Lichens

Unpaginated      |      Vol_V-0112                                                                                                                  
(EA-PS. Eilif Dahl)

LICHENS

       

CONTENTS

	Page
Ecology and Biology	2
Lichen Vegetation in the Arctic	4
Exploration of Lichen Flora	6
Lichen Floras of the Arctic Countries	12
Economic Importance of Arctic Lichens	15
Bibliography	16

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EA-Plant Sciences

(Eilif Dahl)

       

LICHENS

        Lichens, which are compound organisms consisting of photosynthesizing

algal cells growing in a protective envelope of living fungous material, are

found everywhere in the Arctic where a suitable substratum exists. On the

northernmost point of Peary Land they occur in abundance. Indeed, even on the

Antarctic Continent, where only three species of vascular plants have been

found, at least 250 species of lichens are known to occur.

        Lichens are conveniently divided into two major groupings; the macrolichens

and the microlichens or crustose lichens. The macrolichens are relatively large

plants of varying shape. Some genera have an erect, branched thallus, which may

be thread-shaped ( Alectoria , Neuropogon ), stout ( Cladonia , Sphaerophorus , and

Dactylina ), or more or less flattened ( Cetraria ). The thallus is often beset

with small squamules or granules ( Cladonia, Stereocaulon ). Other genera have a

foil-shaped thallus attached at the center to stones (Umbilicaris), or the

thallus may be closely adnate to the soil ( Peltigera , Solorina ). Still other

types have a branched, flattened thallus closely pressed to stone ( Parmelia ,

Physcia ).

        The microlichens form crusts covering rock or soil, or grow upon moss or

old bones. Their most important genera in the Arctic are L i e cidea , Lecanora ,

Buellia, Rinodina , Rhizocarpon , and Caloplaca . The members of the genus Caloplaca

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often have red to orange-red colors, and one of them, C. elegans , often gives

its color to the bird cliffs. Most species of microlichens are neglected by

collectors who are not especially aware of them.

        It is to be emphasized that the division into macrolichens and micro–

lichens is no natural division but a practical one like the division of vascu–

lar plants into trees and herbs.

       

Ecology and Biology

        Lichens play an important role in arctic vegetation and in the arctic

landscape. As the profuseness of other vegetation decreases toward the Poles,

the importance of lichen [ ?] increases because the

lichens are among the hardiest of plants. As a rule, the microlichens are the

most hardy ones, and their relative importance increases with colder climates.

        Lichen vegetation is influenced especially by the humidity of the air.

In southern West Greenland, the lichen vegetation is best developed along the

shore in the middle of the fjords; toward the seacoast and toward the innermost

ends of the fjords, it becomes less profuse. The same may be observed also in

Spitsbergen. In the inner parts of the fjords of East Greenland, e.g., Scoresby

Sound, the climate may become so dry that only a few species of lichens occur,

among them desert species.

        The winter minimum temperature is a factor which does not govern the

distribution of lichens to the same extent as it may affect the distribution

of vascular plants. To be sure, many lichen species have their distinct northern

limits, but these seem to depend more upon summer warmth than winter cold. Thus,

many relatively southern species are met with in Scoresby Sound in East Greenland.

Scoresby Sound has for its latitude a high summer temperature, but the winters

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may be cold. Many species of lichens are, however, often of a deformed and

frostbitten appearance in the Arctic, particularly Cladonia species, which

in such a state may be difficult to determine. The tips of the branches are

often destroyed, especially when they have been subject to the winter gales

without a snow cover.

        Lichen vegetation flourishes both on acid and alkaline soils and on rocks.

Particularly on sandy soils, an almost pure lichen vegetation may develop,

probably because of the small competition with other plants. But there are

different species occurring an acid and alkaline soils; species of Solorina

and Peltigera venosa especially prefer alkaline soils.

        About the biology of arctic lichens, hardly anything is known. It is

believed that they can carry out respiration and assimilation at some degrees

below zero centigrade, but definite proof is lacking.

        Experiments to determine the rapidity of growth of lichens have been

carried out in Scandinavia in connection with problems of reindeer grazing.

The most important food lichen, Cladonia alpestris , which occurs also in most

parts of the low-arctic regions, needs more than thirty years to attain full

growth. Other species grow more rapidly, e.g., Cladonia rangiferina and

C. sylvatica , Cetraria nivalis and C. islandica , and especially Stereocaulon

pas c hale . In regions heavily grazed by reindeer, Cladonia alpestris becomes

subordinate in the vegetation, while Stereocaulon pas c hale becomes more important.

        There are good reasons to believe that the rapidity of the growth of

lichens decreases with a colder climate. In Peary Land, Peter Freuchen found

the stone cairn built by Peary twenty years before. The stones had been moved

to make the cairn, some being placed upside down, yet not much difference in the

lichen vegetation or signs of new growth could be seen (according to a letter

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from Freuchen to Lynge). On the other hand, in southern West Greenland, the

author has seen Eskimo graves certainly not more than thirty years old, the

stones of which were covered by large lichens.

        The extreme slowness of lichen growth in the Arctic has been made use of

by Ahlmann (1). The glaciers around the North Atlantic Ocean had a maximum

about the year 1740. Ahlmann found a zone with only scanty lichen vegetation

along the “walls” bordering the glaciers in northern East Greenland for some

meters above the present surface of the glaciers. He was able to connect the

upper limit of this zone with side moraines most probably dating from the 1740

maximum. The lichen vegetation on the rock walls had thus not attained a mature

state in the time that had elapsed since 1740. Consequently, it may be stated

that specimens of lichens from the Arctic may attain a very great age.

        The slowness of growth of arctic lichens makes them little resistant to

solifluction. For example, where only a slight movement of the boulders of

talus slopes occurs, the lichen vegetation is badly affected. Such parts of

the slopes have a light color in contradistinction to the stable parts which

may be dark gray because of lichens.

       

Lichen Vegetation in the Arctic

        Vegetation types with lichens forming their chief component part are

characteristic of the Arctic. The arctic prairie contains an important element

of lichens, yet is rarely dominated by them. This may be due parly to the

solifluction which often interferes with lichen growth. Characteristic of

the prairie are the cup-shaped Cladonia pyxidata var. pocillum , C. coccifera ,

C. lepidota , Dactylina species, and Cetraria species. The dead parts of mosses

and vascular plants are beset with microlichen species of the genera L a e cidea ,

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Caloplaca, and Rinodina.

        The lichen health, with lichens dominating together with shrubs such as

Empetrum and Betula nana or B. glandulosa , is a vegetation type of the low–

arctic regions. This vegetation is probably of circumpolar occurrence and is

beautifully developed in Scandinavia and southern Greenland. The lichens form

a thick carpet which may be tens of centimeters thick. In places where a light

snow cover occurs in winter, Cladonia alpestris is often the dominant species;

in places that are more exposed to the wind, Cetraria nivalis and Alectoria

s ochroleuca are dominant, mixed with Cornicularia divergens , Stereocaulon species species ,

etc.

        In the snow patches lichen vegetation becomes less profuse. Some character–

istic species are found, especially Solorina crocea , which is a foil-shaped,

adnate species with orange coloration of the underside.

        The surface components of boulder fields in the mountains and talus slopes

are generally covered with lichens if the stones are stable. Most characteristic

are the Umbilicariaceae, with such species as Umbilicaria cylindrica , U. probos –

cidea , and U. hyperborean , and Parmelias such as Parmelia pubescens , P. alpicola ,

and P. intestiniformis . Areas not occupied by macrolichens are generally covered

with microlichens, particularly species belonging to the genera Lecidea , Lecanora ,

and Rhizocarpon .

        The bird cliffs have a lichen vegetation of their own. On them there is

an ample supply of nitrogen which stimulates a rich lichen growth on stones

and rock walls. Characteristic are the red Caloplaca eleg e a ns , which may give

color to the whole cliff, and some species of Umbilicaria Umbilicaria . Many species of

Physcia are found, together with the red Xanthoria candelaria , and, further,

Rinodina species, Lecanora melanophtalma Lecanora melanophtalma , and other species of microlichens.

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If no bird cliffs are found within an area, fragments of this vegetation type

may be found in the birds’ resting places on top of prominent stones. The

Eskimo villages also stimulate the growth of lichens and other plants.

        In or near brook s , a separate type of lichen vegetation occurs, con–

sisting of small microlichen species belonging to the genera Verrucaria,

Staurothel s e , and Lecanora . The seashore is practically always devoid of

lichen vegetation because of the winter ice which destroys plant life.

       

Exploration of Lichen Flora

        Lichens have been collected in the Arctic for more than a century and a

half. The lichen floras of some parts of the Arctic are fairly well known,

whereas other parts are unexplored. Many arctic expeditions bring home

collections of lichens, but the size and quality varies according to the

ability of the collectors. Naturally the collection of a trained lichenologist

is far better than that of an amateur, or of a botanist who has not made lichen–

ology his specialty. In every area there are some common species dominating

the lichen s vegetation, and these are collected by everybody. Many species

occur as occasional specimens among the common ones which they may superfi–

cially resemble; these are naturally collected only by the trained lichenologist.

The collections not made by specialists may give interesting information about

lichen floras of areas not previously explored, but a representative collection

can be made only by a man who knows the lichens. A fairly representative

collection of macrolichens may be made by anyone who devotes some time and

interest to the task, but he will always miss many species of microlichens.

        The procedure for collecting arctic lichens is very simple. The lichens,

or pieces of stones with attached lichens, are merely wrapped in a piece of

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paper and dried. They must be carefully labeled. In this state they may

be kept for years until they can be unpacked at home, pressed if necessary,

and classified. The identification of the lichens must be left to the

lichenologist who has at his disposal the necessary literature and specimens

for comparison.

        The last attempt to make a survey of the lichen flora of more than a

single major part of the Arctic was made by Fries (11). His Lichenes Arcto i

contains descriptions (in Latin) of the lichens considered, and is based on

collections from Scandinavia, Bear Island, Spitsbergen, Iceland, Greenland,

and Kola Peninsula. It is still of great value.

        To give an account of our knowledge of the lichen flora of the Arctic,

it is necessary to treat the different areas separately. Extensive references

to literature on arctic lichens are given by Lynge (28, 29).

        Northern Scandinavia and Kola Peninsula . Large collections have been made

in northern Norway, northern Sweden, and especially in northern Finland. The

results have been published in many papers by Nylander (35); Th. Fries (11, 12);;

his Lichenographia Scandinavica (13) also contains descriptions of the species,

but was unfortunately never completed); Wainio (37, 38; his Lichenographia

Fennica (39) contains descriptions of the lichen species in question, but was

likewise never completed); Lynge (15-32); Magnusson, Räsänen, and others.

Our knowledge of the lichen flora of Kola Peninsula is scanty.

        Novaya Zemlya . Large collections were made by Lynge who visited the middle

part of the island and the western coast in 1921. Some minor collections have

been made by Swedish and Soviet expeditions. The results of the expedition of

1921 are published by Lynge (25), with references to older literature.

        Arctic Siberia. Little is known of the lichen flora of the western and

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central parts of arctic Siberia, and any additions are of interest. In 1876,

M r . Brenner collected lichens along the Yenisei River during an expedition

with A. E. Nordenskiold; he also found some specimens at the mouth of the

river. The collections are being studied by Magnusson, but the results have

thor: y recent publications? ck oughout rticle not yet been published. The Maud expedition collected a few lichens which have

been identified and described by Lynge (31).

        On the famous Vega expedition, the surgeon E. Almquist collected lichens in

the few places visited. The visits were too short to permit extensive collecting,

but Almquist was an excellent observer who made the utmost of the opportunity. A

preliminary survey of the results is given by Almquist (3); later the collections

were studied and described by Malme (34). At Pitlekai in easternmost Siberia,

the Vega expedition was caught by the ice and forced to stay for the winter.

During this period Almquist had a good opportunity to collect lichens, although

snow covered the area during the greater part of the stay. These lichens have

been described by Wainio (38).

        Soviet expeditions have perhaps collected lichens along the Siberian coast,

but nothing has been published as far as the author knows, apart from some stray

contributions by Savich and Oxner.

        Bering Strait Area . After the winter in Pitlekai, the Vega expedition

proceeded to Bering Strait. Some places on both sides of the strait were

visited and Almquist made good collections, which were studied and described

by Nylander (35). Almquist (2) has also given a picture of the lichen vege–

tation of the area.

        Kamchatka . In 1912-14, the Russian lichenologist Savich visited Kamchatka

and made large collections. Unfortunately only a few of the lichen genera l from

the area have been identified and the results published (36). A collection of

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lichens containing 102 different species was brought home by Hult e é n from

Swedish Kamchatka expeditions; these have been described by Du Rietz (10).

        Alaska and Canadian Western Arctic . Our main source by knowledge of the

Alaskan lichen flora is the work by Cummings (6); this work is based on

thor O.K? collections from many expeditions. Up until 1949 when George Flavo was in

Alaska, no trained lichenologist ever visited the area. The principles of

lichen systematics employed by Cummings are not in accordance with those now

followed, and a revision seems desirable. In any case most of the material

comes from the subarctic part of Alaska, not from the northern arctic part.

        A number of stray contributions [ ?] to the study of lichen flora of Alaska

and the Canadian Western Arctic have been published by different authors (Degelius,

Herre, Howe, Lynge, Magnusson, Merrill ) . Unpublished descriptions are probably

to be found in American herbaria.

        Canadian Eastern Arctic . Several expeditions have collected lichens in the

Canadian Eastern Arctic, but no trained lichenologist has ever visited this

immense area, so our knowledge is still incomplete.

        The Second Norwegian Arctic Expedition in the Fram brought home good

collections from Ellesmere Island and adjacent areas. The collections, which

contained approximately 160 species, have been described by Darbishire (9).

The classifications need a modern revision. The Danish Fifth Thule Expedition

of 1921-24 brought home many lichens from the Arctic Archipelago and the adjacent

mainland. The collections, containing approximately 100 different species, have

been studied by Lynge (18).

        Prof. N. Polunin made good collections in Baffin Island and adjacent areas

in 1931, 1934, and 1936. The collections, which contained 166 species, have

been described by Lynge (17). The publication also contains numerous references

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to previous finds. Farther Arth e è me Dutilly also has made collections within

the same area. The collections, which contained 88 species, were studied by

Lynge (15).

        Labrador . Almost nothing is known about the lichen flora of most of

Labrador. Some records are found in Macoun (33). A small collection from

Hebron was brought home by Tanner, but its description has not yet been [ ?]

published.

        Greenland . We are fairly well informed about the lichen flora of most

parts of Greenland. The most extensive collections are found in the herbaria of

Copenhagen and Oslo, some collections being also in Stockholm. The last attempt

to make a complete survey of the lichen flora of Greenland was by Branth and

Grønland (5) and Branth (4), comprising material from the Danish expeditions

up to 1892. The classifications need a modern revision.

        North Greenland was visited by Th. Wulff in 1917, and his collections,

which contained 64 species, have been described by Lynge (19). The Danish

Peary l L and Expedition (1948-49) also collected some lichens in this area.

        West Greenland has been visited by many expeditions. Jens Vahl traveled

in West Greenland and also in the southernmost part of East Greenland during

1 9 8 28-36. His collections were made with great care and profound knowledge of

lichens, and still form an important basis for our information. In 1871, the

famous Swedish lichenologist Th. M. Fries visited the Disko area. His collections

have been studied and described by Lynge (27). In 1946, the Danish lichenologist

M. Skytte Christiansen visited the Holsteinsborg area and some other places

in West Greenland, but his collections are not yet described. In 1937, E. Dahl

traveled in the southern part of the Frederikshaab District and in Julianshaab

District in southernmost Greenland. The macrolichens have been studied (7), but

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the microlichens have not so far been examined. Besides these major collections,

quite a number of minor collections have been made, mostly by Danish expeditions.

        East Greenland has also been visited many times. Farthest to the north, the

Danmark Danmark Eexpedition collected lichens, and the results have been described by

Galløe (14). In 1929, Lynge, and in 1930, Scholander, visited northern East

Greenland. Reports have been published by Lynge and Scholander (32) and by Lynge

(24).

        Minor collections have been made in the district between Scoresby Sound

and Angmagssalik and descriptions have been published by different authors (Wainio,

Lynge, Lamb). Southern East Greenland has been visited by Danish and Norwegian

expeditions. Scholander collected lichens in the district in 1932, and the results

have been described by Dahl, Lynge, and Scholander (8).

        Jan Mayen was visited by the Norwegian botanist Johannes Lid, in 1930, and

by Lynge, briefly, in 1929. The results have been published by Lynge (23).

        Iceland . Lichens have been collected for a long time in Iceland, in earlier

times chiefly by Danish expeditions. Good collections are kept in Copenhagen and

in Reykjavik. In 1937 and 1939, Lynge made extensive studies in Iceland. The

macrolichens from Lynge’s collections have been described by him (22), and here

references to older literature are also found. Unfortunately it was impossible

for him to revise older collections. The microlichens were mostly identified by

the time of Lynge’s death in 1942, but descriptions have not yet been published.

        Spitsbergen . Spitsbergen has been visited by many expeditions which collected

lichens; in older times these were mostly Swedish, in recent times mostly

Norwegian. The results of the Swedish expeditions have been published by Th. Fries

(12). The western coast has been visited by Lynge, Lid, and H o ø eg; the northern

coast by Høeg’ Scholander, and Dahl; and the east coast by Dahl. The results

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of these collections of the macrolichens of the west and north coasts have been

published by Lynge (26), where references to older publications and finds also

are to be found. In this work Lynge also gives an enumeration of the macrolichen

species known from Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen, and West and East Greenland. Large

collections of microlichens and considerable collections of macrolichens still

await study and publication.

        Franz Josef Land was visited by a Norwegian expedition in 1930. The results

have been published by Lynge (20). Altogether 94 species are known from the

archipelago.

        Bear Island was visited by Th. Fries in 1868, and his extensive collections

have been described by Lynge (21).

       

Lichen Floras of the Arctic Countries

        The number of macrolichen and microlichen species at present known from

those arctic regions from which fairly good information is available is given in

Table I. The figures are only approximate. Different authors may have different

Table I.

Locality	Number of macrolichens	Number of microlichens	Reference
Novaya Zemlya	140	316	(25, 26)
Pitlekai	76	162	(38)
Bering Strait	116	288	(35)
West Greenland	205	240	(7, 27)
East Greenland	142	270	(24, 32)
Jan Mayen	60	84	(23)
Iceland	151	--	(22)
Spitsbergen	145	--	(26)
Bear Island	54	131	(21)

        concepts of the species and doubts concerning the reliability of older records may arise.

Naturally many of the figures will increase with future exploration.

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        As a general rule one may state that in regions which have been fairly well

explored (Novaya Zemlya, East Greenland, Bear Island), somewhat more than twice

as many microlichens as macrolichens are found. West Greenland and Spitsbergen

are well explored, but considerable collections of microlichens have not so far

been examined. For comparison it can be stated that from the Nordic countries

(Finland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) approximately 460 species of macrolichens

and 1,300 species of microlichens are known.

        If we try to make phytogeographical comparisons of the lichen floras of the

arctic countries, one difficulty is met with at once: the lichen floras of

Siberia, western North America, and the American mountain ranges are too insuffi–

ciently known. An investigation of, for example, the Bering Strait area by a

competent lichenologist is most desirable.

        Despite this, our present knowledge of the macrolichen flora of many arctic

countries seems to be sufficient to permit some conclusions as to the character

of their lichen floras. Some of these problems have been treated by Lynge (16,

26, 30).

        The arctic lichen flora doubtless contains elements of great age. Possibly

they lived in arctic regions before the Quaternary glaciations. As examples of

such types may be chosen Neuropogon sulphureus (see Fig. 2) and Dactylina arctica .

(see Fig. 3). Of these, N. sulphureus , which is a characteristic lichen readily

recognized even by the amateur, is of special interest. It has never been met

with in subarctic countries but exhibits a bipolar type of distribution, occurring

again in the Southern Hemisphere with many related species. Bipolar types of dis–

tribution are by no means rare among lichens.

        The macrolichen species of arctic countries are generally of a wide distri–

bution and found within many countries. Circumpolar types of distribution are

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common. Within each country the species may, however, be of a peculiar local

occurrence, suggesting that they may be interglacial relics (e.g., in Spitsbergen,

see 26).

        The microlichen species within the arctic countries seem generally to have

a more restricted distribution than the macrolichens. There are more endemics of

various arctic countries among microlichens than among macrolichens (16).

        An element characteristic of the Bering Strait area is spreading into

Siberia and Arctic America (examples are Cetraria richardsonii , C. chrysantha ,

Pilophoron aciculare , and Spereocaulon intermedia ).

        There seems to be a close relationship between the macrolichen floras on

both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Thus there are very few species of macrolichens

in Spitsbergen which are not found in East Greenland, and more than 95% of the

macrolichen flora of southern West Greenland is also found in Scandinavia (7).

It is impossible to say that they do not occur in the Bering Strait area, as this

region is insufficiently known. But it may be stated that there is a closer

relationship between the southern West Greenland macrolichen flora and the

Scandinavian alpine lichen flora than there i is between the alpine lichen floras

of Scandinavia and the Alps.

        It seems probable that even dominating elements of the lichen floras of

many arctic countries survived the last glaciation, possibly they lived there

also during earlier glaciations. This could be explained by the extreme hardiness

of lichens, which makes them able to survive unfavorable periods better than other

groups of plants. A closer study, especially of the distribution of the microlichen

species, may reveal old phytogeographical relationships of the different parts of

the Arctic.

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Economic Importance of Arctic Lichens

        Lichens have considerable economic importance especially in the low-arctic

regions, because they serve as a basic food for the reindeer, especially as

winter fodder. This is indicated by the manner in which, if an area is too

densely populated with reindeer, as ma [ ?] happen in northern Scandinavia, the

lichen vegetation changes. The fodder lichens most important to reindeer are

Cladonia alpestris , Cetraria nivalis , and Stereocaulon paschale , besides some

related species. Cetraria nivalis have a particularly high percentage of digestible

carbohydrates. [ ?]

        Lichens may serve as emergency food for man. Most famous is Cetraria islandica

(Iceland moss, pig moss, food moss), which has served as a substitute for flour

during hard times in Scandinavia and Iceland. It has also served as food for pigs.

It, too, contains a high percentage of digestible carbohydrates.

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---

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ahlmann, H.W. “Studies in North East Greenland, 1939-40,” Geografiska Ann .,

Stockh. pp.145-209, 1941.

2. Almquist, Ernst. “Die Lichenenvegetation der Küsten des Beringsmeeres,”

Nordenskiőld, A.E. Vega-Expeditionens Vetenskapliga Iakttagelser

Vol. 4. Stockholm, Beijer, 1887, pp.409-42.

3. ----. “Lichenologiska iakttagelser paa Sibiriens Nordkust,” Ibid . Vol. 1, Stockholm,

Beijer, 1882, pp.195-222.

4. Branth, J.S. Deichmann. “Tillaeg til Grønlands Lichen-Flora,” Medd .

Grønland vol.3, pp.750-62, 1892.

5. ----, and Grønland, Chr. “Grønlands Lichen-Flora,” Ibid . vol.3, pp.447-513,

1887.

6. Cummings, Clara E. “The lichens of Alaska,” Cardot, J., Cummings, C.E., and

others. Cryptogamic Botany . Wash., D.C., 1910, pp.65-149,

Harriman Alaska Ser. vol.5 .

7. Dahl, Eilif. “Studies in the macrolichen flora of South West Greenland,”

Medd. Grønland 1948. (In press)

8. ----, Lynge, B., and Scholander, P.F. Lichens from Southeast Greenland .

Oslo, Dybwad, 1937. Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter Nr. 70.

9. Darbishire, Otto V. Lichens Collected During the 2nd Norwegian Polar

Expedition in 1898-1902, and Determined by Otto V. Darbishire .

Kristiania, Brøgger, 1909. Report of the Second Norwegian

Arctic Expedition in the “Fram” 1898-1902, no.21.

10. Du Rietz, G.E. “The lichens of the Swedish Kamtchatka-Expeditions,”

Arkiv főr Bot . vol.22 A, no.13, pp.1-25, 1929.

11. Fries, Th.M. “Lichenes Arctoi Euroae Groenlandiaeque Hactenus cogniti,”

Vetenskaps-Soc.Upsala Nova Acta Ser. III, vol.3, pp.103–

398, 1861.

12. ----. “Lichenes Spitsbergenses,” Svenska Vetenskapsakad. Handl . vol.7, no.2,

pp.1-53, 1867.

13. ----. Lichenographia Scandinavica. Vol. I, Archilichenes Discocarpos Continens .

Upsala, Berling, 1871-74, 1 vol. in 2.

14. Galløe, Olaf. “Lichens from North-East Greenland (N. of 76° N.Lat.) collected

by the “Danmark-Expeditionen’ 1906-8,” Medd.Grønland

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Polarinstitutt Skrifter Nr. 9.

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24. ----. Lichens from North East Greenland . Oslo, Dybwad, 1940. Ibid . Nr.81.

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28. ----. On Dufourea and Dactylina. Three Arctic Lichens . Oslo, Dybwad, 1933.

Norsk Polarinstitutt Skrifter Nr. 59.

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29. ----. On Neuropog on Sulphureus (Kőnig) Elenk., a Bipolar Lichen . Oslo,

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35. Nylander, William. Enumeratio Lichenum Freti Behringii . Caen, 1888.

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38. ----. “Lichenes in viciniis hibernae expeditionis Vegae prope pagum

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39. ----. “Lichenographia Fennica. I,” Societas Fauna Flora Fenn. Acta

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Eilif Dahl