1912-48	1915-1938	1897-1937	1942-1947
Jan.	1	8	−3	−6	−9
Feb.	5	9	−2	−3	−4
Mar.	15	20	13	10	6
Apr.	27	30	30	27	19
May	40	38	45	41	34
June	51	46	56	54	48
July	62	53	62	61	57
Aug.	58	54	59	59	55
Sept.	51	48	49	51	47
Oct.	39	39	39	38	33
Nov.	24	28	23	21	16
Dec.	8	16	6	4	−4
Year	32	32	32	30	25
Range	61	46	65	67	66
Highest	100	83	95	97	90
Lowest	−35	−37	−56	−56	−52

087      |      Vol_VII-0411                                                                                                                  

       

Mean Monthly Rain and Snowfall in Inches and

Mean annual Total Precipitation Converted to Inches of Rain

	Goose		Harrington Harbour		Mistassini Post		Moose Factory		Nitchequon
Lat.(°N)	53° 20′		50° 32′		50° 30′		51° 14′		53° 12′
Long.(°W)	60° 25′		59° 30′		73° 55′		80° 30′		70° 35′
Years of Record	1941-1948		1936-44		1915-1938		1897-1937		1942-1947
	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S	R	S
Jan.	0.07	17.2	0.49	36.2	0.06	19.5	0	14.2	0.05	15.7
Feb.	0.13	23.7	0.85	47.5	0	16.4	0	10.7	0	17.8
Mar.	0.04	18.6	0.50	45.0	0.31	16.0	0.17	11.3	0.18	17.0
Apr.	0.36	12.6	1.06	17.9	0.81	8.7	0.52	6.3	0.33	14.3
May	1.41	5.3	3.14	5.4	2.04	3.4	1.28	3.4	1.83	14.3
June	2.50	1	3.80	0	3.01	trace	1.93	0.4	2.90	1.2
July	3.24	0	3.35	0	4.05	0	2.29	0	3.90	trace
Aug.	2.68	0	4.00	0	4.07	trace	3.03	0	4.31	0
Sept.	2.10	1.0	4.93	0	3.69	0.5	2.44	trace	3.39	2.6
Oct.	1.51	10.5	4.21	3.7	2.77	6.9	1.53	2.5	1.77	16.7
Nov.	0.32	18.8	3.67	15.4	0.91	20.7	0.23	8.2	0.38	18.2
Dec.	0.03	24.1	1.24	33.3	0.18	21.1	0.09	12.9	trace	18.3
Year	27.57		51.68		33.22		20.47		32.47

088      |      Vol_VII-0412                                                                                                                  

        Arctic Observing Techniques.

        The basic observations which are taken at Canadian weather

stations, including Arctic stations, are the surface weather observations

which are plotted on weather charts at the various forecast offices. These

surface weather observations consist of the following elements: barometric

pressure and tendency; air temperature and dew-point; temperature extremes;

wind speed and direction; amount, type and height of clouds; type and amount

of precipitation, if any; visibility and obstructions to vision. At some

stations, additional observations are made of the winds aloft by means of

pilot balloons, and at a relatively small number of stations, temperature

and humidity data from the upper atmosphere are obtained with the aid of

radiosonde transmitters carried aloft on balloons.

        The instruments and techniques used in taking weather obser–

vations at Arctic stations are the standard ones which are used at all

Canadian stations. However, in order that the best possible observations

may be made under Arctic conditions, some additional precautions should be

taken. The elements which require special care are as follows.

        Temperature - The following procedure should be adopted in order that the

thermometer readings at low temperatures will not be affected by the presence

of the observer.

1. The instrument shelter should be approached from the leeward side.
   
   
2. The thermometers should not be handled while the readings are being taken.
   
   
3. The thermometers should be read as quickly as possible after the door
   
   of the instrument shelter has been opened.
   
   


089      |      Vol_VII-0413                                                                                                                  

4. The observer should not come any closer to the instruments than
   
   is necessary for accurate observation of the scale and should hold
   
   his breath for the few seconds during which the reading is made.
   
   
5. If conditions are such that frost is forming on the thermometers,
   
   they should be wiped with a clean dry cloth about fifteen minutes
   
   before each observation.
   
   
6. When the temperature drops below −39°F, the freezing-point of mercury,
   
   mercury-filled thermometers can not be used. During such periods the
   
   air temperature is measured by means of thermometers filled with
   
   alcohol or a mercury-thallium alloy and the maximum temperature is
   
   obtained from the thermograph chart.
   
   

        Clouds . - At stations north of the Arctic Circle, observers must become

proficient in recognizing cloud types under conditions of semi-darkness.

Cirriform clouds, which are composed of ice crystals, form at much lower

altitudes than they do in temperate zones and are often observed as low

as 5000 feet or less. Convection is generally weak and clouds are mainly

of the sheet or stratus type rather than any form of cumulus.

        Precipitation - Precipitation in the Arctic is chiefly in the form of snow.

The measurement of amount of snowfall is a difficult problem anywhere, and

especially so in the Arctic where drifting is considerable. During periods

of high winds, the air is filled with blowing snow to such an extent that

it is often difficult to tell whether snow is actually falling or not.

However, newly-fallen snow is usually a shade whiter than the old drifting

snow and will show up if the drifts are examined carefully. There is no

090      |      Vol_VII-0414                                                                                                                  
method at present by means of which an exact measurement of the amount

of snowfall can be obtained. However, a good approximation is the

average of a series of measurements of the depth of freshly-fallen snow

in a level, semi-sheltered area.

        Pilot balloon observations - During cold weather, moisture from the

observer’s breath condenses on the eyepiece and objective lenses of the

theodolite. A clean dry cloth should be kept handy to wipe the frost

from the lenses. The eyepiece cap should be removed in order to make

the eyepiece lens more accessible.

        Care of instruments - The instrument shelter may fill with snow during

severe storms of blowing snow. In such cases the thermometers may not

indicate true values owing to the insulating effect of snow and the lack

of ventilation. The accumulation of snow in the shelter may be prevented

by covering the shelter with canvas for the duration of the storm. If

the station is located in an area where winds of moderate speeds are

frequent, a canvas cover is not advisable since it reduces the free cir–

culation of air in the shelter. Instead, the floor boards may be cut out

of the shelter entirely and a special shelf constructed for the thermograph.

        It is difficult to ensure the continuous operation of the

clock mechanism in instruments such as a thermograph during extended

periods of low temperatures. The clock may be oiled lightly with a high–

quality low temperature oil, but it is often preferable to clean all

the oil from the mechanism and permit it to run dry.

091      |      Vol_VII-0415                                                                                                                  

        Directors of the Meteorological Service of Canada.

Lieutenant (Major-General) Charles James Buchanan Riddell, R.A. 1839-1841 .

        Lieutenant Riddell was the third son of Sir J.B. Riddell,

Bart. He entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1832 and was

appointed to his first station in Quebec in 1835. He was assigned the

task of establishing a magnetic observatory in Canada in 1839 as part of

a plan to obtain simultaneous magnetic observations from various parts of

the world. He supervised the erection of the Observatory at Toronto and

continued as its Director until ill-health compelled him to return to

England in 1841.

        Lieutenant (General Sir) John Henry Lefroy, R.A. 1841-1853 .

        Lieutenant Lefroy was born at Ashe, Hampshire, England in

1817. He graduated from the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich in 1834.

In 183 0 9 , he proceeded to St. Helena to establish a magnetic observatory,

as Lieutenant Riddell set out for Canada on a similar mission. He was

chosen to succeed Lieutenant Riddell and remained Director of the Obser–

vatory at Toronto until 1853, when it was transferred from military to

civil control. He completed the first expedition to Canada’s North-West

Territories whose primary purpose was to obtain scientific observations (q.v.).

        Professor John Bradford Cherriman, M.A. 1853-1855 .

        Professor Cherriman of the University of Toronto, an

eminent mathematician who had been a Sixth Wrangler at Cambridge, was

made provisional Director of the Observatory in 1853. In May 1855, he

092      |      Vol_VII-0416                                                                                                                  
was appointed Professor of Meteorology and Director of the Observatory.

He received the appointment of Professor of Mathematics and Natural

Philosophy at the University of Toronto in August, 1855, and resigned

from his position as Director of the Observatory.

        Professor George Templeton Kingston, M.A.1855-1880 .

        Professor Kingston was a Cambridge Wrangler, gold medalist

in mathematics at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Head of the

Naval College, Quebec. In August, 1855, he was appointed Professor of

Meteorology at the University of Toronto and Director of the Observatory.

When the Meteorological Service of Canada was organized in 1871, Professor

Kingston was made Director of the Meteorological Service as well as Director

of the Magnetic Observatory. He inaugurated the issuing of public weather

forecasts and storm warnings by the Meteorological Service in 1876. He

retired in 1880 on account of ill-heath.

        Charles Carpmael, M.A. 1880-1894 .

        He was born on September 19, 1846, at Streatham Hill, Survey,

Engla[n?]d. He was a brilliant mathematician, and like Professors Cherriman

and Kingston, he was a Sixth Wranger of St. John’s College, Cambridge. In

1870 he was a member of the British Eclipse Expedition to Spain. He visited

Canada and the United States in 1871 and returned to Canada in 1872 to accept

the position of Deputy Superintendent of the Meteorological Service. He

was appointed Director in 1880 and continued to serve in this capacity until

his death in 1894.

        Sir Robert Frederic Stupart, K.B. 1894-1929 .

093      |      Vol_VII-0417                                                                                                                  

        He was born at Aurora, near Toronto, on October 24,1857,

attended Upper Canada College and entered the Meteorological Service

in 1872 at the age of 15. For some years prior to the death of Mr.

Carpmael, he was Senior Inspector and Probability Officer at the Toronto

Observatory. In 1884-5 he had charge of the chief station in Hudson ’s

Strait s in connection with a Canadian expedition for reporting on ice

conditions in the Strait s (q.v.). He was appointed Director on December

28, 1894. He was elected a member of the International Meteorological

Committee in 1907. He was knighted on June 3, 1916, for his services

to meteorology in Canada, and retired on July 1, 1929. At the time of

his death in 1940, he was the oldest member of the Royal Canadian Institute.

He was an original member of the American Meteorological Society and its

second president, as well as an Honorary Life member of the Royal Met–

eorological Society, London.

        Dr. John Patterson, O.B.E., M.A., L.L.D. 1929-1946 .

        He was born in Oxford County, Ontario, on January 3, 1872.

He was gold medalist in Physics at the University of Toronto in 1900 and

was awarded the 1851 Exhibition Science Research Scholarship. He was Prof–

essor of Physics at the University of Allahabad, India, 1903-4, and

Imperial Meteorologist to the Government of India 1905-10. He joined

the Meteorological Service of Canada in 1910 as Meteorological Physicist,

was appointed Assistant-Director in 1925 and Director in 1929. In the

First World War, 1914-18, his services were loaned to the British

Admiralty to work on the separation of helium from natural gas. He was

094      |      Vol_VII-0418                                                                                                                  
responsible for directing the expansion of the Meteorological Service

to meet the needs of Trans-Canada Air Lines, and of the Canadian armed

forces during the Second World War, 1939-45. His principal scientific

investigations were on the theory of the cup anemometer and windvane

from which were designed and perfected a 3-cup anemometer and stream–

lined windvane. He re-designed both the Kew and Fortin barometers and

the barograph, as well as a special type of weight barograph in co–

operation with Mr. W.E.K. Middleton. He has written many scientific

and non-technical articles on meteorological subjects and has received

numerous civil honours and awards. He was an Honorary Professor of

Meteorology at the University of Toronto 1940-46. He retired from the

Meteorological Service in 1946 in his 75th year, but continues to serve

as President of the Commission on Instruments and Methods of Observation

of the International Meteorological Organization, to which office he was

elected in 1946.

        Andrew Thomson, O.B.E., M.A. 1946 - .

        He was born in Owen Sound, Ontario, on May 18, 1894. After

attending the University of Toronto and Harvard University, he joined the

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, the Carnegie Institute in Washington

in 1917. He was attached to the Research Division of the U.S. Navy in 1918.

As Director of the Apia Observatory in Samoa from 1924-29, he was largely

responsible for the organization of a storm warning service for the South

Pacific. He was appointed aerologist in the Meteorological Service of New

Zealand in 1930. He joined the Meteorological Service of Canada as Chief

Physicist in 1932, was appointed Assistant-Controller in 1939 and Controller

095      |      Vol_VII-0419                                                                                                                  
in 1946. He has published important papers on Upper Winds over the

South Pacific and Canada. He was elected President of the Royal

Astronomical Society of Canada in 1949. He has supervised the post–

war decentralization of the Meteorological Service of Canada and the

implementation of the join g t Arctic Weather project with the United

States. He was awarded the O.B.E. in the King’s Birthday Honours List

in July. 1946, in recognition of his services to Canadian Meteorology.

096      |      Vol_VII-0420                                                                                                                  

---

References:

1. Bell, J.B. - Explorations in the Great Bear Lake Region. Geogr. Journ.

v. 18, 1901. p. 252.

2. Bethune, W.C. - Canada’s Eastern Arctic. Dept. of the Interior. Ottawa, 1934.

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4. British Arctic Pilot, v. 3. 1931.

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17. Lothian, W.F. - Yukon Territory. Dept. of Mines & Resources. Ottawa, 1947.

097      |      Vol_VII-0421                                                                                                                  

18. Low, A.P. - The Cruise of the Neptune. Ottawa, 1906.

19. Meteorological Service of Canada, Toronto. - Canadian Polar Year Expeditions

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Toronto.

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Geogr. Soc. New York, 1928.

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from the Atlantic to the Pacific Performed in the Years

1819-20. Philadelphia, 1821.

26. Patterson, J. - A Centur e y of Canadian Meteorology. Q.J. R 0 o y. Met. Soc.

v. 66. 1940.

27. Stefansson, V. - Choosing Sites for Arctic Stations, New York, 1942. p. 3.

28. Stefansson, V. - The Friendly Arctic. New York, 1944.

29. Sverdrup, H.U. - Ubersicht uber das Klima des Polarmeerss und des Kanadischen

Archipels. Handbuch der Klimatologie, herausgegeben von

W. Koppen und R. Geiger. Band 2, Teil K. Berlin, 1935.

30. Sverdrup, H.U. - Meteorology, The Norwegian North Polar Expedition with the

“Maud” 1918-25. Vol. 2, part 1. Discussion. Bergen, 1935.

31. Tanner, V. - Newfoundland-Labrador. Cambridge, 1947.

32. The Royal Society, London. - Observations of the International Polar Year

Expeditions, 1882-83, Fort Rae.

33. The Royal Society, London. - British Polar Year Expedition, Fort Rae.

1932-33, v. 1. 1937.

34. Thiessen, A.D. - The Founding of the Toronto Magnetic Observatory and the

Canadian Meteorological Service. Journ. Roy. Astron. Soc.

of Canada. Vols. 34-40. Sept. 1940 - Dec. 1946.

098      |      Vol_VII-0422                                                                                                                  

35. Thwaites, R.G. - Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, v. 1, pp. 245-7.

v. 3, pp. 53-5. Cleveland, 1896-1901.

36. U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office. - Sailing Directions for Baffin Bay and

Davis Strait. Washington, 1947.

37. U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office. - Sailing Directions for Northern Canada.

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38. Wallace, W.S. - Sir Henry Lefroy’s Journey to the North-West in 1843-4.

Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada. 1938.

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