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EA-I. (Robert F. Black)

PERMAFROST AS A NATURAL PHENOMENON

       

CONTENTS

	Page
Introduction	1
Constitution and Properties of Permafrost	2
Extent	2
Thickness	3
Temperature	4
Character	5
Relation to Terrain Features	6
Origin	7
Geologic Ramifications	8
Engineering Significance	12
Biologic Significance	13
Factors Affecting Permafrost	14
Practical Applications	17
Recognition and Prediction	19
Construction	20
Water Supply	22
Sewage Disposal	23
Agriculture	24
Mining	24
Refrigeration and Storage	26
Trafficability	26
Military	27
Future Research Needed	28
Bibliography	30

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

       

LIST OF FIGURES

		Page
Fig. 1	Areal distribution of permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere	2-a
Fig. 2	Representative cross section of permafrost areas in Alaska and Asia	4-a
Fig. 3	Representative temperature profiles in areas of continuous, discontinuous and sporadic permafrost	4-b

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EA-I. (Robert F. Black)

       

PERMAFROST AS A NATURAL PHENOMENON

       

INTRODUCTION

        Permafrost (perennially frozen ground) is a widespread geologic

phenomenon whose importance and ramif ac ica tions are rapidly becoming better ✓

known and more clearly understood. For many decades European scientists

have been describing surficial features produced by frost action and

permafrost, but for the most part they have given only passing reference

to perennially frozen ground. The current problem is to understand perma–

frost so as to be able to evaluate it in the light of any particular endeavor,

whether practical or academic. To understand permafrost we need a precise

standardized terminology, a comprehensive classification of forms, a

systemization of available data, and coordination of effort by geologists,

engineers, physicists, botanists, climatologists, and other scientists in

broad research programs. These objectives are only gradually being realized.

        This article is largely a compilation of or reference to recent available

literature. Its purpose is to acquaint geologists, engineers, and other

scientists with some of the many ramifications and practical applications

of permafrost. New data from unpublished manuscripts of the U.S. Geological

Survey are included where appropriate for clarity or completeness. References

in this paper generally are only to the later American or German works, as

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

most contain accounts of the earlier literature. Unfortunately, the bulk

of the literature is in Russian and unavailable to the average reader;

some of it has been summarized by Muller (41). A list of 190 Russian articles

that deal with permafrost is given by Weinberg (97). The Arctic Institute

of North America (82) is currently preparing an annotated bibliograph y of all ✓

arctic literature, including permafrost.

        The multitude of problems associated with frost action appropriately

should accompany any discussion of permafrost. However, lack of space permits

only passing reference to the relationship between permafrost and frost action.

An annotated bibliography on frost action has been prepared by the Highway

Research Board (43).

       

CONSTITUTION AND PROPERTIES OF PERMAFROST

        The term permafrost was proposed and defined by Muller (41). A longer,

but more correct phrase, is “perennially frozen ground” (77). The difficulties

of the present terminology have been discussed by Bryan (4; 6) who proposed a

new set of terms. These are discussed by representative geologists and engineers

(7). Such terms as cryopedology, congeliturbation, congelifratcion, and

cryoplanation have been accepted by some geologists (9; 17; 35; 85) in order

to attempt standardization of the terms referring to perennially frozen ground

and frost action. The term permafrost has been widely adopted by agencies of

the United States Government, by private organizations, and by scientists and

laymen alike. Its use is continued in this article as it is simple, euphonious,

and easily understood by all.

        Extent . Much of northern Asia and northern North America contains perennially

Fig. 1 frozen ground (Fig. 1) (14; 41; 46; 72; 77; 84).

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        The areal subdivision of permafrost into continuous, discontinuous, and

sporadic zones is already possible on a small scale for much of Asia but, as

yet, only for part of North America. Refinements in delineation of these

zones are being made each year. The southern margin of permafrost is known

only approximately, and additional isolated bodies are being discovered as

more detailed work is undertaken. The southern margin of permafrost has

receded northward within the last century (47).

        Permafrost is absent or thin under some of the existing glaciers, and

it may be absent in areas recently exhumed from ice-cover. A greater extent

of permafrost in the recent geologic past is inferred from phenomena associated

with permafrost (9; 30; 53; 54; 58; 60; 66; 83; 84; 98; 106). Some of the

more important phenomena are fossil ground-ice wedges, solifluction deposits,

block fields and related features, involutions in unconsolidated sediments,

stone rings, stone stripes and related features, and asymmetric valleys (66).

The presence of permafrost in earlier geologic periods can be inferred from

the known facts of former periods of glaciation and from fossil periglacial

forms.

        In the Southern Hemisphere, permafrost is extensive in Antarctica. It

probably occurs logically in some of the higher mountains elsewhere, but its

actual extent is unknown.

        Thickness . Permafrost attains its greatest known thickness of about

2,000 feet (620 meters) at Nordvik in northern Siberia (I. V. Poir e é , oral accout ✓

communication). Werenskiold (99) reports a thickness of 1,050 feet ( 320 meters ) ✓

in the Sveagru n van coal mine in Lowe Sound, Spit z s bergen. In Alaska its ✓ ✓

greatest known thickness is about 1,000 feet, south of Barrow.

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        Generally, the permafrost thins abruptly to the north under the Arctic

Sea. It is discontinuous and sporadic as it gradually thins to the south

Fig. 2 (Fig. 2) (14; 41; 77).

        In areas of comparable climatic conditions today, permafrost is much

thinner in glaciated areas than in nonglaciated areas (77; 78).

        Unfrozen zones within perennially frozen ground are common near the

surface (41) and are reported to occur at depth (14; 77). They have been

interpreted as indicators of climatic fluctuations (14; 41), or as permeable

water-bearing horizons (77).

        Temperature . Below the depth of seasonal change, the temperature of

perennially frozen ground ranges from slightly less than 0°C. to about −12°C.

(I. V. Poir e é , oral communication). In Alaska the minimum temperature recorded accout ✓

to date is −9.6°C. at a depth of 100-200 feet in a well about 40 miles south–

west of Barrow (J. H. Swartz, 1948, written communication). Representative

temperature profiles in areas of continuous permafrost are shown in Figure 3A;

in areas of discontinuous permafrost, in Figure 3B; and in areas of sporadic

Fig. 3 permafrost, in Figure 3C.

        Temperature gradients from the base of permafrost up to the depth of

minimum temperature vary from place to place and from time to time. In

1947-48, four wells in northern Alaska had gradients between 120 and 215 feet

per degree centigrade (data of J. H. Swartz, G. R. MacCarthy, and R. F. Black).

        The shape of a temperature curve indicates pergelation or depergelation–

aggradation or degradation of permafrost (41; 77). Some deep temperature

profiles have been considered by Russian workers to reflect climatic fluctua–

tions in the recent geologic past. No known comprehensive mathematical

approach has been attempted to interpret past climates from these profiles,

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

although it seems feasible. Some of the effects of Pleistocene climatic

variations upon geothermal gradients have been discussed by Birch (2) and

Ingersoll and Zobell (32).

        Character . Permafrost is defined on the basis of temperature, and it

may encompass any type of natural or artificial material, whether organic or

inorganic. Generally, permafrost consists of variable thicknesses of

perennially frozen surficial, unconsolidated materials; bedrock; and ice.

Physical, chemical, or organic composition, degree of induration, texture,

structure, water conte c n t, etc., very widely and are limited only by the ✓

extremes of nature o f r the caprice of mankind. For example, perennially ✓

frozen mammals, bacteria, artifacts, beds of sand and silt, lenses of ice, and

beds of peat can collectively be lumped under the term permafrost. Ground

perennially below freezing but containing no ice has been called “dry per–

mafrost” (41).

        Permafrost composed largely of ice is abundant, particularly in poorly

drained, fine-grained materials. The ice occurs as thin films, grains,

fillings, veinlets, large horizontal sheets, large vertical wedge-shaped

masses, and irregular masses of all sizes. Many masses of clear ice are

arranged in geometric patterns near the surface, i.e., polygonal ground and

honeycomb structure. The ice may be clear, colorless, yellow, or brown. In

many places it contains numerous oriented or unoriented air bubbles, silt,

clay, or organic materials. Size, shape, and orientation of the ice

crystals differ widely. Discordant structures in sediments around large

masses of ice are evidence of growth (38; 77; 78).

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        Relation to Terrain Features . In the continuous zone of permafrost, the

upper limit (permafrost table, 41) is generally within a few inches to 2 feet

of the surface. Large lakes and a few large rivers lie in thawed areas

slightly larger than the basins they occupy (3; 41). Well-drained, coarse–

grained materials may thaw annually to a depth of 6 feet. Poorly drained,

fine-grained materials protected from solar radiation and insulated with

m i o ss and other vegetation may thaw annually to a depth of only 4 inches. ✓

        In the discontinuous zone permafrost is absent under most major rivers

and lakes. Permafrost may be absent in the tops of some well-drained low

hills. Seasonal thaw (active layer, 41) penetrates 1 to 10 feet depending

upon insulation, amount of energy absorbed from solar radiation, drainage,

and type of material.

        Sporadic bodies of permafrost may be relics below the active layer or

may be forming in favorable situations in poorly drained, fine-grained

materials on north-facing slopes. In the zone of sporadic permafrost, the

active layer may or may not reach the permafrost table, and ranges between

2 and 14 feet in thickness.

        Generally, the depth of thaw is at a minimum in northern latitudes and

increases to the south. It is at a minimum in peat or highly organic sediments

and increase successively in clay, silt, and sand to a maximum in gravelly

ground or exposed bedrock. It is less at high altitudes than at low

altitudes and less in poorly drained ground than in dry, well-drained ground.

It is at a minimum under certain types of tundra and increases successively

under areas of bog shrubs, black spruce, larch, white spruce, birch, aspen,

and poplar to a maximum under tall pines. It is less in areas of heavy

snowfall, in regions having cloudy summers, and on north-facing slopes

(41; 77; 78; 84).

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        Works of man commonly upset the natural thermal equilibrium and may tend

to destroy permafrost or to aid in its formation. Most roads, runways, and

other structures on the surface of or in the ground generally have s lower [S?] ✓

permafrost tables than undisturbed natural areas adjacent to them. Structures

above the ground and insulated from the ground partially protect the surface

from solar radiation and commonly produce higher permafrost tables.

        Origin . The origin of perennially frozen ground is discussed by Muller (41),

Zeuner (106), Taber (77), Cressey (14), Nikiforoff (44), Leffingwell (38), and

others. In general, it can be stated that most sporadic bodies of permafrost

are relics of colder climates. Discontinuous bodies of permafrost are largely

relics but under favorable conditions may grow in size, and pergelation (4),

of new deposits may take place. In areas of continuous permafrost, heat is

being dissipated actively from the surface of the earth to the atmosphere, and

new deltas, bars, landslides, mine tailings, and other deposits are being per–

gelated (incorporated in the permafrost).

        Local surface evidence indicates that in places heat is being absorbed

into the base of permafrost faster than it is being dissipated at the surface

(29; 104). Hence, the cold reserve is being lessened and the thickness of

permafrost is decreasing from the base upward.

        The mean annual air temperature required to produce permafrost undoubtedly

varies many degrees because of local conditions. Generally, it is given as

30° to 24°F. Theoretically permafrost can form above 32°F. (80), and apparently

is doing so locally in parts of southwest Alaska that have poor drainage,

abundant vegetation, cloudy summers, and relatively slight absorption of solar

radiation (S. Abrahamson, oral communication).

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        The relative effects of past climates have been inferred qualitatively

through a study of present temperature profiles, ancient deposits, pollen

analysis, changes in floras, the regimen of plants, soil structures, block

fields, etc.

        The origin of large clear ice masses in the permafrost is a special

problem in itself. Numerous theories are extant and one or more may apply to

a particular mass of ice (38; 77).

       

GEOLOGIC RAMIFICATIONS

        Throughout the Arctic and Subarctic the role of permafrost is extremely

important. As an impervious layer in zones of continuous permafrost, it

exerts a drastic influence on surface waters, completely prevents precipita–

tion from entering the natural ground-water reservoirs, and commonly causes

a concentration of organic acids and mineral salts in suprapermafrost water.

In zones of discontinuous permafrost, and less so in areas of sporadic perma–

frost, ground-water movement are interrupted or channelized. The quality

of water, too, can be materially affected by storage for centuries, and

subsequent release by thawing of organic and inorganic materials (36). In

fact, our present concepts of ground-water reservoirs, ground-and surface–

water movements, infiltration, quality of water, and so on, must be modified

in considering permafrost as a new geologic formation, generally not uniform

in composition or distribution, that transcends all rock and soil formations.

Furthermore, it must be considered as much in regard to past as to present

conditions.

        In cold climates, physical disintegration (frost splitting, congeli–

fraction) plays a more important role than chemical weathering. The repeated

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EA-I. Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

freezing of water- w s aturated materials and the growth of ice crystals in ✓

numerous small pores, cracks, joints, cleavage planes, or partings is

by far the most effective disruptive proces . s. Taber (77) has shown that, ✓

without water, disintegration is generally much slower. Permafrost is one

of the most important agents in keeping soils supersaturated (containing

more water than pore space; a suspension) and in keeping rock fragments wet.

        Mass-wasting processes in the Arctic and subarctic are instrumental

in the transport of tremendous volumes of material. With the exception of

unbroken bedrock, the materials on the surface of slopes greater than 1° to

3° are everywhere on the move in summer. The amount of material involved

and the rapidity of such movements impress all who have studied them (96).

        Permafrost, on thawing slightly in summer, supplies a lubricated

surface and additional water to materials probably already saturated. Hence,

solifluction, mud flows, and other gravity movements take place with ease

and in favorable locations even supply material to streams faster than the

streams can remove it (94). Bryan (5) has coined the term “cryoplanation”

to cover such processes (including also frost heaving normal to slopes and

settling vertically), which in the Arctic are instrumental in reducing the

landscape to long smooth slopes and gently rounded forms. Such physiographic

processes are only partly understood and their effects only quali ta tively ✓

known (5).

        Permafrost, by aiding in maintaining saturated conditions in surficial

materials, indirectly aids in frost-stirring (congeliturbation), frost-splitting,

and mass-wasting processes in such a way that, in places, bedrock is disinter–

grated, reduced in size, thoroughly mixed, and rapidly transported. The result

is a silt-sized sediment that is widespread in the Arctic. Various authors

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EA-I. Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

(5; 29; 67; 77; 87; 106) disagree as to whether some of the material is

derived from aeolian, lacustrine, or local frost-splitting and mass-wasting

processes. Size-grade distribution curves, mineral comparisons, chemical

analyses, comparisons with glacial materials and with organic materials , etc., ✓

have been used by various investigators to prove their point, but the

differences of opinions have by no means been resolved.

        Frost action (frost heaving, frost stirring, and frost splitting) and

gravity movements result in many surface forms that are found most abundantly

in areas of permafrost, i.e., strukturb o ö den , involutions, frost boils, hummocks, ✓

altiplanation terraces, terr e a cettes , and soil stripes (9; 13; 25; 28; 35; 58;

60; 63; 65; 70; 77; 83; 84; 85; 96; 106). Annual freezing in permafrost

areas also forces changes in surface- and ground-water migration and commonly

results in pingos, frost blisters, ice mounts, icings, Aufeis Aufeis , and other related ✓

forms (41; 42; 62; 84). Many of the forms produced by frost action and seasonal

freezing are closely related in character and origin; however, the lack of a

standardized terminology for these features produces a perplexing picture.

        Little can be said quantitively regarding the importance of frost action

(and indirectly permafrost) in ancient sediments and soils (106). Throughout

the world, deposits of former glaciers have been found in the stratigraphic

sequence. Undoubtedly permafrost was present during those times of glaciations,

as fossil forms derived from frost action and permafrost are known (30; 35; 58;

60; 65; 84; 94; 105; 106). These forms provide data on the processes that

produced the surficial materials and on the environment of deposition. These

features are only now being recognized and studied in the detail that is

warranted (5).

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        Permafrost throughout the world has provided a wealth of material for

paleontologists and archeologists. In perennially frozen Alaskan placers,

investigators have found more than 27 different plants (11), including whole

forests of buried stumps (26); numerous iron and other bacteria; algae;

87 species of diatoms (77); bones of at least 20 species of large mammals,

represented by tens of thousands of speciments (77; 100); and a few species

of mollusk a s , sponges, and insects (77). Permafrost in Siberia has been a ✓

storehouse for Pleistocene mammals (81).

        Permafrost upsets many readin g s taken by geophysicists in determining ✓

the internal constitution of the earth. Velocities of seismic waves, for

example, are materially increased by frozen ground containing much ice and

may result in considerable errors in determinations of depths. Although the

actual increases are not definitely known, they probably range within 1,000

to 8,000 feet per second. Unfortunately, the base of permafrost causes, with

present equipment, no satisfactory reflections or refractions, and seismic

methods cannot be used to determine the thickness or variability of the zone

distorting the seismic waves. Difficulties in drilling, preparing explosive

charges, checking ground waves, and obtaining interpretable effects are augmented

in permafrost areas.

        Electrical methods, especially resistivity methods, give promise of solving

some of the difficulties in determining the extent and thickness of permafrost

(20; 34; 41; 74). Generally, resistivities of frozen silt and gravel are

several thousand ohms higher than those of comparable unfrozen materials and

may be 20 to 120 times as high (34; 74). However, as is well known, the type

of material is less important than the amount of unfrozen ground water and

dissolved salts within the material. Even in frozen ground these factors are

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EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

so variable that resistivity data can be interpreted with reliability only

by experienced men and generally only for areas where some positive checks

can be made through drilling.

        Sumgin and Petrovsky (73) discuss a new radio-wave technique, used

where permafrost is below −5°C.

       

ENGINEERING SIGNIFICANCE

        In Alaska during World War II, difficulties encountered by the Armed

Forces in obtaining permanent water supplies, and in constructing runways,

roads, and buildings in permafrost areas focused attention on permafrost

as nothing else could (1; 33; 78; 101). Only then did most people realize ✓

that in Russia similar difficulties with railroads, roads, bridges, houses,

and factories had impeded colonization and development of the North for

decades. Now, with the recent progress in aviation and because of the

strategic importance of the North, active construction and settlement for

military and civilian personnel must increase, and the problems of permafrost

must be solved.

        Fortunately we can draw on the vast experience of the Soviet Union.

Their engineers have shown that it is “…a losing battle to fight the forces

of frozen ground simply by using stronger materials or by resorting to more

rigid designs. On the other hand, the same experience has demonstrated that

satisfactory results can be achieved and are allowed for in the design in

such a manner that they appreciably minimize or completely neutralize and

eliminate the destructive effect of frost action… Once the frozen ground

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problems are understood and correctly evaluated, their successful solution

is for the most part, a matter of common sense wher e by the frost forces are ✓

utilized to play the hand of the engineer and not against it.” Hence, “…it

is worth noting that in Soviet Russia since about 1938 all governmental

organizations, municipalities, and cooperative societies are required to

make a thorough survey of the permafrost conditions according to a prescribed

plan before any structure may be erected in the permafrost region….”

(41, pp. 1-2, 85-86).

        Specifically, permafrost must be considered in construction of buildings,

roads, bridges, runways, railroads, dams, and reservoirs; in problems of

water supply, sewage disposal, telephone lines, drainage, excavation, ground

storage, and in many other ways. Permafrost can be used as a construction

material or as a base for construction, but steps must be taken to insure its

stability, Otherwise, it must be destroyed and appropriate steps taken to

prevent its formation.

       

BIOLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE

        Permafrost, because of its low temperature and ability to prevent

runoff, is a potent factor that aids in controlling vegetation in the Arctic

and Subarctic (40). Many places have semiarid climate, yet have luxuriant

growths of vegetation because permafrost prevents the loss of precipitation

through underground drainage (low evaporation possibly as important). Such

conditions are natural breeding environments for mosquitoes and other insects.

        Conversely, luxuriant growths of vegetation, by insulating the permafrost

in summer, prevent deep thawing and augment cold soil temperatures. Hence,

those plants with deep root systems, such as certain trees, are dwarfed or

absent, and nourishment available to smaller plants is limited.

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        Raup (56; 57) points out that much arctic soil is unstable because

of fro son st action (commonly associated with permafrost), and that standard ✓

biological methods of describing plant communities do not apply. The normal

associations have been greatly disturbed, special communities for different

frost forms can be identified, and above all the plant communities must be

described on the basis of their physical habitat.

        Permafrost probably controls the distribution of some animal species,

such as the frogs or toads, that require thawed ground into which they can

burrow for the winter. The fox can have dens only in dry elevated places

where the depth of thaw is 2 feet or more. Similarly, permafrost affects

worms, burrowing insects, and other animals that live in the ground.

        Indirectly, permafrost, by exercising some control on types of vegetation,

i.e., tundra vs. forest, also exercises some control on the distribution of

animals such as the reindeer and porcupine.

       

FACTORS AFFECTING PERMAFROST

        Most major factors affecting permafrost are recognized qualit at ively, but ✓

none is well known quantit at ively. These factors are easily visualized by ✓

turning to the original definition of the term permafrost. As permafrost

is fundamentally a temperature phenomenon, we may think of it as a negative

temperature produced by climate in material generally of heterogeneous

composition. Permafrost is produced because, through a combination of many

variables, more heat is removed from a portion of the earth during a period

of 2 or more years than is replaced. Hence, a cold reserve is established.

        Basically, the process can be reduced to one of heat exchange between

the sun, the atmosphere, and the earth. The sun, through solar radiation

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(insolation), and the interior of the earth, largely through conduction,

supply practically all primary heat to the surface of the earth (biological

processes, natural or artific i al fires, chemical reactions, comic or other ✓

rad uatnibs iations excepted). This primary heat is dissipated to the atmosphere ✓

and to outer space by conduction, radiation, conve n c tion, and evaporation. ✓

The atmosphere by warm winds and precipitation distributes the secondary

heat to the surface of smaller areas.

        We know that earth temperatures at the depth of seasonal change are in

most places within a few degrees of the mean annual air temperature, and a

geothermal gradient is established from the surface to the interior of the

earth. The geothermal gradient at any one place is relatively fixed from

year to year, although it varies from place to place and has changed markedly

during geologic time. It is generally considered to be 1°F. for each 60-110

feet of depth in sedimentary rock in the United States (93); possibly 0.1 or

0.2 calorie per square centimeter per day is transmitted to the surface from

the interior (80). In contrast, the sun supplies possibly as much as several

hundred calories per square centimeter per day to the surface, depending

primarily on the season and secondarily on cloudiness, humidity, altitude,

latitude, and other factors. This period of rapid heating, however, is

very short in the Arctic, and for many months heat is dissipated to the

atmosphere and outer space. When dissipation of heat outweighs intake, a

cold reserve is produced. If the ground remains below freezing for more than

2 years, it is called permafrost.

        Although the fundamental thesis of the problem is simple, its quanti–

tative solution is exceedingly complex. In only a few isolated areas in

the Arctic have we any information on the geothermal gradients in and below

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permafrost. The climate (including insolation) is so incompletely known

that a present it is not possible to evaluate climatic factors except in

a general way as they effect primary or secondary heat or in dissipation

of heat (37). Thus, the following conditions tend to produce permafrost:

( 1 ) long cold winters and short cool summers; ( 2 ) low precipitation the

year around and especially low snowfall; ( 3 ) clear winters and cloudy summers;

( 4 ) rapid evaporation the year around; ( 5 ) strong cold winds in summer and

winter; and ( 6 ) low insolation.

        The materials involved have different specific heats and different heat

conductivities (41; 61; 68; 69). Chemical and physical properties vary

widely, yet are of primary importance (69; 75; 76). Water transmits heat

about 25 times as fast as air, and ice 4 times as fast as water. Thus, poorly

drained silt and muck are much more easily frozen than dry, coarse-grained

gravel. Smith (69) points out the marked effect of soil structures and of

architecture of pore space on thermal resistance in natural soils.

        The dissipating surface of the earth is even more complex and more

changeable. Water-saturated, frozen vegetation and soil (bare of snow)

serve as active conductors in winter, whereas lush, dry vegetation and dry

porous soil act as excellent insulators in summer. Black-top pavements are

good conductors and heat absorbers in summer and can destroy permafrost. An

elevated and insulated building with circulating air beneath may unbalance

the thermal regime of the ground toward pergelation. Heat conductivities

of some earth materials are known under fixed laboratory conditions, but

the quantitative effect in nature of variable moisture conditions and of

changing vegetation is not. Changes in the volume, composition, or tempera–

ture of ground water or surface runoff have effects as yet little known

qualitatively or quantitatively.

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        All these factors must be considered as being in delicate balance between

freezing and thawing. It is to be emphasized that the thermal regime is not

uniform but changes from hour to hour, day to day, week to week, year to year,

and cycle to cycle. Specifically we must think in terms of geographic position,

topography, lithology, structure and texture of soils and bedrock, hydrology,

geothermal gradients, thermal conductivities, vegetation, climate (temperature,

precipitation, cloudiness, wind, insolation, evaporation), and cultural features.

        What effect cosmic dust clouds, changes in carbon dioxide content of the

atmosphere, inclination of the earth’s axis, eccentricity of the earth’s orbit,

sun spots, etc., have on permafrost can only be surmised as they e a ffect inso- ✓

lation and dissipation of the earth’s heat

       

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

        In the area of permafrost, prior to the construction of buildings, towers,

roads, bridges, runways, railroads, dams, reservoirs, telephone lines, utilidors,

drainage ditches and pipes, facilities for sewage disposal, establishments for

ground-water supply, excavations, foundation piles, or other structures, it is

imperative that the engineer have complete understanding of the extent, thick–

ness, temperature, and character of the permafrost and its relation to its

environment. The practical importance of the temperatures of permafrost cannot

be overemphasized. Knowledge of whether permafrost is actively expanding, is

stabilized, or is being destroyed, is essential in any engineering problem.

Experience has amply demonstrated that low cost or high cost, success or

failure, commonly is based on the degree of understanding of the problems to

be encountered. Once the conditions are evaluated, proper precautions can be

taken with some assurances of success.

018      |      Vol_IIA-0033                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        Muller (41) and Liverovsky (39) give comprehensive outlines of general

and detailed permafrost surveys as adapted to various engineering projects.

These outlines include instructions for the planning of the surveys, method

of operation, and data to be collected. Rarely does the geologist or engineer

on a job encounter “cut-and-dried” situations, and it is obvious that discre–

tion must be exercised in modifying the outlines to meet the situation at

hand.

        In reconnaissance or preliminary surveys to select the best site for

construction in an area, it is recommended that the approach be one if unravel–

ing the natural history of the area. Basically the procedure is to identify

each land form or terrain unit and determine its geologic history in detail.

Topography, character and distribution of materials, type and distribution

of vegetation, hydrology, and climate must be studied as compared with known

areas. Then, inferences, deductions, extrapolations, or interpretations can

be made with reliability commensurate with the type, quality, and quantity

of original data.

        Thus the solution of the problems depends primarily on a complete under–

standing of the thermal regime of the permafrost and active layer. No factor

can be eliminated, but all must be considered in a quantitative way. It is

understandable that disagreement exists on what mean annual air temperature

is needed to produce permafrost. Few, if any, areas actually have identical

conditions of climate, geology, and vegetation; hence, they cannot be compared

directly on the basis of climate alone. Without doubt the mean annual tempera–

ture required to produce permafrost depends upon many factors and varies at

least several degrees with variations in these factors. For practical purposes,

however, separate units (terrain units) in the same climate or in similar

019      |      Vol_IIA-0034                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

climates may be established on the basis of geology and vegetation. Thus

a basis exists for extrapolating known conditions into unknown areas.

        The advantages of aerial reconnaissance and study of aerial photographs

for preliminary site selection are manifold. Aerial photographs in the hands

of experienced geologists, soils engineers, and botanists can supply suffi–

cient data to determine the best routes for roads and railroads; the best

airfield sites; and data on water supply, construction materials, permafrost,

trafficability conditions, camouflage, and other problems. Such an approach

has been used with success by the Geological Survey and other organizations

and individuals (3; 55; 95; 103).

        Emphasis is placed on the great need for expansion of long-term applied

and basic research projects on permafrost for a clearer understanding and

evaluation of the problems (33; 41).

        Recognition and prediction of permafrost go hand in hand in a permafrost

survey. If natural exposures of permafrost are not available along cut banks

of rivers, lakes, or oceans, it is in places necessary to dig test pits or

drill holes to obtain undisturbed samples for laboratory tests and to determine

the character of the permafrost.

        Surface features can be used with a considerable degree of accuracy to

predict permafrost conditions if the origin of the surface forms is clearly

understood. Vegetation alone is not the solution, but it can be used with

other factors to provide data on surficial materials, surface water, character

and distribution of the permafrost, and particularly on the depth of the

active layer (16; 41; 71; 77).

        Cave-in or thermokarst lakes (taw sinks, 29; 3; 41; 95) and ground-ice

mounds (62) are particularly good indicators of fine-grained materials containing

020      |      Vol_IIA-0035                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

much ground ice. Polygonal ground can be used with remarkable accuracy also

if the type of polygonal ground and its origin is clearly known. Numerous

types of Strukturb o ö den , polygonal ground and related forms have been described ✓

and their origins discussed (9; 28; 58; 63; 96). The type of ice-wedge poly–

gon described by Leffingwell (38) can be differentiated from others on the

basis of surface expression. The author’s work in northern Alaska (1945-48)

revealed that the polygons go through a cycle which can be described as youth,

maturity, and old age--from flat surfaces with cracks, to low-centered polygons,

and finally to high-centered polygons. Size and shape of polygons, widths and

depths of troughs or cracks, presence or absence of ridges adjacent to the

troughs, type of vegetation, and other factors all provide clues as to the

size-grade of surficial materials and the amount of ice in the ground. Frost

mounds, frost blisters, icings, gullies, and many other surficial features

can be used with reliability if all factors are considered and carefully

weighed by the experienced observer.

        Geophysical methods of locating permafrost have given some promise

(20; 34; 41; 73; 74). Various temperature-measuring and recording devices

are employed. Augers and other mechanical means of exploring the permafrost

are used (41).

        Construction . Two methods of construction are used in permafrost areas

(41). In one, the passive method, the frozen-ground conditions are undisturbed

or provided with additional insulation so that heat from the structure will

not cause thawing of the underlying ground and weaken its stability. In the

second, the active method, the frozen ground is thawed prior to construction,

and steps are taken to keep it thawed or to remove it, and to use materials

not subject to heaving and settling as a result of frost action. A preliminary

021      |      Vol_IIA-0036                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

examination is necessary in order to determine which procedure is more

practicable or feasible.

        Permafrost can be used as a construction material (if stress or load

does not exceed plastic or elastic limit), removed before construction, or

controlled outside the actual construction area. Muller (41) has shown

that it is best to distinguish: ( 1 ) continuous areas of permafrost,

( 2 ) discontinuous areas, and ( 3 ) sporadic bodies. Russian engineers recom–

mend that in ( 1 ) only the passive method of construction be used; in ( 2 ) or

( 3 ) either the passive or active method be used, depending upon thickness

and temperature of the permafrost. Detailed information and references on

the construction of buildings, roads, bridges, runways, reservoirs, airfields,

and other engineering projects are presented by Huttl (31), Hardy and D’Appolonia

(27), Zhukov (107), Corps of Engineers (88;89), and others.

        Eager and Pryor (18) have shown that road icings are more common in

areas of permafrost than elsewhere. They, Tchekotillo (79), and Taber (78)

discuss the phenomena of icings, classify them, and describe various methods

used to prevent or alleviate icing.

        One of the major factors to consider in permafrost is its water content.

Methods of predicting by moisture diagrams ( e é pures ) the amount of settling

of buildings on thawing permafrost are presented by Fedosov (22).

        It should again be emphasized that permafrost is a temperature phenomenon

that occurs naturally in the earth. If man disturbs the thermal regime

know l ingly or unknowingly, he must suffer the consequences. Every effort should be made to 2 words missing. Cf. original p. 26 ✓

control the thermal regime--to promote pergelation or depergelation as desired.

Generally, the former is difficult near the southern margin of permafrost.

If the existing climate is not cold enough to insure that the permafrost

022      |      Vol_IIA-0037                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

remain frozen, serious consideration should be given to artificial freezing

in those places where permafrost must be utilized as a construction material.

Techniques similar to those used at Grand Coulee Dam or on Hess Creek (31)

can be modified to fit the situation. It should be borne in mind that the

refrigerating equipment need only run for a matter of hours during the summer

after the ground has been refrozen and vegetation or other means of natural

insulation have been employed. Bad slides on roads and railroads, settling

under expensive buildings, loosening of the foundations of dams, bridges,

towers, etc., probably can be treated by refreezing artificially at less cost

than by any other method. If fact the day is probably not far off when air–

fields or pykrete (49) or similar material will be built in the Arctic where

no construction materials are available.

        Where seasonal frost (active layer) is involved in construction, the

engineer is referred to the annotated bibliography of the Highway Research

Board (43) and to such reports as those of the Corps of Engineers (90; 91).

        Water Supply . Throughout permafrost areas one of the major problems is

a satisfactory source of large amount of water. Problems encountered in

keeping water liquid during storage and distribution or in its purification

are outside the scope of this report. Small quantities of water generally can

be obtained from melted ice or snow. However, a large, satisfactory, annual

water supply in areas of continuous permafrost is to be found only in deep

lakes or large rivers that do not freeze to the bottom. Even then the water

tends to have considerable hardness and organic content. It is generally not

economical to drill through 1,000 to 2,000 feet of permafrost to tap ground–

water reservoirs beneath, although artesian supplied have been obtained under

700 feet of permafrost (15) and under 1,500 feet of permafrost (47).

023      |      Vol_IIA-0038                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        In areas of discontinuous permafrost, large annual ground-water supplies

are more common either in perched zones on top of permafrost or in nonfrozen

zones within or below the permafrost (10; 50).

        Annual water supply in areas of sporadic permafrost normally is a

problem only to individual householders, and presents only a little more

difficulty than finding water in comparable areas in temperate zones.

        Surface water as an alternate to ground water can be retained by earthen

dams in areas of permafrost (31).

        Throughout the Arctic, however, the quality of water is commonly poorer

than in temperate regions. Hardness largely in the form of calcium and

magnesium carbonate and iron or manganese is common. Organic impurities

and sulfur are abundant. In many places ground water and surface water have

been polluted by man or organisms.

        Muller (4) presents a detailed discussion of sources of water and the

engineering problems of distributing the water in permafrost areas. Joesting

(34) describes a partly successful method of locating water-bearing formations

in permafrost with resistivity methods.

        Sewage disposal in areas of continuous permafrost is a most difficult

problem. Wastes should be dumped into the sea as no safe place exists on

land for their disposal in a raw state. As chemical reaction is retarded

by low temperatures, natural decomposition and purification through aeration

do not take place readily. Large streams that have flowing water throughout

the year are few and should not be contaminated. Indiscriminate dumping of

sewage will lead within a few years to serious pollution of the few deep

lakes and other areas of annual surface water supply. Burning is costly.

024      |      Vol_IIA-0039                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

As yet, no satisfactory solution has been found. In discontinuous and sporadic

permafrost zones, streams are larger and can handle sewage more easily, but

even there sewage disposal still remains in places one of the most important

problems.

        Agriculture . Permafrost as a cold reserve has a deleterious effect on

the growth of plants. However, as an impervious horizon, it tends to hold

precipitation in the upper soil horizons, and in thawing provides water from

melting ground ice. Both harmful and beneficial effects are negligible after

1 or 2 years of cultivation, as the permafrost table has thawed beyond the

reach of roots of most annual plants (24).

        Farming in areas of permafrost with much ground ice, however, can lead

to a considerable loss in time and money. Subarctic farming can be done only

where a sufficient growing season is available for plants to nature during

the short summers. Such areas are in the discontinuous or sporadic zones of

permafrost. If the land is cleared of its natural insulating cover of vegetation,

the permafrost thaws. Over a period of 2 to 3 years, large cave-in

lakes have developed in Siberia (I. V. Poir e é , oral communication), and pits

and mounds are formed in Alaska (50; 51; 52; 59). The best solution is to

s elect farm lands in those areas free of permafrost or free of large ground-ice ✓

masses (86).

        Mining . In Alaska, placer miners particularly and lode miners to a

lesser extent have utilized permafrost or destroyed it, as necessary, since

it was first encountered. Particularly in placer mining, frozen ground has

been the factor that made many operations uneconomic (102) or others economic.

In the early part of the century, when gold was being mined so profitably at

Dawson, Fairbanks, Nome, and other places in northern North America, it was

025      |      Vol_IIA-0040                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

common for miners to sink shafts more than a hundred feet through frozen

muck to the gold-bearing gravels. These shafts were sunk by steam jetting

or by thawing with fires or hot rocks. If the muck around the shafts or

over the gravels thawed, the mines had to be abandoned.

        Now, with the advent of dredges, such ground is thawed, generally with

cold water, one or more years in advance of operations. In the technique

used, holes are drilled through the permafrost at regular intervals of

possibly 10 to 30 feet, depending on the material, and cold water is forced

through the permafrost into underlying permeable foundations or out to the

surface through other holes. Hot water and steam, formerly used, are uneconomi–

cal and inefficient. Where thick deposits of overburden cover placers, they

are removed commonly by hydraulicking. Summer thaw facilitates the process

(48).

        Permafrost in lode mining usually is welcomed by the miners as it means

dry working conditions. Its effect on mining operations other than maintaining

low temperatures in the mine is negligible unless it contains aquifers. Because

of low temperatures, sealing aquifers with cement is difficult.

        Some well drilling in permafrost requires modifications of existing

techniques and more careful planning for possible exigencies (21). Difficulty

may be encountered in getting proper foundations for the rig. In rotary

drilling difficulty may be experienced in keeping drilling muds at the proper

temperature, in finding adequate water supplies, or proper local material for

drilling muds. In shallow holes particularly, the tools will freeze-in after

a few hours of idleness. Cementing of casings is costly and very difficult

as concrete will not set in subfreezing temperatures. (See also “Arctic

Alaska Petroleum Exploration and Drilling Operations.”) Deep wells extending

026      |      Vol_IIA-0041                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

below the permafrost may encounter high temperatures (100° to 150°F.). Hot

drilling muds on returning to the surface thaw the permafrost around the

casing and create a settling hazard in the foundation of the rig and also

create a disposal problem. In some foundations refrigerating equipment must

be used to prevent settling.

        Permafrost may act as a tr o a p for oil or even contain oil reservoirs. ✓

The low temperature adversely affects asphalt-base types particularly, and

cuts down yields; production difficulties and costs increase (21).

        Refrigeration and Storage . Excavations are used widely in areas of

permafrost for natural cold storage. They are most satisfactory in continuous

or discontinuous zones. If permafrost is about 30°F., extreme care in ventila–

tion and insulation must be used. Properly constructed and ventilated storerooms

will keep meat and other products frozen for years. Detail s ed plans and charac- ✓

teristics required for different cold storage rooms are described by Chekotillo

(12).

        Trafficability . In the Arctic and Subarctic most travel overland is done

in winter, as muskegs, swamps, and hummocky tundra make summer travel exceed–

ingly difficult (21; 92). Tracked vehicles or sleds are the only practical

types. Wheeled vehicles are unsatisfactory as most of the area is without

roads. Polygonal ground, frost blisters, pinges, and small, deeply incised

thaw streams (commonly called “beaded” streams), rivers, and lakes create

natural hazards to travel.

        Permafrost aids travel when it is within a few inches of the surface.

It permits travel of D-8 Caterpillar tractors and heavier equipment directly

on the permafrost. Sleds weighing many tons can be pulled over the permafrost

with ease after the vegetal mat has been removed by an angledozer.

027      |      Vol_IIA-0042                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        In areas of discontinuous and sporadic permafrost, seasonal thaw is

commonly 6 to 10 feet deep, and overland travel in summer in many places can

be accomplished only with amphibious vehicles such as the “weasel” of LVT. (Landing Vehicle, Track)

Travel on foot or by horse is very slow and laborious in many places because

of swampy land surfaces and the necessity for making numerous detours around

slough, rivers, and lakes.

        Military . Permafrost alters military operations through its effects on

the construction of air bases, roads, railroads, revetments, buildings, and

other engineering projects; in its effects on trafficability, water supply,

sewage disposal, excavations, underground storage, camouflage, explosives,

planting of mines; and in other more indirect ways (19; 92). Military

operations commonly require extreme speed in construction, procuring of water

supply, or movement of men and materiel. Unfortunately, it is not always

possible to exercise such speed (21). Large excavations require that natural

thawing, possibly aided by water sprinkling (31), proceed ahead of the earth

movers. Conversely, seasonal thaw may be so deep as to prevent the movement

of heavy equipment over swampy ground until freeze-up. Similarly, it may be

necessary in a heavy building to steam jet piles into permafrost and allow

them to freeze in place before loading them. These things take time, and

proper planning is a prerequisite for efficient operations.

        Camouflage is a problem on the tundra. Little relief or change in vege–

tation is available. Tracks of heavy vehicles or paths stand out in marked

contrast for years. In aerial photographs it is easy to see foot paths and

dogsled trails abandoned 10 years or more ago.

        The effects of mortar and shell fire, land mines, shaped charges, and other

explosives undoubtedly change as the character of permafrost changes, but no

data are available to the author.

028      |      Vol_IIA-0043                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

       

FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDED

        Throughout the foregoing pages brief reference is made to aspects of

permafrost or effects of permafrost on engineering, geologic, biologic, and

other problems for which few factual data are available. However, in the

event that the reader has received the impression that a great deal is known

of permafrost, it is pointed out that the study of permafrost is relatively

young and immature. It has lacked a coordinated and comprehensive investi–

gation by geologists, engineers, physicists, botanists, climatologists, and

other scientists. It is barely in the beginning of the descriptive stages,

and only now is it receiving the world-wide attention it deserves.

        As our civilization presses northward, the practical needs of construc–

tion, water supply, sewage disposal, trafficability, and other engineering

problems must be solved speedily and economically. Our present knowledge

is relatively meager, and trial-and-error methods are being used much too

widely. Practical laboratory experiments (75; 76) and controlled experiments

at field stations, such as that at Fairbanks, Alaska (33), are needed in

various situations in the permafrost areas. From these stations methods and

techniques of construction can be standardized and appropriate steps formu–

lated to meet a particular situation. Such laboratories must be supplemented

with arctic research stations such as are found in the Soviet Union. There,

more than 30 natural-science laboratories exist with permanent facilities for

pursuing year-round basic studies in all phases of arctic science. The Arctic

Research Laboratory at Barrow (64) is a start in the right direction. The

academic approach must accompany the practical approach if satisfactory

solution of the problem is to be found.

029      |      Vol_IIA-0044                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost as a Natural Phenomenon

        To name all the specific topics for future research would make this

article unduly long as no phase of permafrost is well known. However, the

author reiterates that the problems cannot be solved adequately until the

phenomenon of heat flows in all natural and artificial materials in the earth

is understood and correlated with insolation, atmospheric conditions, geother–

mal gradients, and the complex surface of the earth. Then possibly, criteria

can be set up to evaluate within practical limits the effect of various

structures and materials on the dissipating surface of the earth. The

complexities of geology (lithology, structure, and texture of soils and rock),

hydrology, vegetation, and climate of the Arctic make the solution a formidable

task, but the research is an int i r iguing problem for all earth scientists. ✓

030      |      Vol_IIA-0045                                                                                                                  
EA-I. Black: Permafrost.

---

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104. Young, J.W. “Ground frost in Alaska,” Engng.Min.J . vol.105, no.7,

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Robert F. Black